RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Sy.No.171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Course Name: AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS

Course Code: 21ME71

ME VII Semester
2021 Scheme

Module-1
Introduction to Automation

❖ Basic elements of an automated system, advanced automation

functions, levels of automation, process industries versus discrete
manufacturing industries, continuous versus discrete control, computer
process control.
❖ Hardware components for automation and process control, sensors,
actuators, analogue to digital converters, digital to analogue
converters, input/output devices for discrete data.

Dr. Shanthala K.
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering
RVITM, Bengaluru – 560076

Email: [email protected]
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Module-1
Introduction to Automation

Automation refers to the technology that enables processes or procedures to be completed with
minimal or no human intervention. It involves a combination of programmed instructions
and a control system that carries out these instructions. For automation to function, power is
essential both for driving the process and for operating the control system.
Although automation finds applications in many sectors, it is most closely associated with
manufacturing. The term "automation" was first introduced in 1946 by an engineering manager
at Ford Motor Company. It was used to describe the automatic transfer devices and feeding
mechanisms installed in Ford’s production plants.
Automation and mechanization are often compared, but they are not the same. Mechanization
refers to using machinery (often powered) to assist or replace human workers in performing
physical tasks. However, human intervention is still needed for decision-making and sensory
tasks. Automation, on the other hand, involves machinery that not only performs the physical
tasks but also operates without constant human oversight. The position of automation and
control technologies in the larger production system is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig 1.1 Automation and control technologies in the production system

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1.1 Basic elements of an automated system

An automated system is built around three fundamental elements:
1. Power: Required to drive the process and operate the system.
2. Program of Instructions: Provides directions to control the process.
3. Control System: Executes the instructions to regulate and manage the process.
The relationship among these elements is illustrated in Fig.1.2. These elements are integral to
any automated system, regardless of its complexity. They are applicable across the three major
types of automated manufacturing systems:
• Fixed Automation: Used for high-volume production, where the process is fixed and
repetitive.
• Programmable Automation: Suitable for batch production, where the system can be
reprogrammed for different tasks.
• Flexible Automation: Allows for quick changeovers and is ideal for varied and
customized production.

Fig. 1.2 Elements of an automated system: (1) power, (2) program of instructions, and (3)
control systems.

1.1.1 Power to Accomplish the Automated Process

In any automated system, power is essential for driving the process and operating the control
system. The main source of power in these systems is electricity, due to several key
advantages:
• Availability: Electric power is widely accessible and relatively affordable.
• Versatility: It can be easily converted into other forms of energy like mechanical,
thermal, light, acoustic, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
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• Low-Level Functions: Electricity is ideal for tasks like signal transmission,

information processing, and data communication.
• Energy Storage: It can be stored in batteries for use in remote locations where a direct
power source isn’t available.
Alternative power sources like fossil fuels, solar, wind, and water are less commonly used in
automation. However, even when these sources are involved (e.g., a fossil fuel-powered
furnace), electricity is often still needed for the control systems that automate the operation. In
some cases, these alternative sources are converted to electricity to run both the process and
the automated controls (e.g., converting solar energy to electricity).
A) Power for the Process
In manufacturing, the term process refers to the specific operation performed on a workpiece.
These processes consume most of the power in production plants. The power used for these
operations often starts as electricity, which is then converted into the form needed for the
process (e.g., mechanical, thermal).
Apart from driving the main manufacturing operations, power is also needed for:
• Loading and Unloading Work Units: Parts need to be properly positioned before the
process starts and removed afterward. If fully automated, this is done using mechanized
power; if semi-automated or manual, human effort might be used.
• Material Transport Between Operations: Workpieces need to be moved between
different stages of production. This movement also requires power, which can come
from automated systems or manual effort.
In fully automated systems, mechanized power handles all these functions, ensuring efficient
and consistent operations.
B) Power for Automation
Beyond the basic power needed for manufacturing operations, additional power is required
specifically for automation. This power is used for:
• Controller Unit: Modern controllers rely on digital computers that need electrical
power to run programs, make control decisions, and send commands to devices.
• Actuating Control Signals: The controller’s commands are executed by devices like
switches and motors, known as actuators. Since the initial control signals are low-
voltage, they need to be amplified to provide sufficient power for the actuators to
perform tasks.
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• Data Acquisition and Information Processing: Control systems often need to collect
data from the process to adjust operations. Additionally, data may be recorded for
monitoring process performance or ensuring product quality. These functions require
power, though in small amounts.
1.1.2 Program of Instructions in Automation
The program of instructions defines the actions performed by an automated process. These
steps are carried out during a work cycle, which repeats for each new part or product. The work
cycle program can vary in complexity depending on the process.
Work Cycle Programs
1. Set-Point Control: The process parameter remains constant during the work cycle.
Example: Maintaining a furnace temperature.
2. Logic Control: The process parameter depends on other variables. Example: Valve
opens only if a sensor detects a certain level.
3. Sequence Control: The process parameter changes over time. Example: Turning on a
machine motor at one time and shutting it off later.
4. Interactive Program: Involves interaction between the operator and control system.
Example: An operator enters data for each work cycle.
5. Intelligent Program: The system makes decisions using logic or learning, like
recognizing part variations.
Modern vs. Traditional Control Systems
• Traditional Control: Used hardware components like relays and timers to control
cycles but had limitations (e.g., difficult to modify).
• Modern Control: Uses digital computers for flexibility and easier updates. Programs
are stored digitally, allowing better control and easy upgrades.
Decision-Making in Work Cycles
Automation systems often need to handle variations, which are built into the program:
• Operator Interaction: The system may require the operator to input data, such as
entering engraving details.
• Different Part Styles: Automated systems can adjust to different product styles, like a
robot that welds different car models.
• Variations in Starting Work Units: Differences in raw materials or dimensions may
require program adjustments during the cycle.
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1.1.3 Control Systems in Automation

