Dr APJ ABDUL KALAM SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Course Name: Basic Electronics Engineering

MODULE 2 – POWER SUPP LY, TRANS FORMER AND OSCILLATO RS

POWER SUPP LIES: INTRO DUCTIO N

All electronic circuits need dc power supply either from battery or power pack units. It may not be
economical and convenient to depend upon battery power supply. Hence, many electronic equipment
contain circuits which convert the ac supply voltage into dc voltage at the required level. The unit
containing these circuits is called the Linear Mode Power Supply (LMPS). In the absence of ac mains
supply, the dc supply from battery can be converted into required ac voltage which may be used by
computer and other electronic systems for their operation. Also, in certain applications, dc to dc
conversion is required. Such a power supply unit that converts dc into ac or dc is called Switched Mode
Power Supply (SMPS). Hence supplies are classified as either linear or switched mode power supply

1. Linear mode power supply (LMPS): ac/dc power supply—Converter

2. Switched mode power supply (SMPS): (i) dc/dc power supply—converter (ii) dc/ac power supply—
Inverter
An ac/dc power supply converts ac mains (230 V, 50 Hz) into required dc voltages and is found in all
mains operable systems. DC/DC power supplies or dc/dc converters are used in portable systems, DC/
AC power supplies or inverter are used in portable main operable system and as a supplement to ac
mains in non-portable mains operable system, where a disruption in the power supply can affect the job
being done by the system. An inverter is a form of UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply) or SPS (Standby
Power Supply) and is very popular in computer system.

BLOCK DIAG RAM:

Fig. 2.1: Basic buil ding of Linear Mode P ower S upply

The basic building blocks of the linear power supply are shown in Fig 2.1. A transformer supplies ac
voltage at the required level. This bidirectional ac voltage is converted into a unidirectional pulsating
dc using a rectifier. The unwanted ripple contents of this pulsating dc are removed by a filter to get pure
dc voltage. The output of the filter is fed to a regulator which gives a steady dc output independent of
load variations and input supply fluctuations.

Requirement of LMPS:
1. It should be able to give minimum operable dc voltage at the rated current.
2. It should be able to furnish the maximum current needed for the unit, maintaining the voltage
constant. In other words, the regulation of the power supply should be good.
3. The ac ripple should be low.
4. The power supply should be protected in the event of short-circuit on the load side.
5. Over voltage (spike and surges) protection must be incorporated.
6. The response of the power supply to temperature changes should be minimum.

RECTIFIERS:
Rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for converting a.c. voltage into unidirectional voltage.
e. Rectifiers are classified depending upon the period of conduction as half-wave rectifier and full-wave
rectifier.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER (HWR):
It converts an a.c. voltage into a pulsating d.c. voltage using only one half of the applied a.c. voltage.
The rectifying diode conducts during one half of the a.c. cycle only. Figure 2.2 shows the basic circuit
and waveforms of a half-wave rectifier

Fig. 2.2 a) Basic Circuit of HWR b) Input and output waveforms of HWR

Let Vi be the voltage to the primary of the transformer and given by the equation
Vi = Vm sin w t; Vm >> Vg
where Vg is the cut-in voltage of the diode. During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the anode
of the diode becomes more positive with respect to the cathode and hence, diode D conducts. For an
ideal diode, the forward voltage drop is zero. So the whole input voltage will appear across the load
resistance, RL. During negative half cycle of the input signal, the anode of the diode becomes negative
with respect to the cathode and hence, diode D does not conduct. For an ideal diode, the impedance
offered by the diode is infinity. So the whole input voltage appears across diode D. Hence, the voltage
drop across RL is zero.
The amount of a.c. present in the output is 121% of the d.c. voltage. So the half-wave rectifier is not
practically useful in converting a.c. into d.c.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (FWR):
It converts an a.c. voltage into a pulsating d.c. voltage using both half cycles of the applied a.c. voltage.
It uses two diodes of which one diode conducts during one half-cycle while the other diode conducts
during the other half-cycle of the applied a.c. voltage. There are two types of full-wave rectifiers, viz
(i) full-wave rectifier with center tapped transformer, and
(ii) full-wave rectifier without transformer (bridge rectifier).

