Introduction to Computer Networks

2.1 What is a computer network?

A computer network is a system in which a number of independent computers are linked together
to share data and peripherals, such as files and printers. In the modern world, computer networks
have become almost indispensable. All major businesses and governmental and educational
institutions make use of computer networks to such an extent that it is now difficult to imagine a
world without them.

2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Networks

The reason for the popularity of computer networks is that they offer many advantages.
Information such as important files, video and audio, and email can be easily shared between users.
Peripherals such as printers and modems can also be shared over the network. For example, Figure
1 shows a printer being used in a stand-alone environment and in a networked environment. By
connecting many computers to a print server any of them may make use of the printer directly,
instead of the single computer in the stand-alone environment. Also, software such as word-
processors and spreadsheets can be made available to all computers on the network from a single
central server. Finally, administration and support is simplified.

Figure 1 – A printer in a stand-alone environment (left) and in

a networked environment (right)
However, with these advantages come a number of potential disadvantages. Making important and
sensitive information available to every user of the network is not normally desirable. For example,
information about employees’ salaries should not be freely available for anybody to look at. Data
security is therefore an important concern in a networked environment. Secondly, the danger of
computer viruses entering the network is greatly increased. A virus can infect the any of the
computers on the network, and can quickly spread throughout the network causing significa nt
damage.

2.2 Computer Network Types

2.3.1 Personal Area Networks

PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over the range of a person. A common
example is a wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals. Almost every computer has an
attached monitor, keyboard, mouse, and printer. Without using wireless, this connection must be done with
cables. So many new users have a hard time finding the right cables and plugging them into the right little
holes (even though they are usually color coded) that most computer vendors offer the option of sending a
technician to the user’s home to do it. To help these users, some companies got together to design a short-
range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect these components without wires. The idea is that if
your devices have Bluetooth, then you need no cables. You just put them down, turn them on, and they
work together. Bluetooth can be used in other settings, too. It is often used to connect a headset to a mobile
phone without cords and it can allow your digital music player to connect to your car merely being brought
within range. A completely different kind of PAN is formed when an embedded medical device such as a
pacemaker, insulin pump, or hearing aid talks to a user-operated remote control. PANs can also be built
with other technologies that communicate over short ranges, such as RFID on smartcards and library books.

2.3.2. Local Area Networks

A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within and nearby a single building like a home, office
or factory. LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and consumer electronics to let them share
resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. When LANs are used by companies, they are called
enterprise networks. Wireless LANs are very popular these days, especially in homes, older office
buildings, cafeterias, and other places where it is too much trouble to install cables. In these systems, every
computer has a radio modem and an antenna that it uses to communicate with other computers. In most
cases, each computer talks to a device in the ceiling. This device, called an AP (Access Point), wireless
router,or base station, relays packets between the wireless computers and also between them and the
Internet. Being the AP is like being the popular kid as school because everyone wants to talk to you.
However, if other computers are close enough, they can communicate directly with one another in a peer-
to-peer configuration. There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as
WiFi, which has become very widespread. It runs at speeds anywhere from 11 to hundreds of Mbps. Wired
LANs use a range of different transmission technologies. Most of them use copper wires, but some use
optical fiber. LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded
and known in advance. Knowing these bounds helps with the task of designing network protocols.
Typically, wired LANs run at speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps, have low delay (microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs can operate at up to 10 Gbps. Compared to wireless
networks, wired LANs exceed them in all dimensions of performance. It is just easier to send signals over
a wire or through a fiber than through the air. The topology of many wired LANs is built from point-to-
point links. IEEE 802.3, popularly called Ethernet, is, by far, the most common type of wired LAN.