The control system in automation executes the program of instructions to ensure the
manufacturing process operates as intended. There are two main types of control systems:
closed-loop and open-loop.
A) Closed-Loop Control System (Feedback Control System)
In a closed-loop system, the output is constantly monitored and compared to the desired input
value (set point). As shown in Fig 1.3, a closed-loop control system consists of six basic
elements:
(1) Input parameter (2) Process (3) Output variable (4) Feedback sensor (5) Controller (6)
Actuator

Fig 1.3 Feedback control system

Components:
✓ Input Parameter (Set Point): Desired value (e.g., thermostat setting).
✓ Process: Operation being controlled (e.g., temperature).
✓ Sensor: Measures the actual output.
✓ Controller: Compares actual output with desired input and adjusts.
✓ Actuators: Devices like motors or valves that carry out control actions.
Advantages: Accurate and adaptable to changes; handles complex processes.
Applications: Used when precise control is needed, such as in positioning systems or
temperature control.
B) Open-Loop Control System
In an open-loop system, there is no feedback (Fig. 1.4) . The controller sends commands
without measuring the output. the controls operate without measuring the output variable, so
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no comparison is made between the actual value of the output and the desired input parameter.
The controller relies on an accurate model of the effect of its actuator on the process variable.
With an open-loop system, there is always the risk that the actuator will not have the intended
effect on the process, and that is the disadvantage of an open-loop system.

Fig 1.4 An open-loop control system

Components:
✓ Controller: Sends commands based on a predefined model.
✓ Actuators: Perform the tasks without adjusting based on feedback.
Advantages: Simpler and cheaper than closed-loop systems.
Disadvantages: Less reliable since it doesn’t correct errors in real-time.
Applications: Suitable when:
✓ The process is simple.
✓ Actuators are very reliable.
✓ Minimal external forces affect the system.
1.3.1.1 Comparison of Closed-Loop vs. Open-Loop Positioning Systems
Positioning systems are commonly used in manufacturing to position a work part relative to a
tool or work head (Fig 1.5).

Figb1.5 A (one-axis) positioning system consisting of a leadscrew driven by a DC-

servomotor.
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Closed-Loop Positioning System

• A DC servomotor drives a leadscrew, converting rotational motion into linear
movement of the table.
• A controller sends the desired coordinate (e.g., x-value) to the motor.
• A feedback sensor (e.g., optical encoder) continuously measures the actual
position.
• The controller adjusts the motor's action until the actual position matches the
input coordinate.

Advantages: Highly accurate and adaptable to changes.

Applications: Ideal for processes requiring precision, like CNC machines.

Open-Loop Positioning System

• A stepper motor is used instead of a DC servomotor.
• The motor rotates in precise steps for each pulse received from the controller.
• The leadscrew converts these steps into small, fixed linear movements.
• No feedback is involved; the system assumes the correct position is reached
based on the input pulses.
Advantages: Simpler and cheaper than closed-loop systems.
Disadvantages: Less accurate due to lack of feedback.
Applications: Effective when conditions are stable and high precision is not critical.
1.2 Advanced automation functions
Automated systems can perform additional advanced functions beyond executing work cycle
programs. These functions focus on enhancing safety and performance:
1. Safety Monitoring:
✓ The system tracks operating conditions to prevent unsafe situations.
✓ Example: An alarm is triggered when a worker gets too close to automated
equipment.
2. Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics:
✓ The system monitors its components to detect wear and predict when
maintenance is needed.
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✓ It may provide reports on necessary preventive tasks, though the actual

maintenance actions are decided by human operators.
3. Error Detection and Recovery:
✓ The system identifies operational errors and may take corrective actions.
✓ Depending on the setup, it might provide information for manual intervention
or execute automatic corrections.

These functions are enabled by specialized subroutines within the control program. They either
provide data for human decision-making or directly initiate actions using the system’s
actuators.

1.2.1 Safety Monitoring

One of the significant reasons for automating a manufacturing operation is to remove workers
from a hazardous working environment. An automated system is often installed to perform a
potentially dangerous operation that would otherwise be accomplished manually by human
workers. However, even in automated systems, workers are still needed to service the system,
at periodic intervals if not full time. Accordingly, it is important that the automated system be
designed to operate safely when workers are in attendance. In addition, it is essential that the
automated system carry out its process in a way that is not self-destructive. Thus, there are two
reasons for providing an automated system with a safety monitoring capability.

1. Protect Workers: Prevent accidents and injuries when humans are in the vicinity of
automated systems.
2. Protect Equipment: Prevent damage to the machinery and ensure the system operates
safely.

