UNIT 3

PART A

Which among these is the most severe fault?

(a)Single line to ground fault.
D
1 (b)Double line to ground fault
(c)Line to line fault
(d)Symmetrical fault

On which among the following factors does the magnitude

of the fault current depend?
(a) Total impedance upto the fault. C
2
(b)Voltage at the fault point
(c)Both (a) and (b)
(d)None of these

Which among the following methods are generally used for

the calculation of symmetrical faults?
(a)Norton theorem D
3
(b)Thevnin’s theorem
(c)Kirchhoff’s laws
(d)Only (b) and (c)

Which among the following reactance have a greater

value?
(a)Sub transient reactance C
4
(b)Transient reactance
(c)Synchronous reactance
(d)All of these

In which portion of the transmission system is the

occurrence of the fault more common?
(a)Alternators B
5
(b)Transmission lines
(c)Transformers
(d)Underground cables
 Which among these is the most commonly occurring fault?
(a)Single line to ground fault.
A
6 (b)Double line to ground fault
(c)Line to line fault
(d)Fault due to all the three phases to earth.

With the use of high speed circuit breakers, which among

the following stability is increased?
(a)Steady state stability B
7
(b)Transient stability
(c)Frequency stability
(d)All of these

When an alternator is short circuited on the three phases, it

settles down to the steady short circuit value and limited by
C
8 (a)Sub-transient reactance
(b)Transient reactance
(c)Synchronous reactance
(d)Either (a) or (c)

What is the result of frequency instability?

(a)Voltage collapse
C
9 (b)Frequency swings
(c)Both (b) and (c)
(d)Tripping of generating units

Which of the following fault results into a three phase

faults?
(a)Single line to ground fault. D
10
(b)Double line to ground fault
(c)Line to line fault
(d)Fault due to all the three phases to earth.
 Fault calculations using computer are usually done by
(a)Y bus Method
B
11 (b)Z bus Method
(c)None of the above
(d)Reactance Method

The rated breaking capacity (MVA) of a circuit breaker is

equal to
(a)The product of rate voltage (kV) and rated breaking
current (kA)
(b)The product of rated voltage (kV) and rated symmetrical B
12
breaking current (kA)
(c)The product of breaking current (kA) and fault voltage
(kV)
(d)Twice the value of rated current (kA) and rated voltage
(kV)

What are cross country faults?

(a)A fault occurring at any point of the power system
(b)Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on the B
13
power system
(c)Line to line fault
(d)All of these

In the absence of neutral what will be the value of Z0 ?

(a)1 D
14
(b)0
(c)Z
(d)∞

The ratings of circuit breakers are generally decided on the

basis of
(a)unsymmetrical fault currents B
15
(b)symmetrical fault currents
(c)normal circuit currents
(d)None of the above

Symmetrical component method of analysis is more useful

when
(a)system has unsymmetrical fault and the network is A
16
otherwise balanced
(b)system has symmetrical fault and the network is
otherwise unbalanced
 (c)system has unsymmetrical fault and the network is
unbalanced.
(d)None of the above

The machine reactances used for computation of short

circuit current ratings of a circuit breaker are
(a)synchronous reactance C
17
(b)transient reactance
(c)sub-transient reactance
(d)None of the above

Earth fault relay uses the which of the following sequence

currents?
(a)positive sequence C
18
(b)negative sequence
(c)zero sequence
(d)any of the above

The most common fault on an overhead transmission line is

(a)single line to ground fault A

19
(b)three phase short-circuited fault
(c)double line to ground fault
(d)line to line fault

Reactors are used at various locations in the power system

to
(a)increase short-circuit current C
20
(b)avoid short-circuit current
(c)limit short-circuit current
(d)None of the above

PART B

1Explain the need for short circuit studies.

1. Safety of Personnel and Equipment:

 Protection Device Coordination: Short circuit studies help determine the fault currents that
can occur at different points in the system. This information is crucial for selecting and
setting protective devices (like circuit breakers, relays, and fuses) to ensure they operate
correctly during fault conditions. Proper coordination ensures that only the faulty section is
isolated, minimizing the impact on the rest of the system.