Figure 2 – A Local Area Network (LAN)

2.3.3. Metropolitan Area Networks

A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) covers a city. The best-known examples of MANs are the cable
television networks available in many cities. These systems grew from earlier community antenna systems
used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In those early systems, a large antenna was placed
on top of a nearby hill and a signal was then piped to the subscribers’ houses. At first, these were locally
designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from local
governments to wire up entire cities. The next step was television programming and even entire channels
designed for cable only. Often these channels were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all
cooking, all gardening, and so on. But from their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for
television reception only. When the Internet began attracting a mass audience, the cable TV network
operators began to realize that with some changes to the system, they could provide two-way Internet
service in unused parts of the spectrum. At that point, the cable TV system began to morph from simply a
way to distribute television to a metropolitan area network. Cable television is not the only MAN, though.
Recent developments in high- speed wireless Internet access have resulted in another MAN, which has been
standardized as IEEE 802.16 and is popularly known as WiMAX.
2.3.4 Wide Area Networks

A WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. In most
WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and switching elements.
Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical fiber, or
even radio links. Most companies do not have transmission lines lying about, so instead they lease the lines
from a telecommunications company. Switching elements, or just switches, are specialized computers
that connect two or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element
must choose an outgoing line on which to forward them. These switching computers have been called by
various names in the past; the name router is now most commonly used. A short comment about the term
‘‘subnet’’ is in order here. Originally, its only meaning was the collection of routers and communication
lines that moved packets from the source host to the destination host.

Figure 3 – A Wide Area Network (WAN)

LANs typically have much higher transmission rates than WANS. Most LANs are able to transmit
data at around 100Mbps (million bits per second), whereas WANs generally transmit at less than
10Mbps. Another difference is the error rates in transmission: the likely number of errors in data
transmission is higher for a WAN than for a LAN.

2.2.1 Network configuration

All networks have certain components, functions and features in common, shown in Figure 4. These
include:
• Servers - computers that provide shared resources for network users
 • Clients - computers that access shared resources provided by servers
• Media - the wires that make the physical connections
• Shared data - files provided to clients by servers across the network
• Shared peripherals - additional hardware resources provided by servers

Figure 4 – A typical network configuration

Even with these similarities, networks are divided into two broad categories:
• Peer-to-peer networks
• Server-based networks
Factors that must be evaluated to configure a network as peer to peer or server based
o The type of network you choose to implement will depend on factors such as the
▪ Size of the organization.
▪ Level of security required.
▪ Type of business.
▪ Level of administrative support available.
▪ Amount of network traffic.
▪ Needs of the network users.
▪ Network budget.

2.2.1.1 Peer-to-peer networks

In a peer-to-peer network, there is no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer functio ns
as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire network. The
user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the network. Peer-to-
peer networks are also sometimes called workgroups.

Peer-to-peer networks are relatively simple. Because each computer functions as a client and a
server, there is no need for a powerful central server or for the other components required for a
high-capacity network. Peer-to-peer networks can be less expensive than server-based networks.
Also, the networking software does not require the same standard of performance and level of
security as the networking software designed for dedicated servers.
In typical networking environments, a peer-to-peer implementation offers the following
advantages:
• Computers are located at users' desks
• Users act as their own administrators and plan their own security
• They are cheap and easy to set up and administer for small groups of users
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
• There are 10 users or fewer
• Users share resources, such as printers, but no specialized servers exist
• Security is not an issue
• The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the foreseeable future
Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice than a server-
based network.
2.2.1.2 Server-based networks
In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network - with computers acting as both
servers and clients - will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks have dedicated
servers. A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a client or
workstation. Servers are described as "dedicated" because they are not themselves clients, and
because they are optimised to service requests from network clients quickly and to ensure the
security of files and directories. Server-based networks have become the standard models for
networking.