1.2.1.1 Components of Safety Monitoring:

1. Sensors: Detect unsafe conditions or potential hazards. Sensors for safety monitoring
range from very simple devices to highly sophisticated systems. The following list
suggests some of the possible sensors and their applications for safety monitoring:
✓ Limit Switches: Verify correct part positioning before starting the process.
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✓ Photoelectric Sensors: Use light beams to confirm part placement or detect

human presence.
✓ Temperature Sensors: Ensure parts are at the correct temperature for
processing.
✓ Heat/Smoke Detectors: Identify fire hazards.
✓ Pressure-Sensitive Pads: Detect human presence on the floor.
✓ Machine Vision Systems: Monitor the system and its environment.
2. Responses to Hazards: The safety monitoring system is programmed to respond to
unsafe conditions in some appropriate way. Some of them are listed below:
✓ Stop the System: Cease operations to prevent accidents.
✓ Sound an Alarm: Alert personnel to potential dangers.
✓ Reduce Speed: Slow down the process to minimize risk.
✓ Corrective Actions: Automatically address issues to recover from safety
violations.
Limitations:
✓ The effectiveness of safety monitoring depends on the foresight of potential hazards
✓ by the system designer. If a hazard is not anticipated, the system may not be equipped
to detect or respond to it.
1.2.2 Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics
Maintenance and repair diagnostics refer to the capabilities of an automated system to assist in
identifying the source of potential or actual malfunctions and failures of the system. Three
modes of operation are typical of a modern maintenance and repair diagnostics subsystem:
1. Status Monitoring: Monitors and records key system parameters and sensor statuses
during normal operation. It can display current values and provide alerts about potential
failures. This function helps diagnose current issues and predicts future problems by
tracking system performance.
2. Failure Diagnostics: Activated when a malfunction or failure occurs. Analyses current
and historical data to identify the cause of the problem. This mode aids repair crews by
pinpointing the issue and guiding necessary repairs.
3. Recommendation of Repair Procedure: Suggests steps for repair based on expert
systems or AI. Provides recommendations for fixing issues using accumulated expert
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knowledge. This mode helps repair crews follow best practices and efficient repair
methods.
Status monitoring serves two important functions in machine diagnostics:
✓ Providing information for diagnosing a current failure
✓ Providing data to predict a future malfunction or failure

Diagnosing Failures: Helps identify the cause of failures and necessary repairs. Useful for
electronic components where visual inspection might not be sufficient. The system reconstructs
events leading to the failure to assist in making accurate repairs.

Predicting Failures: Detects signs of potential issues before they cause system downtime.
Allows for parts replacement during non-operational periods, minimizing disruptions to
production.

1.2.3 Error Detection and Recovery

Error Detection: Detects and classifies deviations or malfunctions using available sensors.
The system interprets sensor signals to identify errors. Error detection design involves listing
all possible errors, which are specific to the application. Errors are generally categorized into:

1. Random Errors: Result from the stochastic nature of the process. These occur even
when the process is in statistical control. Variations in part dimensions can cause
downstream issues, but can be corrected in subsequent operations.
2. Systematic Errors: Caused by identifiable issues like raw material changes or
equipment drift. These errors lead to products deviating from specifications and quality
standards.
3. Aberrations: Arise from equipment failures or human mistakes. Equipment failures
include mechanical breakages or tool failures, while human mistakes involve
programming errors, incorrect setups, or wrong material use.

Error Detection Design Problems:

1. Anticipating Errors: Requires a thorough evaluation of potential errors under each

category. If an error is not anticipated, the detection system may fail to recognize it.
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2. Selecting Sensors and Software: Involves choosing appropriate sensors and

interpretive software to ensure all anticipated errors are detected and classified
accurately.

Error Recovery: Focuses on applying corrective actions to restore normal system operation
after an error occurs. Strategies are designed based on the error type and severity, and can be
classified as follows:

1. Adjustments at End of Current Work Cycle

✓ Approach: The system completes the current work cycle, then branches to a
corrective action subroutine specific to the detected error before resuming the
work cycle program.
✓ Urgency: Low
✓ Common Use: Applied to random errors.

2. Adjustments During Current Cycle

✓ Approach: Corrective actions are initiated as soon as the error is detected and
are performed while the work cycle is still ongoing. If immediate correction is
not feasible, the process must be stopped.
✓ Urgency: Moderate to High

3. Stop Process for Corrective Action

✓ Approach: The process is halted to perform corrective actions. The system is

designed to automatically recover from the error without human intervention.
Regular work resumes post-correction.
✓ Urgency: High

4. Stop Process and Call for Help

✓ Approach: Automated recovery procedures are insufficient, and human

intervention is required. This occurs when the system cannot resolve the error
or if the error is unclassified.
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✓ Urgency: Critical

Error detection and recovery involve an interrupt system that pauses the current program
execution to address the error. Recovery procedures can be invoked at the end of the current
cycle or immediately, depending on the error severity. After recovery, the program resumes
normal operation.

1.3 Levels of Automation

Automation in factory operations can be implemented at various hierarchical levels. While

automation is often associated with individual production machines, these machines consist of
automated subsystems. For example, a CNC machine tool, which is highly automated, contains
multiple control systems, with each axis of motion functioning as a distinct positioning system.
Additionally, CNC machines can be integrated into larger automated manufacturing systems
involving part handling and centralized control. Five levels of automation can be identified,
and their hierarchy is depicted in Fig. 1.6

Fig.1.6 Five levels of automation and control in manufacturing.

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1. Device Level:

✓ The lowest level in the automation hierarchy.

✓ Includes actuators, sensors, and hardware components used to create control
loops, such as the feedback loop for a CNC machine’s axis or a robot’s joint.

2. Machine Level:

✓ Integrates hardware from the device level into individual machines like CNC
tools, industrial robots, and automated guided vehicles.
✓ Control functions manage the sequence and execution of program steps.

3. Cell or System Level:

✓ Consists of manufacturing cells or systems operating under plant-level

instructions.
✓ Includes groups of machines supported by material handling systems and
computers.
✓ Functions involve dispatching parts, loading machines, and coordinating
processes.

4. Plant Level:

✓ Involves overall factory or production systems.

✓ Translates corporate directives into operational plans, covering areas like order
processing, inventory control, and shop floor management.

