Unit 4
Unit 4
SOFTWARE
Computer hardware is virtually useless without computer software. Software is the programs that
are needed to accomplish the input, processing, output, storage, and control activities of
information systems.
Computer software is typically classified into two major types of programs: system software and
application software.
System Software
Systems software are programs that manage the resources of the computer system and simplify
applications programming. They include software such as the operating system, database
management systems, networking software, translators, and software utilities.
Application Software
Application software are programs that direct the performance of a particular use, or application,
of computers to meet the information processing needs of end users. They include Aoff-the-
shelf@ software such as word processing and spreadsheet packages, as well as internally or
externally developed software that is designed to meet the specific needs of an organization.
Software trends have been away from custom-designed one-of-kind programs developed by the
professional programmers or end users of an organization toward the use of Aoff-the-
shelf@ software packages acquired by end users from software vendors.
1. Vertical packages - assist users within a specific industry segment. Examples include
packages that help to manage construction projects, keep track of inventory of hospitals, or fast-
food outlets.
2. Horizontal packages - can perform a certain general function, such as accounting, or office
automation, for a range of businesses.
Figure 5.1 is an excellent tool to use to explain the relationship that exists between computer
systems hardware, systems software, and application software. This Aonion-skin@ model
indicates that the outer layers rely on the facilities furnished by the inner ones.
5.2 Operating Systems
The most important system software package for any computer is its operating system. Every
computer system runs under the control of an operating system. Operating systems for computers
that are shared by many users are considerably more complex than operating systems for
personal computers.
The operating system is the software that controls all the resources of a computer system. For
example it:
6. Maintains file directories and provides access to the data in the files
Multiprogramming requires that the active parts of the programs competing for the processor be
available in main memory. Virtual memory is the seemingly expanded capacity of the main
memory of the computer, and achieved by keeping in the main memory only the immediately
needed parts of programs, with the complete programs kept in secondary storage.
Operating systems enable the system they manage to operate in various modes. These include
batch processing, time sharing, and real-time processing.
Time Sharing Systems providing interactive processing by allocating a short time slice for the
use of the server to each user in turn.
Real-time Processing Systems that respond to an event within a fixed time interval; used for
example, in manufacturing plants or to collect data from several pieces of equipment in a
laboratory.
With the move toward multiprocessors, in which several (or even many) processors are
configured in a single computer system, multiprocessing operating systems have been designed
to allocate the work to the multiple processors. These systems also support multiprogramming,
which allows many programs to compete for the processors.
The operating systems of personal computers which are dedicated to a single user are vastly
simpler than the operating systems running larger machines, to which hundreds or thousands of
users may have simultaneous access. One important capability an operating system can offer in a
personal computing environment is multitasking: the ability to run several tasks at once on
behalf of a user.
- true multitasking
- network capabilities
- multimedia
- can add a GUI interface and multitasking capabilities by using an operating environment such
as Microsoft Windows
- multitasking
- telecommunications capabilities
- installed on network servers to manage local area networks with high-performance computing
requirements
UNIX - popular operating system that is available for micros, minis, and mainframe computer
systems
User Interface
A user interface is a combination of means by which a user interacts with the computer system. It
allows the end user to communicate with the operating system so they can load programs, access
files, and accomplish other tasks. The three main types of user interfaces are:
1. Command drive
2. Menu drive
The most popular graphical user interface is that provided by Windows 95. The Windows
environment has become a standard platform for computers.
A drive is to use open systems in organizational computing, so that the software and hardware of
any vendor can operate with those of any other, calls for an operating system that would run on
any hardware platform. The term Aopen system@ is used as the opposite of proprietary systems
of a specific manufacturer.
Personal productivity software is the most common applications software. Run on personal
computers, these programs assist the user in a certain range of tasks. Taken together with
professional support systems and systems supporting groupwork, personal productivity software
is a potent enabler of today's knowledge work.
Personal productivity software enhances its user's performance on a specific range of common
tasks. This software supports database management and analysis, authoring and presentation, and
activity and notes tracking. All these are software applications. Data management is supported
by database management systems, while spreadsheet software assists in data analysis. For the
needs of authoring and presentation, users employ the applications software for word processing,
desktop publishing, presentation, and multimedia authoring. Personal information management
software is used to track activities and personal notes. Communications software enables the user
to connect to a telecommunications network in order to exchange information with other users or
systems. Web browsers are used to access the resources of the Internet's World Wide Web.