As networks increase in size (as the number of connected computers, and the physical distance
and traffic between them, grows) more than one server is usually needed. Spreading the
networking tasks among several servers ensures that each task will be performed as efficiently as
possible. Servers must perform varied and complex tasks. Servers for large networks have become
specialized to accommodate the expanding needs of users. For example, a network may have
separate servers for file storage, printing, email and for storing and running application software.
Specialized Server(s)
1. File and Print Servers
2. Application Servers
3. Mail Servers
4. Fax Servers
5. Communication Servers
6. Directory Services
Although it is more complex to install, configure, and manage, a server-based network has many
advantages over a simple peer-to-peer network.
• Number of users:- It supports large number of users
• Server-based data sharing can be centrally administered and controlled. Because these
shared resources are centrally located, they are easier to find and support than resources on
individual computers.
• Security is often the primary reason for choosing a server-based approach to networking.
In a server-based environment, one administrator who sets the policy and applies it to every
user on the network can manage security.
• Backups can be scheduled several times a day or once a week depending on the importance
and value of the data. Server backups can be scheduled to occur automatically, according
to a predetermined schedule, even if the servers are located on different parts of the
network.
• A server-based network can support thousands of users. This type of network would be
impossible to manage as a peer-to-peer network.
Comparison of Network Types

Consideration Peer-to-Peer Network Server-Based Network

Size Good for 10 or fewer computers Limited only by server and
network hardware
Security Security established by the user Extensive and consistent resource
of each computer and user security
Administration Individual users responsible for Centrally located for network
their own administration; no full- control; requires at least one
time administrator necessary knowledgeable administrator
 Advantage & Disadvantage of peer to peer network
Advantage Disadvantage
• Allows simple sharing -Poor security of data & resources
of data & hardware -Not suitable for large number of PCs
• Not expensive
• Easy to set up
Advantages of Client/server Network
• Sharing Resouirces:- because shared resources are centrally located, they are easier to find,
andminster and control
• Secuirity:- Secuirity is often the primary reason for choosing this network model. It has got good
secuirity data and other resources.
• Backup:- Backups can be scheduled several times a day or a week depending on the importance
and value of data.
• Number of users:- It supports large number of users

2.3 Computer Network Topology

The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement or physical
layout of computers, cables, and other components on the network. "Topology" is the standard
term that most network professionals use when they refer to the network's basic design. In addition
to the term "topology," you will find several other terms that are used to define a network's design:
• Physical layout
• Design
• Diagram
• Map
A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over another will have
an impact on the:
• Type of equipment that the network needs
• Capabilities of the network
• Growth of the network
• Way the network is managed

Developing a sense of how to use the different topologies is a key to understanding the capabilities
of the different types of networks.
Before computers can share resources or perform other communication tasks they must be
connected. Most networks use cable to connect one computer to another. However, it is not as
simple as just plugging a computer into a cable connecting to other computers. Different types of
cable—combined with different network cards, network operating systems, and other
components—require different types of arrangements. To work well, a network topology takes
planning. For example, a particular topology can determine not only the type of cable used but
also how the cabling runs through floors, ceilings, and walls. Topology can also determine how
computers communicate on the network. Different topologies require different communica tio n
methods, and these methods have a great influence on the network.

There are four basic types of computer topology: bus, star, ring and mesh.

2.3.1 Bus Topology

The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in a
straight line. This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers. Figure 1
shows a typical bus topology. It consists of a single cable called a trunk (also called a backbone or
segment) that connects all of the computers in the network in a single line.

Figure 1 – The bus topology

Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular computer

and sending out that data on the cable as electronic signals. To understand how computers
communicate on a bus, you need to be familiar with three concepts:
• Sending the signal
• Signal bounce
 • Terminator
➢ Sending the signal
When sending a signal from one computer on the network to another, network data in the form of
electronic signals is in fact sent to all the computers on the network. However, only the computer
whose address matches the address encoded in the original signal accepts the information. All
other computers reject the data. Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus
network, the number of computers attached to the bus will affect network performance.

The more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be waiting to put data on the bus
and, consequently, the slower the network will be. Computers on a bus either transmit data to other
computers on the network or listen for data from other computers on the network. They are not
responsible for moving data from one computer to the next. Consequently, if one computer fails,
it does not affect the rest of the network.

➢ Signal bounce
Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from one end of the
cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back
and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the signal
must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the proper destination address.

➢ Terminator
To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each end of the
cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers can send
data.

