Section A (10 × 1 = 10 Marks)

Q1:

a) FSM Issues: Common Finite State Machine (FSM) issues include state encoding complexity,
synchronization failures, metastability, excessive power consumption, and testability challenges.

b) Fault Detection: Fault detection refers to the process of identifying defects in a system or circuit by
analyzing outputs and comparing them with expected results.

c) Metastability: Metastability is a temporary unstable state in digital circuits that occurs when a flip-flop or
latch receives an asynchronous or near-threshold input, leading to unpredictable behavior.

d) Various Fault Models: Common fault models include stuck-at fault model, bridging faults, delay faults,
open faults, and transient faults.

e) Fault Equivalence: Fault equivalence states that two or more faults in a circuit produce the same faulty
behavior and can be tested with the same test vectors.

f) Role of Random Testing: Random testing is used to detect faults by applying random test patterns to a
circuit and analyzing the response. It is useful for fault coverage assessment and identifying hard-to-detect
errors.

g) Different Algorithms: Some key testing and fault detection algorithms include D-Algorithm, PODEM
(Path-Oriented Decision Making), FAN (Fan-out-oriented), and Kohavi Algorithm.

h) Fault Modeling: Fault modeling is the representation of possible faults in a system to analyze how
failures occur and how they affect circuit behavior.

i) Boolean Difference Method: The Boolean difference method is a fault detection technique that analyzes
the impact of faults on Boolean functions by computing the difference between fault-free and faulty
circuit outputs.

j) State Identification vs. Machine Identification:

 State Identification: Determines whether two states in a finite state machine (FSM) are
distinguishable based on input-output behavior.
 Machine Identification: Determines if two different FSMs produce the same outputs for the same
inputs, which is crucial in fault detection.

Section B (4 × 5 = 20 Marks, 200 words each)

Q2: Sequential Circuit Design Using FPGAs

Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are commonly used to implement sequential circuits due to their
flexibility, reprogrammability, and parallel processing capabilities. A sequential circuit consists of memory
elements (flip-flops) and combinational logic to process inputs and maintain states.
Design Steps for Sequential Circuits Using FPGA:

1. Problem Specification: Define circuit requirements, such as state transitions, input/output behavior, and
clock signals.
2. State Diagram & State Table: Represent the system using Moore or Mealy state diagrams and create
a state transition table.
3. State Encoding: Assign binary values to states using one-hot, binary, or Gray coding.
4. Logic Implementation: Use Verilog or VHDL to describe state transitions and output logic.
5. FPGA Mapping: Map the sequential circuit to FPGA hardware using flip-flops, LUTs, and memory
blocks.
6. Simulation & Testing: Verify circuit behavior using simulation tools like ModelSim or Vivado before
deploying on FPGA hardware.

FPGAs offer fast reconfiguration, high-speed processing, and efficient power management, making them
ideal for sequential circuit implementation in real-time applications.

Q3: Fault Diagnosis of Combinational Circuits by Conventional Methods

Fault diagnosis in combinational circuits involves detecting and locating faulty components to ensure reliable
circuit operation. Conventional fault diagnosis methods include truth table checking, path sensitization,
Boolean difference analysis, and ATPG (Automatic Test Pattern Generation).

Key Methods:

1. Stuck-at Fault Model: Assumes logic gates or wires are stuck at logic ‘0’ or ‘1’, allowing systematic
fault detection.
2. Path Sensitization: Determines test vectors that propagate a fault effect to the output, ensuring fault
observability.
3. Boolean Difference Method: Compares Boolean functions of fault-free and faulty circuits to determine
fault locations.
4. Fault Simulation: Uses tools like Verilog-based simulation or Monte Carlo methods to analyze
circuit behavior under different fault conditions.
5. ATPG Algorithms: Automated tools generate optimal test patterns to detect maximum faults
efficiently.

Conventional methods help identify hard-to-detect faults, reduce test complexity, and improve circuit
reliability in digital systems.

Q4: Kohavi Algorithm

The Kohavi Algorithm is a state minimization technique used in Finite State Machines (FSMs) to reduce the
number of states while preserving input-output behavior. It helps in optimizing FSM design for lower
hardware cost, reduced power consumption, and better performance.

Steps of the Kohavi Algorithm:

1. Construct a Transition Table: Represent FSM states, inputs, and transitions.

 2. Partitioning States: Identify equivalent states that exhibit identical output behavior for all input
sequences.
3. Merging Equivalent States: Replace equivalent states with a single representative state to minimize
the FSM.
4. Redrawing the FSM Diagram: Update the FSM by removing redundant states while maintaining
correctness.
5. Verification: Ensure the minimized FSM produces the same output for all input sequences as the
original FSM.

The Kohavi Algorithm is widely used in hardware design, logic minimization, and digital circuit
optimization to enhance efficiency.

Q5: Fault Detection & Redundancy

Fault detection ensures that digital circuits operate correctly by identifying faults, while redundancy enhances
system reliability by providing backup mechanisms.

Fault Detection Techniques:

1. Parity Checking: Adds a parity bit to detect errors in transmitted data.

2. Checksum & CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check): Used in networking to detect corrupted data packets.
3. Built-In Self-Test (BIST): Integrates self-checking mechanisms in hardware to detect faults during
operation.

Redundancy in Fault Tolerance:

1. Hardware Redundancy: Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) uses three identical circuits and a
voting system to eliminate faulty outputs.
2. Software Redundancy: Multiple software routines perform the same task to cross-verify results.
3. Time Redundancy: Operations are repeated at different time intervals to detect transient faults.

Redundancy helps improve system reliability and fault tolerance in critical applications like aerospace,
automotive safety, and medical devices.

Q6: State Identification & Fault Detection Experiment

State identification in FSMs ensures that different states are uniquely distinguishable, which is crucial for fault
detection in sequential circuits. Fault detection experiments verify the correctness of an FSM by applying
test sequences and analyzing output responses.

Steps in Fault Detection Experiment:

1. Define Test Inputs: Select input sequences that transition the FSM through all possible states.
2. Observe Output Patterns: Compare FSM outputs against expected values.
3. Identify Faulty States: If unexpected outputs occur, the FSM may contain redundant or incorrect
states.
 4. Use State Reduction Methods: Apply Kohavi or Moore state minimization techniques to remove
unnecessary states.
5. Validate the Modified FSM: Run additional test sequences to confirm correctness.

State identification is essential in FSM-based digital circuits to ensure proper sequencing, detect state
transition faults, and enhance system reliability.

Q7: Fault Detection Experiment for Machine Identification

A fault detection experiment for machine identification determines if a system produces correct outputs
under faulty conditions. It involves input sequence testing, state transition analysis, and error detection
techniques.

Experimental Design:

1. Machine Modeling: Define a state transition table and expected outputs for a given FSM.
2. Test Pattern Generation: Apply D-Algorithm, PODEM, or ATPG to create test vectors.
3. Simulating Faulty Conditions: Introduce stuck-at faults, bridging faults, or transient errors in the
FSM.
4. Analyzing Fault Responses: Compare output responses from fault-free and faulty machines.
5. Identifying Fault Locations: Use Boolean difference method to pinpoint faulty states.
6. Error Correction Mechanism: Implement error detection and redundancy methods to enhance
system performance.

This experiment helps in classifying machine behaviors, diagnosing circuit faults, and ensuring fault-
tolerant FSM designs.