5. Enterprise Level:

✓ The highest level, handling corporate management functions.

✓ Includes marketing, sales, design, and enterprise resource planning (ERP).

These levels represent the hierarchy of automation, from device-level components to

enterprise-wide operations, ensuring efficient integration and control across manufacturing
processes.
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1.4 Process industries versus discrete manufacturing industries

1. Process Industries vs. Discrete Manufacturing Industries

✓ Process Industries: Perform operations on continuous amounts of materials like

liquids, gases, or powders.
✓ Discrete Manufacturing Industries: Work on quantities of distinct parts and
products.
✓ The unit operations differ: Process industries involve chemical reactions,
distillation, mixing, etc., while discrete manufacturing focuses on casting, forging,
machining, and similar operations.

2. Levels of Automation in the Two Industries

✓ Device Level: Process industries use sensors and actuators for controlling chemical,
thermal, or similar processes, whereas discrete manufacturing uses devices for
mechanical actions.
✓ Machine Level: Process industries control unit operations, while discrete
manufacturing focuses on machine control.
✓ System Level: Process industries manage interconnected unit operations, and
discrete manufacturing handles interconnected machines.
✓ Plant and Enterprise Levels: Control strategies are similar, focusing on
scheduling, tracking, and management, though the specific processes and products
differ. (Table 1.1)

3. Variables and Parameters in the Two Industries

✓ Process Industries: Tend to involve continuous variables (e.g., force, temperature,
flow rate) which are analogue and can take on a wide range of values.
✓ Discrete Manufacturing: Often involves discrete variables, which can be binary
(ON/OFF) or multi-valued (like piece counts). Pulse data, used for counting or
driving motors, is a common example.
The differences between continuous and discrete variables are shown in the Fig. 1.7, where
continuous variables are smooth over time, while discrete variables jump between fixed values.
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Table 1.1 Levels of Automation in Process Industries Vs. Discrete Manufacturing

Level Process Industries Discrete Industries
5 Enterprise level-management Enterprise level-management
information system, strategic planning, information system, strategic planning,
high-level management of enterprise high-level management of enterprise
4 Plant level-scheduling, tracking Plant or factory level-scheduling,
materials, equipment monitoring tracking work-in-process, routing parts
through machines, machine utilization
3 Supervisory control level-control and Manufacturing cell or system level-
coordination of several interconnected control and coordination of groups of
unit operations that make up the total machines and supporting equipment
process working in coordination, including
material handling equipment
2 Regulatory control level-control of unit Machine level-production machines
operations and workstations for discrete product
manufacture
1 Device level-sensors and actuators Device level-sensors and actuators to
comprising the basic control loops for accomplish control of machine actions
unit operations

Fig. 1.7 Continuous and discrete variables and parameters in manufacturing operations

1.5 Continuous versus discrete control

Industrial control systems are tailored to the needs of their respective industries. In process
industries, the focus is on controlling continuous variables and parameters, such as temperature,
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pressure, and flow rates. These variables typically vary smoothly over time, making continuous
control systems ideal. On the other hand, manufacturing industries often deal with discrete
parts and products, requiring control systems that emphasize discrete variables, which are
primarily binary (ON/OFF).

1.5.1 Types of Control Systems

1. Continuous Control
2. Discrete Control

Table 1.2 Comparison Between Continuous Control and Discrete Control

Comparison Factor Continuous Control in Process Discrete Control in Discrete

Industries Manufacturing Industries
Typical measures of Weight measures, liquid Number of parts, number of
product output volume measures, solid volume products
measures
Typical quality Consistency, concentration of Dimensions, surface finish,
measures solution, absence of contaminants, appear- ance, absence of defects,
conformance to specification product reliability
Typical variables and Temperature, volume flow rate, Position, velocity, acceleration,
parameters pressure force
Typical sensors Flow meters, thermocouples, Limit switches, photoelectric
pressure sensors sensors, strain gages, piezoelectric
sensors
Typical actuators Valves, heaters, pumps Switches, motors, pistons
Typical process time Seconds, minutes, hours Less than a second
constants

1.5.1.1 Mixed Operations in Industry

In reality, both process and manufacturing industries often involve a combination of continuous
and discrete variables. For instance, a chemical plant might require continuous control for
maintaining temperatures but use discrete control for managing batch processes or packaging.

Industrial controllers today are typically designed to handle both continuous and discrete data,
allowing them to manage complex operations that involve mixed variables.
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1.5.1.2 Role of Digital Computers

The use of digital computers in industrial control systems has blurred the distinction between
continuous and discrete control. Continuous signals are often sampled periodically, converting
them into discrete data for processing, while control signals are typically delivered as stepwise
functions. This hybrid approach enhances accuracy and flexibility in modern control systems,
allowing them to be effective in both process and manufacturing environments.

To complicate matters, digital computers began replacing analogue controllers in continuous

process control applications around 1960. As a result, continuous process variables are no
longer measured in a truly continuous manner; instead, they are sampled periodically,
effectively creating a discrete sampled-data system that approximates the actual continuous
system. Similarly, the control signals sent to the process are typically stepwise functions that
approximate the continuous control signals once transmitted by analogue controllers.
Consequently, in digital computer-based process control, even continuous variables and
parameters exhibit characteristics of discrete data. These characteristics must be considered
when designing the computer–process interface and the control algorithms used by the
controller.