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH CENTER TAPPED TRANSFORMER:

Figure 2.3 shows the basic circuit and waveforms of full-wave rectifier with a center tap transformer.
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the same time the
anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence, D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. The load current
flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. During the negative
half-cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of D2 becomes positive. Hence,
D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across
RL will be equal to the input voltage.
Fig. 2.3 a) Basic Circuit of FWR b) Input and output waveforms of FWR
BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
The need for a centre-tapped transformer in a full-wave rectifier is eliminated in the bridge rectifier. As
shown in Fig. 2.4, the bridge rectifier has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The a.c. input voltage
is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the
other two ends of the bridge.

Fig. 2.4 a) Basic Circuit of Bridge rectifier b) Input and output waveforms of Bridge rectifier
For the positive half-cycle of the input a.c. voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. The conducting diodes will be in series through the
load resistance RL. So the load current flows through RL. During the negative half-cycle
of the input a.c. voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct, whereas diodes D1 and D3 do not
conduct. The conducting diode D2 and D4 will be in series through the load RL and the
current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half-cycle. Thus a
bidirectional wave is converted into an unidirectional one.

Advantages:
1. The bulky center tapped transformer is not required.
2. Transformer utilisation factor is considerably high.
3. The diodes are readily available at cheaper rate and the PIV rating required for the diodes in a
bridge rectifier is only half of that for a centre tapped full-wave rectifier
Disadvantages
1. It requires four diodes as compared to two diodes for centre-tapped full-wave rectifier
Applications:
1. The bridge rectifiers are used in applications allowing floating output terminals, i.e. no output
terminal is grounded

Below table depicts the comparison of HWR, FWR and bridge rectifier
FILTERS:

The output of a rectifier contains d.c. component as well as a.c. component. Filters are used to minimise
the undesirable a.c., i.e. ripple leaving only the d.c. component to appear at the output. The ripple in the
rectified wave being very high, the factor being 48% in the fullwave rectifier; majority of the
applications which cannot tolerate this, will need an output which has been further processed.
Figure 3.8 shows the concept of a filter, where the full-wave rectified output voltage is applied at its
input. The output of a filter is not exactly a constant d.c. level. But it also contains a small amount of
a.c. component.

Fig. 2.5 a) Full wave rectified output b) Filter c) Filter output

Some important filters are:

(i) Inductor filter
(ii) Capacitor filter
(iii) LC or L-section filter
(iv) CLC or p-type filte
VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
The function of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant DC voltage at the output
irrespective of voltage fluctuations at the input and (or) variations in the load current. In other
words, voltage regulator produces a regulated DC output voltage.
A simple voltage regulator is shown in fig. 2.6. Rs is included to limit the Zener current to a
safe value when the load is disconnected. When the load RL is connected, the Zener current Iz
will fall as current is diverted into the load resistance. The output voltage V0 will remain at
Zener voltage until regulation fails at a point at which the potential divider formed by Rs and
RL produces a lower output voltage that is less than Vz.

Fig. 2.6 Zener diode shunt voltage regulator

Voltage regulators are also available in Integrated Circuits (IC) forms. These are called
as voltage regulator ICs. 78xx voltage regulator ICs produce positive fixed DC voltage values,
whereas, 79xx voltage regulator ICs produce negative fixed DC voltage values. “xx”
corresponds to a two-digit number and represents the amount (magnitude) of voltage that
voltage regulator IC produces.
The first and second pins of 78xx voltage regulator ICs are used for connecting the input and
ground respectively.
The first and second pins of 79xx voltage regulator ICs are used for connecting the ground and
input respectively.
EX: 7805 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of +5 volts.
7905 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of -5 volts.

OUTPUT RESISTANCE AND REGULATION:

In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would remain constant regardless of current taken
by the load. Practically, the output voltage falls as the load current increases. To account for
this we say that power supply has internal resistance that appears at the output of the supply
and is defined as ratio of change in output voltage to change in output current.