Spreadsheets
Electronic spreadsheet packages are programs that are used for analysis, planning, and
modelling. They provide electronic replacement for more traditional tools such as paper
worksheets, pencils, and calculators. In a worksheet of rows and columns are stored in the
computer's memory and displayed on the video screen. Data and formulas are entered into the
worksheet and the computer performs the calculations based on the formulas entered. A
spreadsheet package can also be used as a decision support tool to perform what-if analysis.
Database Management
Database management packages facilitate the storage, maintenance, and utilization of data in a
database that is shared by many users. Microcomputer DBMs enables the users to:
In addition, packages offer security features, network connectivity, and the ability to present
graphical output, as well as to perform spreadsheet-type computations.
Word Processing
Word processing packages are programs that computerize the creation, edition, and printing of
documents by electronically processing text data. Word processing is an important application of
office automation. Word processing is the most popular authoring and presentation activity. In
fact, it is the most common personal computing application.
Desktop Publishing
Organizations use desktop publishing software to produce their own printed materials like
newsletters, brochures, manuals, and books with several type styles, graphics, and colors on each
page. The components required to set up a modest desktop publishing system include: a high-
resolution display, a laser printer, desktop publishing software, and perhaps a scanner.
Presentation Software
The goal of presentation graphics is to provide information in a graphical form that helps end
users and mangers understand business proposals and performance and make better decisions
about them. It is important to note that presentation graphics does not replace reports and
displays of numbers and text material.
Multimedia authoring software enables its users to design multimedia presentations. Using
these packages, you can develop attractive computer-based training (CBT) courseware or
customer presentations. This software has superior graphic imagery, computer animation, and
motion video which may be combined with high-fidelity sound in combination with the text.
Hypermedia are electronic documents that contain multiple forms of media, including text,
graphics, video, voice messages, or other units of information such as worksheets. In the
hypermedia method of information delivery, linkages may be established among various items in
a large multimedia document. These linkages enable the user to move from one topic directly to
a related one, instead of scanning the information sequentially. Hypertext is a methodology for
the construction and interactive use of text databases. By definition, hypertext contains only text
and a limited amount of graphics.
Personal Information management (PIM) packages are tools that help knowledge workers track
tasks, people, projects, commitments, and ideas. These packages help end users store, organize,
and retrieve text and numerical data in the form of notes, lists, clippings, tables, memos, letters,
reports, and so on.
2. File transfer. You can download a program or a data file from a remote computer to your own
workstation or upload a file to the remote computer.
3. Terminal emulation - enabling the personal computer to act as a terminal when required in a
particular application.
More and more frequently, the reason for connecting to a telecommunications network is to gain
access to the resources of the Internet. Web browsers are rapidly becoming one of the most
popular categories of software packages. A browser is a program that enables its user to access
electronic documents in included in the Internet's World Wide Web, a collection of interlinked
hypermedia databases distributed among remote sites.
1. Machine languages
2. Assembler languages
3. High-level languages
5. Object-oriented languages
Machine Languages:
Machine languages are the most basic level of programming languages. They were the first
generation of machine languages.
2. Programmers had to have a detailed knowledge of the internal operations of the specific type
of CPU they were using.
3. Programming was difficult and error-prone
Assembler Languages:
Assembler languages are the second generation of machine languages. They were developed to
reduce the difficulties in writing machine language programs. Assembly language is also a low-
level language (refers to machine resources, such as registers and memory addresses), it is also
specific to a computer model or a series of models.
Advantages:
2. Programming is simplified as a programmer does not need to know the exact storage location
of data and instructions.
3. Efficient use of computer resources is outweighted by the high costs of very tedious systems
development and by lock of program portability.
Disadvantage:
High-level languages are the third generation programming languages. These languages provide
statements, each of which is translated into several machine-language instructions. High-level
languages include COBOL (business application programs), BASIC (microcomputer end users),
FORTRAN (scientific and engineering applications), and more popular today are C, C++, and
Visual Basic.
Advantages:
1. Easier to learn and understand than an assembler language as instructions (statements) that
resemble human language or the standard notation of mathematics.
2. Have less-rigid rules, forms, and syntaxes, so the potential for error is reduced.
4. Programmers do not have to learn a new language for each computer they program.
Disadvantages:
1. Less efficient than assembler language programs and require a greater amount of computer
time for translation into machine instructions.
