1) What is computer architecture?

Computer architecture refers to the design and structure of a computer system, including its hardware components and
their interconnections. It involves the organization of the CPU, memory, storage, and input/output systems, and how
they work together to execute instructions and process data efficiently.

2) What are the three categories of computer architecture?

The three categories of computer architecture are:

1. **System Design Architecture**: Focuses on the overall organization and interconnection of the system's
components, including processors, memory, and peripheral devices.

2. **Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)**: Defines the set of instructions that the computer can execute, including
operations like data movement, arithmetic, and control.

3. **Microarchitecture**: Refers to the internal organization of the processor, such as the arrangement of registers,
execution units, and cache memory, which implements the ISA efficiently.

3) What is pipelining?

**Pipelining** is a technique used in computer architecture to improve the throughput of a processor by overlapping
the execution of multiple instructions. It divides the execution process into several stages, where each stage handles a
part of an instruction. While one instruction is being processed at one stage, another can be processed at a different
stage, similar to an assembly line in manufacturing.

This parallelism speeds up the overall process, allowing multiple instructions to be executed simultaneously, thus
increasing the efficiency and performance of the CPU. However, pipelining can be affected by hazards like data
dependencies, control dependencies, and structural conflicts, which need to be managed for optimal performance.

4) What is a cache?

A cache is a small, high-speed storage area located between the CPU and main memory (RAM) designed to store
frequently accessed data or instructions. Its purpose is to reduce the time it takes for the CPU to access data, improving
overall system performance.

When the CPU needs data, it first checks the cache. If the data is found there (a "cache hit"), it can be accessed much
faster than from the main memory. If the data is not in the cache (a "cache miss"), it is fetched from the slower main
memory, and the cache is updated with the new data for future use.

5) What is MESI?

**MESI** (Modified, Exclusive, Shared, Invalid) is a cache coherency protocol used in multiprocessor systems to manage
the consistency of data stored in different caches. It defines four states for each cache line to ensure that all caches in
the system have a consistent view of memory:

1. **Modified**: The cache has the only copy of the data, and it has been modified.

2. **Exclusive**: The cache has the only copy of the data, but it has not been modified.

3. **Shared**: The data may be in multiple caches, and it has not been modified.

4. **Invalid**: The cache does not have valid data.

MESI helps prevent issues like stale or inconsistent data across different processor caches in a multiprocessor system.

6) What is a snooping protocol?

A **snooping protocol** is a cache coherence protocol used in multiprocessor systems where each cache "snoops"
(monitors) the shared memory bus to detect any changes to the data it holds. When one processor writes to a shared
memory location, the other processors' caches are informed, allowing them to update or invalidate their copies of the
data to maintain consistency.

This approach ensures that all caches have a coherent view of the memory, preventing issues like data inconsistency.
Examples of snooping protocols include the MESI (Modified, Exclusive, Shared, Invalid) protocol.

7) What is a virtual memory on a computer?

Virtual memory is a memory management technique used by computers to give the illusion of a larger amount of RAM
than is physically available. It allows programs to use more memory than the system's physical memory (RAM) by
swapping data between RAM and disk storage (usually a hard drive or SSD). This enables the system to run larger
programs or multiple programs simultaneously, even if there isn't enough physical memory to store all the data at once.
Virtual memory is managed by the operating system and involves processes like paging or segmentation.

8) What are the different types of fields that are part of instruction?

The different types of fields that are part of an instruction in a computer's instruction set architecture (ISA) are:

1. **Opcode (Operation Code)**: Specifies the operation to be performed (e.g., add, subtract, load, store).

2. **Operand**: Contains the data or address on which the operation is to be performed. It may include registers,
memory addresses, or immediate values.

3. **Addressing Mode**: Defines how the operand's address is computed (e.g., direct, indirect, indexed).

4. **Function Code**: (in some ISAs) Specifies additional details about the operation or variant of the instruction.

These fields are used to execute instructions and determine the operation, operands, and their locations.

9) What is RISC?

**RISC** (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) is a type of computer architecture that uses a small, highly optimized set
of instructions, each designed to be executed in a single clock cycle. The goal of RISC is to simplify the instruction set to
improve performance and efficiency by reducing the complexity of instructions. This contrasts with CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computer), which uses a larger set of more complex instructions. RISC architectures typically rely on a
load/store model, where data manipulation occurs only in registers, and memory is accessed via specific load and store
instructions.

10) What are the steps involved in an instruction cycle?

The steps involved in an **instruction cycle** are:

1. **Fetch**: The CPU retrieves an instruction from memory using the program counter (PC), which points to the
address of the next instruction to be executed.

2. **Decode**: The fetched instruction is decoded to determine what operation needs to be performed, including
identifying the operands and addressing modes.

3. **Execute**: The CPU performs the specified operation (e.g., arithmetic or logic operation) on the operands.
4. **Store**: If the instruction involves storing a result, the data is written back to memory or a register.

These steps are repeated continuously to execute a program.