The regulation of power supply is given by

Ideally the value of regulation should be very small. Simple shunt Zener diode regulators are
capable of producing values of regulation of 5% to 10% where as integrated circuit regulators
provide values of 1% or less.
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER:
The voltage multiplier is an electronic circuit that delivers the output voltage whose amplitude
(peak value) is two, three, or more times greater than the amplitude (peak value) of the input
voltage. It is an AC-to-DC converter, made up of diodes and capacitors that produce a high
voltage DC output from a low voltage AC input. Therefore, a voltage multiplier circuit
performs both rectification and multiplication of voltage. Here, the rectification operation is
performed by diodes and the increase in voltage is achieved by the capacitors.
Simple form of voltage multiplier is a voltage doubler and the circuit of voltage multiplier is
shown in fig. 2.7

Fig. 2.7 Voltage Multiplier

Let the maximum value of the AC input voltage is +Vm. Then, the operation of the voltage
multiplier is as follows

• Step 1 − With Negative Peak of Input Voltage (-Vm) − The capacitor C1 is charged
through the diode D1 to a voltage equal to Vm volts.
• Step 2 − With Positive Peak of Input Voltage (+Vm) − In this step, the voltage of the
capacitor C1 adds with that of the input source. Thus, charging the capacitor C2 to
2Vm volts through the diode D2.
• Step 3 − With Second Negative Peak (-Vm) − The voltage of the capacitor C1 has
dropped to 0 volts, hence allowing the capacitor C3 to be charged through the diode
D3 to the voltage of 2Vm volts.
• Step 4 − With Second Positive Peak (+Vm) − In this step, the voltage of the capacitor
C2 increases to 2Vm volts like in the step-2. This is also charging the capacitor C4 to the
voltage 2Vm. Hence, the total output voltage is the sum of voltage under the capacitors
C2 and C4, i.e. 4Vm.

Applications:
1. CRT Monitors
2. X-ray machines
3. Laser printers and photocopier machines
4. Oscilloscopes
5. CRT TV Receivers
TRANSFORMER:
Transformer provides us with a means of coupling a.c. power or signals from one circuit to
another. Voltages may be stepped up (secondary voltage is greater than primary voltage) or
stepped down (secondary voltage is less than primary voltage). Specification of transformer
include rated primary and secondary voltages and current.
The principle of transformer is shown in fig. 2.8. The primary and secondary windings are
wound on low reluctance magnetic core such that the alternating flux generated by the primary
winding is coupled into the secondary winding.

Working:

Fig. 2.8 Principle of transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary of the transformer it draws magnetizing
current to set up flux in the core. The flux set up in the core gets linked to the primary and
secondary winding of the transformer. The alternating flux set up in the core when linked to
turns of the primary and secondary winding induces voltage called EMF. The EMF induced in
the transformer winding depends on the number of turns and the rate of change of the flux.

Where:

ƒ – is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π

Ν – is the number of coil windings.
Φ – is the amount of flux in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding emf, N will be
the number of primary turns, (NP) and for the secondary winding emf, N will be the number
of secondary turns, (NS).
The EMF induced across the primary and secondary always opposes the applied voltage.

The r.m.s value of primary voltage (VP) is given by

The r.m.s value of secondary voltage (VS) is given by

Taking ratio of above two equations, we get

𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃
=
𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆
Where Np/NS is the turns ratio of the transformer.
Assuming that transformer is loss free, primary and secondary powers are identical (PP=PS)
such that
VP x IP=VS x IS
Hence
𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆
= =
𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃

If the turns ratio is equal to unity, then both the primary and secondary have the same number
of coil turns so therefore the voltages and currents will be the same for both the primary and
secondary windings. This type of 1:1 transformer is classed as an isolation transformer as both
the primary and secondary windings of the transformer have the same number of volts per turn.
The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power it delivers to the load to the power it
absorbs from the supply. In an ideal transformer there are no losses so no loss of power
then PIN = POUT.
SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS:
A sinusoidal oscillator consists basically of an amplifier and a phase shifting network. The
amplifier receives the output of the phase-shifting network, amplifies it, phase shifts it through
180° and applies it to the input of the network. The network phase shifts the amplifier output
through another 180° and attenuates it before applying it back to the amplifier input. When the
amplifier gain and phase shift are equal to the network attenuation and phase shift, the circuit
is amplifying an input signal to produce an output which is attenuated to become the input
signal. The circuit is generating its own input, and a state of oscillation exists.
Barkhausen criterion:
For oscillation to be sustained certain conditions, known as the Barkhausen criteria, must be
fulfilled. These are the loop gain of the circuit must be equal to (or greater than) 1, and
the phase shift around the circuit must be zero.