1.5.2 Continuous Control Systems

Continuous control systems manage variables that change smoothly over time and are typically
analogue in nature, such as temperature, pressure, or flow rate. These systems aim to maintain
output variables at a desired level continuously, similar to the operation of feedback control
systems. Continuous control is crucial in process industries where smooth and uninterrupted
operation is essential. Unlike discrete systems, continuous control involves variables that can
take any value within a given range, allowing for more refined and gradual adjustments. The
main categories of continuous control include regulatory control, which keeps performance
within specified limits; feedforward control, which anticipates disturbances and adjusts
parameters proactively; steady-state optimization, which uses mathematical techniques to find
optimal setpoints; and adaptive control, which adjusts parameters in real-time to adapt to
changing conditions.
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1.5.2.1 Types of Continuous Control Systems

1. Regulatory Control
✓ Maintains a performance measure at a specified level or within a tolerance
range.
✓ Drawback: Only responds after disturbances affect the system, leading to
delays.

Fig 1.8 Regulatory control

2. Feedforward Control
✓ Anticipates disturbances and adjusts process parameters before they affect the
system.
✓ Often combined with feedback control for better accuracy, especially when the
compensation isn't perfect.

Fig 1.9 Feedforward control with feedback control

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3. Steady-State Optimization
✓ Optimizes a process by adjusting parameters to achieve the best performance
based on a known relationship between variables.
✓ Operates in an open-loop configuration.

Fig 1.10 Steady state (open loop) optimal control

4. Adaptive Control
✓ Adjusts control strategies in real-time to cope with changing environments, such
as variations in material properties or environmental conditions.
✓ Involves continuous identification, decision-making, and modification to
maintain optimal performance.

Fig 1.11 Configuration of an adaptive control system

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5. On-Line Search Strategies

✓ Used in situations where the relationship between inputs and performance is
unclear.
✓ Involves experimentation, where small changes in inputs are tested to find the
optimal settings.
1.5.3 Discrete Control Systems
In discrete control systems, changes in system parameters and variables occur at specific
moments in time, and these changes involve discrete (often binary) variables. The system
operations are typically predefined through a program, such as a work cycle program. Discrete
control can be categorized into two main types based on the triggers for changes:
1. Event-Driven Changes:
• Triggered by specific events that alter the system state. These changes are often
initiated or terminated in response to a detected event, like starting or stopping
a machine. Examples:
✓ A robot loads a workpiece, and a limit switch detects the part, triggering
the start of a machining cycle.
✓ The level of plastic in an injection moulding machine's hopper
decreases, activating a switch that opens a valve to refill the hopper.
✓ Parts on a conveyor trigger an optical sensor as they pass by, counting
the items.
2. Time-Driven Changes:
• Triggered at specific times or after certain time intervals. These changes often
involve starting or stopping operations based on a set schedule. Examples:
✓ Factory shift bells ring at specific times to signal shift changes and
breaks.
✓ Heat treatment processes automatically load parts, maintain them at a
set temperature for a certain duration, and then unload them.
✓ A washing machine runs an agitation cycle for a predetermined time
before switching to the drain cycle.
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1.5.3.1 Types of Discrete Control

1. Logic Control:
✓ Manages event-driven changes by executing operations based on the logical
conditions triggered by events (e.g., a switch being turned ON or OFF).
2. Sequence Control:
✓ Manages time-driven changes by controlling operations according to a
predefined sequence of timed actions.
Applications of Discrete Control
Discrete control is extensively used in both discrete manufacturing and process industries:
• Discrete Manufacturing:
o Used to control systems like conveyors, automated storage systems, standalone
production machines, automated transfer lines, automated assembly systems,
and flexible manufacturing systems. These systems follow defined sequences
of actions, like parts transfers, feed motions, and automated inspections.
• Process Industries:
o Particularly relevant in batch processing, where the system manages sequences
and timing of steps, such as temperature or pressure changes, flow control, and
final packaging operations. Batch processes typically involve both continuous
and discrete control depending on the stage.
Overall, discrete control systems provide a structured approach to handling both event-driven
and time-driven operations, which is essential in diverse industrial applications.

1.5.4 Hybrid Control Systems

Many industrial systems require both continuous and discrete control. For example, a
manufacturing cell might use continuous control for temperature regulation while using
discrete control to manage product flow and machine operations.
These control strategies apply across different levels of the automation hierarchy, especially in
process industries where regulatory and feedforward controls dominate. In contrast, discrete
control is more common in machine automation and manufacturing cells, which are central to
discrete manufacturing industries.
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1.6 Computer process control