Prevent Equipment Damage: High fault currents can cause significant damage to electrical
equipment, such as transformers, generators, and cables. Short circuit studies enable the
design and installation of equipment with adequate fault withstand ratings, preventing
catastrophic failures.

1. System Reliability and Stability:

Fault Analysis and Mitigation: By analyzing potential fault scenarios, short circuit studies
help identify weak points in the power system. This allows for proactive measures to
reinforce or upgrade the system, enhancing its overall reliability and stability.

Maintaining Service Continuity: Properly designed protection schemes, informed by short

circuit studies, ensure that faults are quickly isolated, and maintaining service continuity for
unaffected parts of the system.

2. Compliance with Standards and Regulations:

Adherence to Standards: Electrical power systems must comply with industry standards and
regulations, such as those set by IEEE, IEC, and local regulatory bodies. Short circuit studies
ensure that the system meets these standards, particularly concerning fault levels and
protection coordination.

Regulatory Compliance: Utilities and industrial facilities are often required to perform and
document short circuit studies to comply with regulatory requirements. These studies
demonstrate due diligence in ensuring a safe and reliable power system.

3. Design and Planning:

System Design: During the design phase of a power system, short circuit studies are used to
determine the required specifications for equipment and protective devices. This ensures
that the system can handle potential fault conditions.

Future Expansion: Short circuit studies are also essential when planning system expansions
or modifications. They help assess the impact of new equipment or connections on the fault
levels and protection schemes, ensuring the expanded system remains safe and reliable.
4. Economic Considerations:

Cost-Effective Solutions: By accurately determining fault currents, short circuit studies help
avoid overdesign or under design of protective devices and equipment. This ensures cost-
effective solutions without compromising safety and reliability.

Minimizing Downtime: Effective protection schemes, based on short circuit studies,

minimize the duration and extent of outages, reducing operational losses and improving
system availability.

Key Components of Short Circuit Studies:

1. Fault Current Calculation:

- Determining the magnitude of fault currents for various types of faults (e.g., three-phase,
single-phase-to-ground, line-to-line, double-line-to-ground).

2. Protective Device Evaluation:

- Ensuring protective devices are correctly rated and set to handle the calculated fault
currents.

3. System Reinforcement:

- Identifying and mitigating potential weak points in the system that could be susceptible
to faults.

2 Differentiate between subtransient and transient reactance.

1. Sub transient Reactance (X"):
o Definition: Sub transient reactance represents the initial response of an
alternator during a short-circuit fault.
o Timeframe: It applies during the first few cycles (typically 2-3 cycles) after the
fault occurs.
o Characteristics:
 Reactance is at its minimum value during this period.
 Short-circuit current is at its highest (approximately 10 to 18 times the
full load current).
 The flux crossing the air gap is large.
o Symbol: Denoted by X"
2. Transient Reactance (X’):
o Definition: Transient reactance describes the alternator’s ability to withstand
sudden changes in load due to the fault.
o Timeframe: It applies after the sub transient state, as the system stabilizes.
o Characteristics:
 Reactance is higher than sub transient reactance.
 Short-circuit current decreases less rapidly compared to the initial
cycles.
  The circuit breaker contacts separate during this transient state.
o Symbol: Denoted by X'

3 What are the various types of faults? Discuss their frequency of occurrence and
severity.
1 Open Circuit Faults:
o These occur due to the failure of one or two conductors, disrupting the
intended current path.
o Open circuit faults are categorized as:
 Open Conductor Fault: Involves the failure of a single conductor.
 Two Conductors Open Fault: Two conductors fail simultaneously.
 Three Conductors Open Fault: Three conductors fail together.
o These faults affect system reliability and insulation strength.
2 Short-Circuit Faults:
o In this type of fault, conductors from different phases come into contact,
resulting in large current flow.
o Short-circuit faults are divided into:
 Symmetrical Faults:
 Involve all three phases and remain balanced even after the
fault.
 Examples: Line-to-line-to-line fault (rare but severe) and three-
phase line-to-ground fault.
 Unsymmetrical Faults:
 Result in unsymmetrical current flow across phases.
 Examples: Line-to-ground (most common), line-to-line, and
line-to-line-to-ground faults123.
3 Frequency of Occurrence:
o Line-to-ground (LG) faults are most frequent (60-75% occurrence).
o Line-to-line (LL) faults occur less often (5-15% occurrence).
4 Severity of Faults:
i. Three-phase faults (LLLG) are the most severe.
ii. Line-to-ground (LG) faults are the least severe23.