1) Briefly explain about the quantitative principles of computer design

The quantitative principles of computer design focus on applying mathematical and analytical methods to
optimize the performance and efficiency of computer systems. These principles guide decisions related to
processor design, memory organization, and other system components. Here are some key principles:

1. Amdahl's Law: This principle focuses on the potential performance improvement of a system when
only a part of the system is enhanced. It states that the overall speedup of a system is limited by the
portion of the system that cannot be improved. For example, if only part of a program can be
parallelized, the speedup is constrained by the serial portion of the program.
2. Cost-Performance Trade-Off: In computer design, there is often a trade-off between cost and
performance. Higher performance systems, such as faster processors or larger caches, typically come
with higher costs. Designers must balance these factors based on the intended application and budget.
3. Pipelining Efficiency: Pipelining improves the throughput of a CPU by overlapping instruction
execution. The design principle focuses on optimizing the number of pipeline stages to reduce latency
and maximize instruction throughput while minimizing pipeline hazards (data, control, and structural).
4. Clock Cycle Time: The clock cycle time is critical for the performance of a processor. The shorter the
cycle time, the faster the processor can execute instructions. Designers use techniques like increasing
clock speeds and optimizing circuit design to improve cycle times, though it comes with challenges
related to power consumption and heat dissipation.
5. Memory Hierarchy: The design of the memory system is crucial for balancing speed and cost. The
memory hierarchy includes registers, cache memory, main memory (RAM), and secondary storage (hard
drives or SSDs). Data must be transferred between these levels efficiently to minimize latency and
ensure that the processor can access data quickly. Optimizing the size and speed of each memory level is
key to improving overall system performance.

These quantitative principles help designers make informed decisions that enhance the performance, cost-
effectiveness, and energy efficiency of computer systems. They also guide trade-offs in architecture choices to
meet specific application requirements.

2) State the Amdahl's law

Amdahl's Law is a principle used to find the maximum possible speedup of a system when only a portion of
the system is improved or optimized. It is often applied in the context of parallel computing to calculate the
potential performance gain from parallelizing a task.

Amdahl's Law Formula:

Amdahl's Law is expressed as:

S=1(1−P)+PNS = \frac{1}{(1 - P) + \frac{P}{N}}

Where:
  SS is the overall speedup of the system.
 PP is the portion of the task that can be parallelized.
 NN is the number of processors or parallel units.
 (1−P)(1 - P) is the portion of the task that must be executed sequentially.

Explanation:

 Sequential Portion: The part of the task that cannot be parallelized and must be processed sequentially.
This portion limits the overall speedup.
 Parallel Portion: The part of the task that can be divided into parallel operations. The more processors
(or parallel units) available, the greater the speedup that can be achieved for this portion.

Key Insights from Amdahl's Law:

1. Diminishing Returns: As more processors are added, the overall speedup gains diminish. Even with a
very large number of processors, if a significant portion of the task remains sequential (e.g., 10%), the
maximum speedup is limited.
2. Effect of Non-Parallelizable Portion: The performance improvement is heavily influenced by the
fraction of the task that cannot be parallelized. If a large portion of the work is sequential, the overall
benefit of adding more processors will be limited.
3. Real-World Application: Amdahl’s Law is particularly useful when designing parallel systems or
determining the practical limits of parallelization. It helps in understanding the balance between parallel
and sequential components of a computation.

3) Briefly Discuss abour the classifications of instruction set.

The instruction set (IS) of a computer defines the set of instructions that the CPU can execute. These instructions are
classified based on their function and how they operate on data. There are several ways to classify instruction sets,
including based on instruction format, operation type, and addressing modes. Below are the key classifications:

1. Classification by Instruction Type:

 Data Transfer Instructions: These instructions are used to move data between registers, memory, and I/O
devices. For example, MOV, LOAD, and STORE instructions.

 Arithmetic Instructions: These perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. Examples include ADD, SUB, MUL, and DIV.

 Logical Instructions: These perform bitwise logical operations like AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc. Examples include
AND, OR, NOT, and XOR.

 Control Flow Instructions: These instructions control the execution flow of the program, such as jumps,
branches, and procedure calls. Examples are JUMP, CALL, RET, and conditional branches like BEQ (branch if
equal).

 Comparison Instructions: These compare two values and set flags based on the result. Examples include CMP
(compare) and conditional jump instructions like BEQ, BNE.

 Input/Output Instructions: Used to interact with input and output devices, such as IN and OUT instructions.

2. Classification by Operand Type:

  Register-based: The operands are located in the processor’s registers. The instruction operates directly on the
register values. For example, ADD R1, R2, R3 means adding the contents of registers R2 and R3 and storing the
result in R1.

 Memory-based: The operands are located in memory. Instructions access data from memory locations. For
example, LOAD R1, [address] loads data from memory address into register R1.

 Immediate-based: The operand is a constant value (immediate value) embedded in the instruction itself. For
example, ADD R1, R2, #5 means adding the value 5 (immediate value) to register R2 and storing the result in R1.

3. Classification by Instruction Format:

 Fixed-length Instructions: All instructions are of the same length, which simplifies instruction fetching and
decoding. Examples include RISC-based ISAs like ARM or MIPS.