In a bus topology, if a break in the cable occurs the two ends of the cable at the break will not have
terminators, so the signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop. This is one of several
possible reasons why a network will go "down." The computers on the network will still be able
to function as stand-alone computers; however, as long as the segment is broken, they will not be
able to communicate with each other or otherwise access shared resources.
Advantage & Disadvantage of Bus Topology
Advantage
• The use of cable is economical
• Media is inexpensive and easy to work with
 • System is easy to install and maintain
• Failure of one device usually doesn’t affect the rest of the other network
• Computers and other devices can be attached and detached at any point on the bus
without disturbing the rest of the network
Disadvantage
• If there is a breake anywhere in the cable, then the whole network will fail
• If an end is not terminated, the signal will travel back and foth across the network all
communication will stop
• Collision is frequent. Data when flow through the cable may collied and lost etc.

2.3.2 Star topology

In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a centralised component
called a hub. Figure 2 shows four computers and a hub connected in a star topology. Signals are
transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the network.

Figure 2 – The star topology

Because each computer is connected to a central point, this topology requires a great deal of cable
in a large network installation. Also, if the central point fails, the entire network goes down. If one
computer - or the cable that connects it to the hub - fails on a star network, only the failed computer
will not be able to send or receive network data. The rest of the network continues to functio n
normally.
Advantage of Stare topology
• Like bus topology, networks are easy to install & maintain
• If there is any intrupption between any of the clients and the hub, the the other clients will
normally work.
• Since there is a dedicated controller, the hub, collision is much reduced
 • Nodes can be added to & removed from the network with little or no disruption to the
networ etc.
Disadvantage
• We need to use more cable
• If the hub fails, then the whole network will fail. So, the entire network will
depend on hub.

2.3.3 Ring topology

The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there
are no terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each
computer, which can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer.
Figure 3 shows a typical ring topology with one server and four workstations. The failure of one
computer can have an impact on the entire network.

Figure 3 – The ring topology

Advantage
• Each computer acts as a repeater, regenerating the signal and sending it on to the next
computer, there by preserving signal strength.
• It can handle high traffic environments better than bus netwroks
• The impact of noise is less
• Less amount of cable is used
• Collision is reduced than bus sincethe data flow is in one direction
Disadvantage
• Whenever there is an interruption at some point, the whole network will go down
• only one computer at a time send data pn a single token ring
• Ring technologies are more expensive than bus technologies etc.
 2.3.4 Mesh topology
A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology, each
computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling. (See Figure 4) This
configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another
will take over the traffic. While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability is definite
benefits, these networks are expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh
topology will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid topology.
• An advantage of this topology is its back up capabilities by providing multiple paths through
the network. Because redundant paths require more cable than is needed in other topologies, a
mesh toplogy can be expensive

Figure 4 – The mesh topology

2.3.5 Hybrid topologies
Many working topologies are hybrid combinations of the bus, star, ring, and mesh topologies. Two
of the more common are described below.
➢ Star bus topology: The star bus is a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a
star-bus topology, several star topology networks are linked together with linear bus
trunks.
➢ Starring topology: The starring (sometimes called a star-wired ring) appears similar
to the star bus. Both the starring and the star bus are centred in a hub that contains the
actual ring or bus.

2.4 Computer Network Components

Components of a computer network are categorized in to two:
➢ Software component
▪ Network operating system software
 ➢ Hardware component
▪ hosts (PCs, laptops, handhelds)
▪ routers & switches (IP router, Ethernet switch)
▪ links (wired, wireless)
▪ protocols (IP, TCP, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA)
▪ applications (network services) humans and service agents
➢ Hosts, routers & links form the Hardware side.
➢ Protocols & applications from the software side.
➢ Protocols can be viewed as the “glue” that binds everything else
together.
3.1.1.1 Computer Network Repeaters
A network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are used in
transmission systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by transmission
loss. Analog repeaters frequently can only amplify the signal while digital repeaters can
reconstruct a signal to near its original quality.
In a data network, a repeater can relay messages between sub-networks that use
different protocols or cable types. Hubs can operate as repeaters by relaying messages
to all connected computers. A repeater cannot do the intelligent routing performed by
bridges and routers.