4 )A 60 MVA, Y connected 11 KV synchronous generator is connected to a 60 MVA,

11/132 KV Δ/Y transformer. The subtransient reactance X"d, of the generator is 0.12 p.u.
on a 60 MVA base, while the transformer reactance is 0.l p.u. on the same base. The
generator is unloaded when a symmetrical fault is suddenly place at point P as shown in
Fig. Find the subtransient symmetrical fault current in p.u amperes and actual amperes on
both sides of the transformer. Phase to neutral voltage of the generator at no load is 1.0 p.u.
 The total reactance X total in p.u. is the sum of the two
reactances:

X total=Xd′′+Xtransformer=0.12+0.1=0.22 p.u.

Step 3: Calculate the subtransient fault current in p.u.

The phase-to-neutral voltage of the generator at no load is given as 1.0 p.u. The
subtransient fault current If′′I_f''If′′ in p.u. is:
If′′=Vp.u.Xtotal=1.00.22=4.545 p.u.
Step 4: Convert the subtransient fault current to actual amperes

On the generator side (11 kV side):

If,actual,11kV=If′′×Ibase,11kV=4.545×3147.87=14309.4
On the transformer side (132 kV side):
If,actual,132kV=If′′×Ibase,132kV=4.545×262.32=1191.9
Summary of Results
 Subtransient symmetrical fault current in p.u. = 4.545 p.u.
  Actual fault current on the 11 kV side = 14309.4 A
 Actual fault current on the 132 kV side = 1191.9 A
5 Write short notes on Short circuit Capacity (SCC)

Short Circuit Capacity (SCC), also known as short-circuit MVA, is an important

parameter in power systems. Let’s break it down:

1 Definition:
o SCC represents the maximum available current or power that a synchronous
generator can theoretically supply to a bolted symmetrical short circuit at its
terminals under steady-state conditions.
o Traditionally, SCC serves as a key indicator to assess the strength or
‘stiffness’ of a bus or system1.
2 Calculation:
 The SCC at a bus (denoted as SCC_K) is defined as the
product of the magnitudes of the rated bus voltage (V) and the fault
current (I_F):

SCC at bus K = V . IF

 It is used for determining the dimension of a bus bar and the

interrupting capacity of a circuit breaker.
 If the base voltage is equal to the rated voltage (V =
V_B), then SCC_K is given by:

SCC at bus K = XKK. V/√ 3. 103 MVA

(where X_KK is the reactance between the faulted bus and the source)2.

3 Significance:
 A higher SCC indicates a stronger bus or system.
 Closer proximity to an infinite bus (stiff system) results in a higher SCC.
 Designers use SCC to ensure that supply voltage levels are
maintainewithin equipment ratings during normal operation3.

6 Write short notes on approximations made in short circuit studies of large power
system Network

Short circuit studies play a crucial role in power system analysis. Let’s delve into the
approximations made during these studies:

3. Symmetrical Components: In short circuit studies, we often use symmetrical components

 to simplify unbalanced fault analysis. By decomposing the system into positive, negative,
and zero-sequence components, we can analyze faults more efficiently. However, this
assumes that the system is linear and balanced under normal conditions.
4. Constant Impedance Model: For transmission lines and transformers, we often use a
constant impedance model during short circuit calculations. This simplification assumes
that the impedance remains constant regardless of the fault currenmagnitude. While it’s a
reasonable approximation for small disturbances, it may not hold true for large fault
currents.
5. Neglecting Mutual Coupling: In some cases, mutual coupling between transmission lines
or transformers is neglected. This simplifies the analysis but may lead to inaccuracies,
especially when dealing with closely spaced lines or heavily loaded transformers.
6. Ideal Transformer Model: When analyzing faults involving transformers, we often
assume ideal transformers (with no leakage impedance). While this simplifies
calculations, it doesn’t account for real-world losses and non-ideal behavior.
7. Neglecting Shunt Capacitance: Shunt capacitance (such as cable capacitance) is often
ignored during short circuit studies. Although it’s usually small compared to other
impedances, omitting it can lead to slight inaccuracies.
8. Constant Motor Contribution: For motor loads, we often assume a constant contribution
during faults. However, motor behavior can vary significantly based on load conditions,
inertia, and starting characteristics.
7 A generator connected through a five cycle circuit breaker to a transformer, is rated at 100 MVA, 18
kV with reactances Xd" = 20%,X'd=25 % and Xd=110%.It is operated on no load and at rated voltage.
Hen a 3-phase fault occurs between the breaker and the transformer, Fnd the initial symmetrical rms
current in the circuit breaker
8 Explain step by step procedure for symmetrical fault current estimation by using Thevenin’s theorem.
9 Explain circuit Breaker Selection in fault analysis
10 Describe step by step procedure for symmetrical fault current estimation by using kirchoff’s laws
PART C
1 With the help of a detailed flow chart, explain how a symmetrical fault can be analysed using ZBus.
2 A generator is connected through a transformer to a synchronous motor. The subtransıent reactances
of generator and motor are 0.15 and 0.35 respectively. The leakage
reactance of the transtormer is 0.1 p.u. All the reactances are calculated on a common base. A three
phase fault occurs at the terminals of the motor when the terminal voltage of the
generator is 0.9 p.u. The output current of generator is 1 p.u. and 0.8 pf leading. Find the subtransient
current in p.u. in the fault, generator and motor. Use the terminal voltage of
generator as reference vector.
3 A synchronous generator and motor are rated for 30,000 kVA, 13.2 kV and both have subtransient
reactarnce of 20%. The line connecting them has a reactance of 10% on the base of machine ratings. The
motor is drawing 20,000 kW at 0.8 pf leading. The terminal voltage of the motor is 12.8 kV. When a
symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at motor terminals, find the subtransient current in generator,
motor and at the fault point.
4 A 1250 kVA, 5000V generator with X"d=0.08 p.u supplies a purely resistive load of 1000 kW at rated
voltage. The load is connected directly across the terminals of th egenerator. If all the three phases of the
load are short circuited simultaneously find initial symmetrical short circuit current in the generator
5 Explain the short circuit model of a synchronous machine under short
circuit conditions
Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine on
No Load:
Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine on No Load – Under
steady state short circuit conditions, the armature reaction of a
synchronous generator produces a demagnetizing flux. In terms of
a circuit this effect is modelled as a reactance Xa in series with the
induced emf. This reactance when combined with the leakage
reactance Xl of the machine is called synchronous
reactance Xd (direct axis synchronous reactance in the case of
salient pole machines). Armature resistance being small can be
neglected. The steady state short circuit model of a Synchronous
Machine on No Load

Consider now the sudden short circuit (three-phase) of a

synchronous generator initially operating under open circuit
conditions. The machine undergoes a transient in all the three
phase finally ending up in steady state conditions described above.

The circuit breaker must, of course, interrupt the current much

before steady conditions are reached. Immediately upon short
circuit, the DC off-set currents appear in all the three phases, each
with a different magnitude since the point on the voltage wave at
which short circuit occurs is different for each phase. These DC off-
set currents are accounted for separately on an empirical basis
and, therefore, for short circuit studies, we need to concentrate our
attention on symmetrical (sinusoidal) short circuit
current only.
Immediately in the event of a short circuit, the symmetrical short
circuit current is limited only by the leakage reactance of the
machine. Since the air gap flux cannot change instantaneously
(theorem of constant flux linkages), to counter the
demagnetization of the armature short circuit current, currents
appear in the field winding as well as in the damper winding in a
direction to help the main flux. These currents decay in accordance
with the winding time constants.
The time constant of the damper winding which has low leakage
inductance is much less than that of the field winding, which has
high leakage inductance. Thus during the initial part of the short
circuit, the damper and field windings have transformer currents
induced in them so that in the circuit model their reactances—X f of
field winding and Xdw of damper winding—appear in parallel with
Xa as shown in Fig. 9.3b. As the damper winding currents are first
to die out, Xdw effectively becomes open circuited and at a later
stage Xf becomes open circuited. The machine reactance thus
changes from the parallel combination of Xa, Xf and Xdw during the
initial period of the short circuit to Xa and Xf in parallel (Fig. 9.3c) in
the middle period of the short circuit, and finally to Xa in steady
state (Fig. 9.3a). The reactance presented by the machine in the
initial period of the short circuit, i.e.