The use of digital computers in industrial control began in the late 1950s, with a shift from
analogue controllers and relay systems. Early computers were large, expensive, and not well-
suited for process control. Advances in microprocessor technology have since revolutionized
control systems, making them more efficient and cost-effective.
Computer process control involves the use of digital systems to monitor, manage, and adjust
the performance of industrial processes. This application is crucial in manufacturing, chemical
processing, and other sectors where precision and consistency are vital. The computer’s role
can range from basic data collection to sophisticated real-time control.
1.6.1 Control Requirements
Whether the application involves continuous control, discrete control, or both, there are certain
basic requirements that tend to be common to nearly all process-control applications. By and
large, they are concerned with the need to communicate and interact with the process on a real-
time basis. A real-time controller is a controller that is able to respond to the process within a
short enough time period that process performance is not degraded. Real-time control usually
requires the controller to be capable of multitasking, which means coping with multiple tasks
concurrently without the tasks interfering with one another. There are two basic requirements
that must be managed by the controller to achieve real-time control:
1. Process-initiated interrupts: The controller must be able to respond to incoming signals
from the process. Depending on the relative importance of the signals, the computer may need
to interrupt execution of a current program to service a higher-priority need of the process. A
process-initiated interrupt is often triggered by abnormal operating conditions, indicating that
some corrective action must be taken promptly.
2. Timer-initiated actions: The controller must be capable of executing certain actions at
specified points in time. Timer-initiated actions can be generated at regular time intervals,
ranging from very low values 1e.g.,100ms2 to several minutes, or they can be generated at
distinct points in time. Typical timer-initiated actions in process control include (1) scanning
sensor values from the process at regular sampling intervals, (2) turning on and off switches,
motors, and other binary devices associated with the process at discrete points in time during
the work cycle, (3) displaying performance data on the operator’s console at regular times
during a production run, and (4) recomputing optimal process parameter values at specified
times.
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These two requirements correspond to the two types of changes mentioned previously in the
context of discrete control systems: (1) event-driven changes and (2) time-driven changes. In
addition to these basic requirements, the control computer must also deal with other types of
interruptions and events. These include the following:
3. Computer commands to process: In addition to receiving incoming signals from the
process, the control computer must send control signals to the process to accomplish a
corrective action. These output signals may actuate a certain hardware device or readjust a set
point in a control loop.
4. System- and program-initiated events: These are events related to the computer system
itself. They are similar to the kinds of computer operations associated with business and
engineering applications of computers. A system-initiated event involves communications
among computers and peripheral devices linked together in a network. In these multiple
computer networks, feedback signals, control commands, and other data must be transferred
back and forth among the computers in the overall control of the process. A program-initiated
event occurs when the program calls for some non-process-related action, such as the printing
or display of reports on a printer or monitor. In process control, system- and program-initiated
events generally occupy a low level of priority compared with process interrupts, commands
to the process, and timer-initiated events.
5. Operator-initiated events.: Finally, the control computer must be able to accept input from
operating personnel. Operator-initiated events include (1) entering new programs; (2) editing
existing programs; (3) entering customer data, order number, or start-up instructions for the
next production run; (4) requesting process data; and (5) calling for emergency stops.
1.6.2 Capabilities of Computer Control
Computer control systems possess specific technical capabilities that are crucial for
maintaining effective process control. These capabilities ensure that the control system not only
operates efficiently but also adapts to varying conditions and unexpected events within the
process environment. The above requirements can be satisfied by providing the controller with
certain capabilities that allow it to interact on a real-time basis with the process and the
operator. These capabilities are (1) polling, (2) interlocks, (3) interrupt system, and (4)
exception handling.
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1. Polling: Polling involves the periodic sampling of process data to assess the current state of
the system. This function is essential for converting continuous signals into discrete data,
enabling the computer to monitor and control the process effectively. This process involves
converting continuous signals into discrete data and includes:
✓ Polling Frequency: The rate at which the data is sampled, crucial for real-time process
monitoring.
✓ Polling Order: The sequence in which different data points are sampled, ensuring that
critical parameters are prioritized.
✓ Polling Format: The method used for data collection, which may involve capturing all
new data, only data that has changed, or using a tiered scanning approach for efficiency.
2. Interlocks: Interlocks are safety mechanisms that coordinate the actions of multiple devices
to prevent operational conflicts and ensure proper sequencing. They are essential for
maintaining the integrity of the process. They include:
✓ Input Interlocks: These signals from external devices determine whether the work
cycle should proceed or halt, based on the status of the process. Input interlocks are
used for either of the following functions:
i. To proceed with the execution of the work cycle program. For example, the
production machine communicates a signal to the controller that it has
completed its processing of the part. This signal constitutes an input interlock
indicating that the controller can now proceed to the next step in the work cycle,
which is to unload the part.
ii. To interrupt the execution of the work cycle program. For example, while
unloading the part from the machine, the robot accidentally drops the part. The
sensor in its gripper transmits an interlock signal to the controller indicating that
the regular work cycle sequence should be interrupted until corrective action is
taken.
✓ Output Interlocks: An output interlock is a signal sent from the controller to some
external device. It is used to control the activities of each external device and to
coordinate their operation with that of the other equipment in the cell. For example, an
output interlock can be used to send a control signal to a production machine to begin
its automatic cycle after the work part has been loaded into it.
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3. Interrupt System: The interrupt system allows a computer to temporarily halt its current
tasks to address more urgent issues that arise during a process. This capability is crucial for
ensuring that critical events are handled immediately, preventing delays that could lead to
inefficiencies or hazards. The interrupt system includes:
✓ Internal Interrupts: These are generated by the computer itself to manage routine
operations like polling sensors or executing system commands. These interrupts ensure
that regular tasks, such as data collection and updates, are handled on schedule.
✓ External Interrupts: These originate from the process environment or operator inputs.
Examples include signals from sensors indicating an abnormal condition, or emergency
stops initiated by an operator. External interrupts typically have higher priority as they
directly impact the safety and stability of the process.
Single-Level vs. Multi-Level Interrupts
i. Single-Level Interrupt System:
In this system, there are only two modes of operation: normal mode and interrupt mode.
The normal mode can be interrupted, but once in interrupt mode, further interrupts are
queued until the current one is resolved. While this is simple to implement, it can be
inefficient or even hazardous if high-priority events are delayed because a lower-
priority interrupt is being processed.
ii. Multi-Level Interrupt System:
A more advanced approach involves multiple interrupt levels, each with a defined
priority. In this system:
✓ The normal mode can be interrupted by any level of interrupt.
✓ Higher-priority interrupts can pre-empt lower-priority ones, ensuring that
critical events are addressed immediately.
✓ This system allows for more flexible and efficient handling of tasks, especially
in complex processes where certain actions require immediate response (e.g.,
safety-critical operations) while others can wait.
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4. Exception Handling: Exception handling is a critical function that manages abnormal

events or deviations from normal operations. It ensures that the control system can detect
and respond to issues such as equipment failures or process deviations. They include:
• Error Detection: The system must identify when a process is not functioning as
expected.
• Recovery: Once an error is detected, the system initiates procedures to correct the issue
and restore normal operation.
1.6.3 Forms of Computer Process Control
There are various ways in which computers can be used to control a process. First, the
distinction between process monitoring and process control is illustrated in Figure 1.12. In
process monitoring, the computer is used to simply collect data from the process, while in
process control, the computer regulates the process. In some process-control implementations,
the computer executes certain actions that do not require feedback data to be collected from the
process. This is open-loop control. However, in most cases, some form of feedback or
interlocking is required to ensure that the control instructions have been properly carried out.
This more common situation is closed-loop control.