3.1.1.2 Hubs
A hub is a device used to connect a PC to the network. The function of a hub is to direct
information around the network, facilitating communication between all connected
devices. Most hubs are referred to as either active or passive. Active regenerate a signal
before forwarding it to all the ports on the device and requires a power supply. Small
workgroup hubs normally use an external power adapter, but on larger units the power
supply is built in. Passive hubs, which today are seen only on older networks, do not
need power and they don’t regenerate the data signal.

Due to the inefficiencies of the hub system and the constantly increasing demand for
more bandwidth, hubs are slowly but surely being replaced with switches.
 3.1.1.3 Bridges
Bridges are networking devices that connect networks. Sometimes it is necessary to divide
networks into subnets to reduce the amount of traffic on each larger subnet or for security reasons.
Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets and manages the traffic flow between them.
Today, network switches have largely replaced bridges.

A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the destination MAC address written
into each frame of data. If the bridge believes the destination address is on a network other than
that from which the data was received, it can forward the data to the other networks to which it is
connected. If the address is not on the other side of the bridge, the data is blocked from passing.
Bridges “learn” the MAC addresses of devices on connected networks by “listening” to network
traffic and recording the network from which the traffic originates.

The advantages of bridges are simple and significant. By preventing unnecessary traffic from
crossing onto other network segments, a bridge can dramatically reduce the amount of network
traffic on a segment. Bridges also make it possible to isolate a busy network from a not-so-busy
one, thereby preventing pollution from busy nodes.

3.1.1.4 Switches

A switch, which is often, termed a 'smart hub'. Switches and hubs are technologies or
‘boxes’ to which computers, printers, and other networking devices are connected.
Switches are the more recent technology and the accepted way of building today's
networks.

Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data only to
the port on which the destination system is connected. It looks at the Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected to it to determine the correct port.
A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into every NIC. By forwarding data
only to the system to which the data is addressed, the switch decreases the amount of
traffic on each network link dramatically. In effect, the switch literally channels (or
switches, if you prefer) data between the ports. Figure 3.5 illustrates how a switch
works.

3.1.1.5 Routers
Routers are network devices that literally route data around the network. By examining data as it
arrives, the router can determine the destination address for the data; then, by using tables of
defined routes, the router determines the best way for the data to continue its journey. Unlike
bridges and switches, which use the hardware-configured MAC address to determine the
destination of the data, routers use the software-configured network address to make decisions.
This approach makes routers more functional than bridges or switches, and it also makes them
more complex because they have to work harder to determine the information. Routers are an
increasingly common sight in any network environment, from a small home office that uses one
to connect to an Internet service provider (ISP) to a corporate IT environment where racks of
routers manage data communication with disparate remote sites.

The basic requirement for a router is that it must have at least two network interfaces. If they are
LAN interfaces, the router can manage and route the information between two LAN segments.
More commonly, a router is used to provide connectivity across wide area network (WAN) links.
The following Figure shows a router with two LAN ports (marked AUI 0 and AUI 1) and two
WAN ports (marked Serial 0 and Serial 1). This router is capable of routing data between two
LAN segments and two WAN segments.
 3.1.1.6 Layer 3 Switches

How does a Layer 3 switch work?

A Layer 3 switch works much like a router because it has the same IP routing table for lookups
and it forms a broadcast domain. However, the "switch" part of "Layer 3 switch" is there
because:
1. The layer 3 switch looks like a switch. It has 24+ Ethernet ports and no WAN interfaces.
2. The layer 3 switch will act like a switch when it is connecting devices that are on the
same network.
3. Layer 3 switch is the same as a switch with the router's IP routing intelligence built in.
4. The switch works very quickly to switch or route the packets it is sent.

In other words, the Layer 3 switch is really like a high-speed router without the WAN connectivity.
3.1.1.7 Gateways

The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software application that can perform the
function of translating data from one format to another. The key feature of a gateway is that it
converts the format of the data, not the data itself.