The fourth-generation languages (4GLs) specify what needs to be done rather than detailing
steps to doing it. 4GLs include a variety of programming languages that are more nonprocedural
and conversational than prior languages.
Advantages:
2. Use nonprocedural languages that encourage users and programmers to specify the results they
want, while the computers determines the sequence of instructions that will accomplish those
results.
Disadvantages:
2. Less efficient (in terms of processing speeds and amount of storage capacity needed).
A number of languages could lay claim to belonging to the fifth generation. The following types
of programming languages are likely to influence the development of such a new paradigm:
1. Object-oriented programming (OOP) languages tie data elements and the procedures or
actions that will be performed on them, together into objects. Examples include Smalltalk, C++,
Visual Basic, Java, Turbo C++, C++, Object C+
2. Languages that facilitate parallel processing in systems with a large number of processors.
3. Functional languages (such as LISP), based on the mathematical concept of computation as an
application of functions.
4. Limited subsets of natural languages which can be processed thanks to the progress in
artificial intelligence.
Advantages:
1. OOP languages are easier to use and more efficient for programming the graphics-oriented
user interface required by many applications.
A variety of software packages are available to help programmers develop computer programs.
For example, programming language translators are programs that translate other programs into
machine language instruction codes that computers can execute. Other software packages called
programming tools help programmers write programs by providing program creation and editing
facilities. Language translator programs (language processors) are programs that translate other
programs into machine language instruction codes the computer can execute. These programs
allow you to write your own programs by providing program creation and editing facilities.
Interpreter: translates and executes each program statement one at a time, instead of first
producing a complete machine language program, like compilers and assemblers do.
4GL's include a variety of programming languages that are more nonprocedural and
conversational than prior languages. The use of fourth-generation languages permits a
severalfold increase in productivity in information systems development.
The distinguishing feature of 4GLs is that they specify what is to be done rather than how to do
it. Characteristics of 4GL's include:
3. About one-tenth of the number of instructions are required in 4GL as compared to procedural
languages. [Figure 5.12]
4. Principal categories of 4GLs are query languages, report generators, and application
generators - Figure 5.13 [Slide 5-6]
5. Query languages and report generators make it unnecessary to develop certain applications by
providing direct access to a database. Application generators make it relatively easy to specify in
nonprocedural terms a system for such access.
6. 4GLs also have software generators for producing decision support and executive information
systems.
1. Query language
2. Report generators
3. Application generators
Query Languages
Query languages enable end users to access databases directly. Characteristics of query language
include:
1. Used online for ad-hoc queries, that is, queries that are not predefined
2. Result of the query is generally not formatted since it is displayed in a default format selected
by the system itself.
4. Most query languages also make it possible to update databases. With many query languages,
it is possible to request a graphical output to a query.
1. Form fill-in
2. Menu selection
5. Direct manipulation
2. Electronic kiosks
Report Generators
1. Offer users greater control over the content and appearance of the output than a query
language.
2. Specified data may be retrieved from the specified files or databases, grouped, ordered, and
summarized in a specified way, and formatted for printing as desired.
Application Generators
1. Most generators produce (generate) code in a procedural language. This code may then be
modified to meet the precise needs of the application.
2. Generators targeted toward end users are simple to use. They are targeted to a limited
application domain. They produce the code mostly from a specification of the structure of files
and databases and from the given layouts of screens and reports. The requisite processing is
specified in terms natural to the end users.
3. A screen-painting facility makes it possible to specify the graphical user interface for the
system under development.
2. Use nonprocedural languages that encourage users and programmers to specify the results they
want, while the computers determines the sequence of instructions that will accomplish those
results.
Disadvantages:
2. Programs written in 4GLs are generally far less efficient during program execution that
programs in high-level languages. Therefore, their use is limited to projects that do not call for
such efficiency.
1. OOP, objects combine (encapsulate) the data with the operations that act on the data.
2. OOP support class definition and inheritance, creating objects as instances of classes, sending
messages to the methods in these objects during program execution, and other features of OOP.
1. Objects
2. Classes
3. Inheritance
Objects: are the basic components of which programs are built. In software, a program
component that models a real-world object by encapsulating data and instructions that work with
these data.
Class: is a template from which objects are created. Classes can be defined in a hierarchy.
Advantages:
1. OOP languages are easier to use and more efficient for programming the graphics-oriented
user interface required by many applications.
2. Saves much programming, since inheriting properties means programmed objects are reusable.