Fig. 1.12 Forms of Computer Process Control: (a) process monitoring, (b) open-loop
process control, and (c) closed-loop process control.
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Computer Process Monitoring. Computer process monitoring is one of the ways in which the
computer can be interfaced with a process. It involves the use of the computer to observe the
process and associated equipment and to collect and record data from the operation. The
computer is not used to directly control the process. Control remains in the hands of humans
who use the data to guide them in managing and operating the process.
The data collected by the computer in computer process monitoring can generally be classified
into three categories:
1. Process data. These are measured values of input parameters and output variables that
indicate process performance. When the values are found to indicate a problem, the
human operator takes corrective action.
2. Equipment data. These data indicate the status of the equipment in the process. The data
are used to monitor machine utilization, schedule tool changes, avoid machine
breakdowns, diagnose equipment malfunctions, and plan preventive maintenance.
3. Product data. Government regulations require certain manufacturing industries to
collect and preserve production data on their products. The pharmaceutical and medical
supply industries is prime examples. Computer monitoring is the most convenient
means of satisfying these regulations. A firm may also want to collect product data for
its own use.
Collecting data from factory operations can be accomplished by any of several means. Shop
data can be entered by workers through manual terminals located throughout the plant or can
be collected automatically by means of limit switches, sensor systems, bar code readers, or
other devices.
Direct Digital Control. DDC was certainly one of the important steps in the development of
computer process control. This computer-control mode had its limitations, which motivated
improvements leading to modern computer-control technology. DDC is a computer process-
control system in which certain components in a conventional analogue control system are
replaced by the digital computer. The regulation of the process is accomplished by the digital
computer on a time-shared, sampled-data basis rather than by the many individual analogue
components working in a dedicated continuous manner. With DDC, the computer calculates
the desired values of the input parameters and set points, and these values are applied through
a direct link to the process, hence the name “direct digital” control.
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The difference between direct digital control and analogue control can be seen by comparing
Fig 1.13 and 1.14 . Fig 1.13 shows the instrumentation for a typical analogue control loop. The
entire process would have many individual control loops, but only one is shown here. Typical
hardware components of the analogue control loop include the sensor and transducer, an
instrument for displaying the output variable, some means for establishing the set point of the
loop (shown as a dial in the figure, suggesting that the setting is determined by a human
operator), a comparator (to compare set point with measured output variable), the analogue
controller, an amplifier, and the actuator that determines the input parameter to the process.

Fig.1.13 A Typical analogue control loop

Fig.1.14 Components of a DDC system

In the DDC system (Figure 1.14), some of the control loop components remain unchanged,
including (probably) the sensor and transducer as well as the amplifier and actuator.
Components likely to be replaced in DDC include the analogue controller, recording and
display instruments, set-point dials, and comparator. New components in the loop include the
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digital computer, analogue-to-digital and digital-to-analogue converters (ADCs and DACs),

and multiplexers to share data from different control loops with the same computer. DDC was
originally conceived as a more efficient means of performing the same kinds of control actions
as the analogue components it replaced. However, the practice of simply using the digital
computer to imitate the operation of analogue controllers was a transitional phase in computer
process control.
Additional opportunities for the control computer were soon recognized, including:

• More control options than traditional analogue. With digital computer control, more
complex control algorithms can be performed than with the conventional control modes
used by analogue controllers; for example, on/off control or nonlinearities in the control
functions can be implemented.
• Integration and optimization of multiple loops. This is the ability to integrate feedback
measurements from multiple loops and to implement optimizing strategies to improve
overall process performance.
• Ability to edit the control programs. Using a digital computer makes it relatively easy
to change the control algorithm when necessary by simply reprogramming the
computer. Reprogramming an analogue control loop is likely to require hardware
changes that are costlier and less convenient.

Computer Numerical Control and Robotics.

Computer numerical control (CNC) is another form of industrial computer control. It involves
the use of the computer (again, a microcomputer) to direct a machine tool through a sequence
of processing steps defined by a program of instructions specifying the details of each step and
their sequence. The distinctive feature of CNC is control of the relative position of a tool with
respect to the object (work part) being processed. Computations must be made to determine
the trajectory that will be followed by the cutting tool to shape the part geometry. Hence, CNC
requires the controller to execute not only sequence control but geometric calculations as well.