is called the subtransient reactance of the machine. While

the reactance effective after the damper winding currents have died
out, i.e.

is called the transient reactance of the machine. Of course, the

reactance under steady conditions is the synchronous reactance of
the machine. Obviously X″d<X′d<Xd. The machine thus offers a
time-varying reactance which changes from X″d to X′d and finally to
X d.
If we examine the oscillogram of the short circuit current of a
Synchronous Machine on No Load after the DC off-set currents
have been removed from it, we will find the current wave shape as
given in Fig. 9.4a. The envelope of the current wave shape is
plotted in Fig. 9.4b. The short circuit current can be divided into
three periods—initial subtransient period when the current is large
as the machine offers subtransient reactance, the middle transient
period where the machine offers transient reactance, and finally the
steady state period when the machine offers synchronous
reactance.

If the transient envelope is extrapolated backwards in time, the

difference between the transient and subtransient envelopes is the
current Δi″ (corresponding to the damper winding current) which
decays fast according to the damper winding time constant.
Similarly, the difference Δi′ between the steady state and transient
envelopes decays in accordance with the field time constant.
In terms of the oscillogram, the currents and reactances
discussed above, we can write

where

 |I| = steady state current (rms)

 |I′| = transient current (rms) excluding DC component

 |I′′| = subtransient current (rms) excluding DC

component
 Xd = direct axis synchronous reactance

 X′d = direct axis transient reactance

 X′′d = direct axis subtransient reactance

 |Eg| = per phase no load voltage (rms)

 Oa, Ob, Oc = intercepts shown in Figs. 9.4a and b.

The intercept Ob for finding transient reactance can be determined

accurately by means of a logarithmic plot. Both Δi″ and Δi′ decay
exponentially as

constants with Tdw ≪ Tf . At time t ≫ Tdw, Δi″ practically dies out

where Tdw and Tf are respectively damper, and field winding time

and we can write

The plot of log (Δi″ + Δi′) versus time for t ≫ Tdw therefore,
becomes a straight line with a slope of (- Δi′ 0/Tf) as shown in Fig.
9.5. As the straight line portion of the plot is extrapolated (straight
line extrapolation is much more accurate than, the exponential
extrapolation of Fig. 9.4), the intercept corresponding to t = 0 is

where

 ra = AC resistance of the armature winding per phase.

Though the machine reactances are dependent upon magnetic

saturation (corresponding to excitation), the values of reactances
normally lie within certain predictable limits for different types of
machines. Table 9.1 gives typical values of machine reactances
which can be used in fault calculations and in stability studies.

Normally both generator and motor sub transient reactance are

used to determine the momentary current flowing on occurrence of
a short circuit. To decide the interrupting capacity of circuit
breakers, except those which open instantaneously, sub transient
reactance is used for generators and transient reactance for
synchronous motors.

6 A generator is connected through a circuit breaker to a transformer. The ratings of the generator are
100 MVA, 18kV, X"d = 19%, X'd= 26% and Xd = 130%. The
transtormer ratings are 100 MVA, 240/18 kV, Y-Δ, X=10% with 18kV on Δ side. If a 3-phase short circuit
occurs on the high tension side of a transformer at rated voltage and no load, find (a) initial symmetrical
rms current in the transformer winding on the high tension side. (b) The initial symmetrical rms current
in the line on the low tension side.