 Variable-length Instructions: Instructions can have varying lengths, allowing for more compact instruction
encoding, often seen in CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) architectures. Examples include x86 and VAX.

4. Classification by Addressing Modes:

 Immediate Addressing: The operand is directly specified in the instruction. For example, MOV R1, #10 loads the
value 10 into register R1.

 Direct Addressing: The operand is specified as a memory address in the instruction. For example, MOV R1,
[2000] loads the value stored at memory address 2000 into register R1.

 Indirect Addressing: The operand is located in memory, but the instruction specifies a memory location that
holds the address of the operand. For example, MOV R1, [R2] where R2 holds the memory address of the data.

 Indexed Addressing: The operand's address is calculated by adding a constant value (offset) to the value stored
in a register. For example, MOV R1, [R2 + 10] where R2 holds a base address, and 10 is the offset.

 Register Addressing: The operand is located in a register. For example, MOV R1, R2 copies the value from
register R2 into R1.

5. Classification by Execution Time:

 Single-cycle Instructions: These instructions are executed in a single clock cycle.

 Multi-cycle Instructions: These instructions require more than one clock cycle to execute and often involve
accessing memory or performing complex operations.

6. RISC vs CISC Instruction Set:

 RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer): RISC architectures have a small, simple set of instructions that can be
executed in one clock cycle. Each instruction is designed to perform a simple operation. Examples include MIPS
and ARM.

 CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer): CISC architectures have a larger set of instructions, with more
complex operations that can perform multiple tasks in a single instruction. Examples include x86 and VAX.

4) Discuss the Dynamic scheduling using Tomasulos approach.

Dynamic Scheduling using Tomasulo's Approach is a hardware-based technique used to handle instruction
dependencies and improve instruction-level parallelism in a CPU. It was introduced by Robert Tomasulo in
1967 for the IBM System/360 Model 91. The main goal of Tomasulo’s approach is to dynamically reorder
instructions to avoid delays caused by data hazards, particularly data dependencies between instructions.

Tomasulo’s approach eliminates the need for compiler-based scheduling and allows the processor to schedule
instructions as they arrive, in an efficient and flexible manner. This technique uses a combination of register
renaming, reservation stations, and common data bus (CDB) to manage instruction execution.

Key Concepts of Tomasulo's Approach:

1. Reservation Stations: Reservation stations are temporary holding areas that hold instructions before
they are executed. They also hold operands, which are either immediately available (from registers or
memory) or pending (waiting for previous instructions to write their result). Each functional unit in the
processor has its own reservation stations. Instructions can be dispatched to an available reservation
station, where they wait until all the operands are available.
o Functionality: Reservation stations store the operation to be performed and the operands. If
operands are not ready, the reservation station will monitor the CDB to check if the operands are
broadcasted from other execution units once they are completed.
o Advantages: This enables out-of-order execution because instructions do not need to wait in the
order they are fetched as long as their operands are available.
2. Register Renaming: Register renaming is a technique used to eliminate write-after-write (WAW) and
write-after-read (WAR) hazards by dynamically assigning new register names to instructions instead
of using fixed architectural register names. This technique resolves conflicts when multiple instructions
attempt to write to the same register.
o Functionality: Instead of using a fixed set of registers for operations, the system renames
registers dynamically, so that multiple instructions that would normally use the same register can
execute independently.
o Result: This helps to avoid data hazards by ensuring that multiple instructions do not interfere
with each other’s results when they use the same register.
3. Common Data Bus (CDB): The Common Data Bus is a communication mechanism that broadcasts the
result of an executed instruction to all reservation stations and registers. When a functional unit
completes an operation, the result is sent through the CDB, allowing any waiting instructions in
reservation stations to access the results.
o Functionality: The CDB allows multiple functional units to broadcast their results to any
instructions that are waiting for operands. This ensures that once a result is computed, it is
available for other instructions that need it, regardless of which functional unit produced the
result.
4. Execution Units: The processor contains different execution units (such as the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), Floating Point Unit (FPU), etc.), and each has its associated reservation station. When operands
are available, instructions are issued to the execution units for processing.
o Functionality: Each execution unit operates independently, and instructions can execute out of
order as long as the operands are available. The result of the executed instruction is then
broadcast via the CDB.

Steps in Tomasulo’s Approach:

1. Instruction Issue:
o When an instruction is fetched, it is placed into an available reservation station corresponding to
the functional unit that will execute it. If operands are available, they are copied into the
reservation station; otherwise, the instruction waits until the operands become available.
2. Operand Availability Check:
 o If the operands are available in the registers, the instruction proceeds to the next stage. If not, the
reservation station will track the result from a previous instruction that will provide the needed
operand, waiting for it to be written back.
3. Execution:
o When both operands are available (either from registers or other instructions), the instruction is
issued to the execution unit, which performs the operation. The result is then broadcast via the
CDB.
4. Result Broadcasting:
o Upon completion of execution, the result is sent through the CDB, and any waiting instructions
in the reservation stations that depend on this result can now proceed.
5. Write-back:
o The result of the executed instruction is written to the register file or memory, depending on the
instruction type.