RC OSCILLATOR:
In the phase-shift oscillator an external resistor-capacitor (RC) network feeds a portion of the
ac output of an amplifier back to the amplifier input. If the amplifier has an internal phase shift
of 180° and the network provides a further 180° phase shift, the signal fed back to the input
can be amplified to reproduce the output. The circuit is then generating its own input signal,
and a state of oscillation is sustained.
In Fig. 2.9, a single common emitter transistor amplifier stage is employed. The common
emitter circuit has 180° phase shift between input and output, and the RC network phase shifts
the output to reproduce the necessary input. Once again the amplifier must have a voltage gain
of at least 29. Note that the amplifier input resistance (Z) forms the last resistor of the RC
network.

Fig. 2.9 Transistor Phase shift Oscillator

The input impedance of the RC network loads the amplifier, and this affects the amplifier gain.
As frequency increases, the capacitor impedances decrease, so that the loading effect is greatest
at high frequencies. When the loading effect reduces the amplifier gain below 29, the circuit
will not oscillate. It is found that the phase-shift oscillator is most suitable for frequencies
ranging up to a maxi- mum of about 100 kHz.
An RC network consisting of three equal-value capacitors and three equal resistors is connected
between the amplifier output and input terminals. Each stage of the network provides some
phase shih to give a total of 180° from output to input. The frequency of the oscillator output
depends on the capacitor and resistor values employed. Using basic RC circuit analysis
methods, it can be shown that the network phase shift is 180° when the oscillating frequency
is
1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
LC OSCILLATORS
a) Colpitts Oscillator
Construction:
A Colpitts oscillator using a single-stage transistor amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.10. The resistors
R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor Ce provides a.c.
ground thereby providing any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.
The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which means
it shorts for d.c. (allows d.c. to pass) and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector
and keeps a.c. currents out of d.c. supply source. The output of the phase-shifting network is
coupled via C, from the junction of L and C, to the amplifier input at Q, base. The output
voltage V is derived from a secondary winding coupled to the inductance L.

Fig. 2.10 Colpitts Oscillator

The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of variable
capacitors C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The
capacitor C1 has its one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. the voltage
developed across C1 provides the regenerative feedback required for the sustained oscillations.

Working:
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank
circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across C1 which are
applied to the base emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector circuit
and supply losses to the tank circuit.
If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then terminal 2
will be at negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded.
Therefore, points 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180o.
As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift between
the input and output voltages. Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous
Undamped oscillations. When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one,
oscillations are sustained in the circuit.
The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶𝑇

Where
𝐶1 ∗ 𝐶2
𝐶𝑇 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2

Advantages:
a. It can generate sinusoidal signals of very high frequencies.
b. The frequency stability is high
c. Frequency can be varied using both the variable capacitors.
d. The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.
Applications:
1. High frequency sine wave generator
2. Used as local oscillator in radio receivers
3. Used as RF Oscillator

b) Hartley Oscillator

Construction:

In the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator shown in Fig. 2.11. The resistors R1, R2 and
Re provide necessary bias condition for the circuit. The capacitor Ce provides a.c. ground
thereby providing any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block d.c. and to provide an a.c. path. The radio
frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high impedance to high frequency currents which
means it shorts for d.c. and opens for a.c. Hence it provides d.c. load for collector and keeps
a.c. currents out of d.c. supply source.
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of the
inductors L1 and L2 along with a variable capacitor C. The junction of L1 and L2 are
earthed. The coil L1 has its one end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via
Ce. So, L2 is in the output circuit. Both the coils L1 and L2 are inductively coupled and
together form an Auto-transformer. The tank circuit is shunt fed.

Working:
When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or
tank circuit. The oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces a.c. voltage across L1.
The auto-transformer made by the inductive coupling of L1 and L2 helps in determining
the frequency and establishes the feedback. As the CE configured transistor provides
180o phase shift, another 180o phase shift is provided by the transformer, which makes
360o phase shift between the input and output voltages.
 This makes the feedback positive which is essential for the condition of oscillations.
When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are sustained
in the circuit.

Fig. 2.11 Hartley Oscillator

The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is given as

1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐶𝐿 𝑇

Where
𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance; L1 and L2 represent inductances of
1st and 2nd coils; and M represents mutual inductance.
Advantages:
• Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can be used as an auto-transformer.
• Frequency can be varied by employing either a variable capacitor or a variable
inductor.
• The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.
Disadvantage:
• It cannot be a low frequency oscillator.
• Harmonic distortions are present.
Applications:
• It is used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
• It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.