Closely related to CNC is industrial robotics, in which the joints of a manipulator (robot arm)
are controlled to move the end of the arm through a sequence of positions during the work
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cycle. As in CNC, the controller must perform calculations during the work cycle to implement
motion interpolation, feedback control, and other functions. In addition, a robotic work cell
usually includes other equipment besides the robot, and the activities of the other equipment in
the work cell must be coordinated with those of the robot. This coordination is achieved using
interlocks.
1.7 Hardware components for automation and process control
To successfully implement automation and process control, it is essential for the control
computer to interface with the physical process. This interface involves collecting data from
the process and transmitting control signals back. The main challenge arises because computers
handle digital (binary) data, while processes often involve continuous analogue signals. To
bridge this gap, specific hardware components are used to facilitate data exchange and control:
1. Sensors:
Sensors are critical for measuring process variables, which can be either continuous
(e.g., temperature, pressure) or discrete (e.g., the state of a valve).
✓ Continuous Sensors: Measure variables like temperature, pressure, and flow
rate, providing analog signals that need to be converted to digital format for the
computer to process.
✓ Discrete Sensors: Detect binary states (e.g., ON/OFF, open/closed), producing
digital signals directly usable by the control computer.
2. Actuators:
Actuators are responsible for adjusting process parameters based on control signals
from the computer. Like sensors, they can be categorized as continuous or discrete:
✓ Continuous Actuators: Include devices like variable-speed drives and control
valves that adjust smoothly over a range.
✓ Discrete Actuators: Include devices like relays, solenoids, and switches that
operate in distinct states (e.g., ON/OFF).
3. Signal Converters:
Since computers handle digital data and many process variables are analog, signal
converters play a crucial role:
✓ Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): Convert continuous analog signals
from sensors into digital data for the computer.
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✓ Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC): Convert digital output signals from the

computer into analog signals needed by continuous actuators.
4. Input/Output (I/O) Devices for Discrete Data:
Discrete I/O devices handle binary signals, enabling communication between the
computer and discrete sensors and actuators. These devices include digital input
modules (e.g., for reading switch states) and digital output modules (e.g., for controlling
relays).
These hardware components form the backbone of process control and automation systems,
ensuring accurate data collection, signal conversion, and control actions necessary for effective
management and automation of industrial processes.

Fig.1.15 The computer process control system, showing the various types of components
required to interface the process with the computer.

Fig.1.15 illustrates the overall configuration of a typical process control system, highlighting
the interaction between the control computer and the process via four key hardware
components: sensors, actuators, signal converters, and I/O devices. This general model applies
to various automation systems, including CNC machines, industrial robots, PLC systems, and
many manufacturing systems.

1.7.1. Sensors
Sensors are fundamental components in industrial automation and process control systems.
They provide the necessary feedback to maintain control over various process variables. A
sensor is a type of transducer that converts a physical variable (like temperature, force, or
pressure) into a more useful form (typically an electrical signal) that can be easily interpreted
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and processed by a control system. A significant trend in sensor technology has been the
development of very small sensors. The term microsensor refers to measuring devices whose
physical features have dimensions in the micron range (10-6 m). Microsensors are usually
fabricated out of silicon using processing techniques associated with integrated circuit
manufacture.
1.7.1.1 Classification of Sensors
Sensors can be categorized based on the type of physical stimulus they measure or based on
their signal output—analogue or discrete.
1. By Stimulus or Variable Measured: Sensors are classified by the type of physical
stimulus they are designed to detect, such as temperature, pressure, displacement, or
flow. These variables are typical in industrial processes.
2. Analog vs. Discrete Sensors:
• Analog Sensors: Produce a continuous signal, such as voltage, that varies
smoothly with the stimulus. Examples include thermocouples, strain
gauges, and potentiometers. Analog signals usually require conversion to
digital form using an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) for processing by
digital control systems.
• Discrete Sensors: Output only specific values, often in binary form
(on/off). They are divided into:
✓ Binary Sensors: These generate simple on/off signals, like limit
switches or proximity sensors.
✓ Digital Sensors: These produce signals in digital format, either
as parallel status bits or pulse series (e.g., optical encoders).
Digital sensors are increasingly common because they integrate
well with modern digital control systems.
1.7.1.2 Types of Sensors
Some of the common sensors used in industrial control include:
• Temperature Sensors: Thermocouples, RTDs, and thermistors.
• Position and Displacement Sensors: Potentiometers, linear variable differential
transformers (LVDTs), and encoders.
• Pressure Sensors: Strain gauges, piezoelectric sensors.
• Flow Sensors: Orifice meters, turbine meters.
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Active vs. Passive Sensors

• Active Sensors: Generate output signals without needing an external power source. For
instance, thermocouples generate a small voltage in response to temperature changes.
• Passive Sensors: Require external power to operate. Thermistors, for example, change
their electrical resistance in response to temperature but need a current for
measurement.
Sensor Transfer Function
The transfer function describes the relationship between the input stimulus (s) and the output
signal (S) of the sensor:
S=f(s)
For binary sensors, the transfer function is usually expressed as:
S=1 if s>0 and S=0 if s≤0
For analog sensors, the transfer function often takes the form:
S=C+ms
Where:
• C is the sensor’s output when the stimulus is zero.
• m represents the sensor’s sensitivity, defining how much the output changes per unit
change in the stimulus.
In more complex cases, the transfer function may involve time delays or differential equations,
representing dynamic sensor responses.
Calibration of Sensors
Calibration involves determining the transfer function or its inverse, allowing the sensor's
output to be converted accurately into the measured variable's value. Calibration is crucial for
ensuring reliable and precise measurements in control applications.
Desirable Sensor Features
Some key desirable features when selecting sensors for process control include:
• Accuracy
• Repeatability
• Sensitivity
• Stability
• Response time
• Ease of calibration
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• Compatibility with the control system

Selecting the appropriate sensor requires balancing these features based on the specific
requirements of the application.
1.7.2 Actuators
Actuators are critical components in automation systems, responsible for converting control
signals into physical changes, such as adjusting position, speed, or force. These devices
translate electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic inputs into mechanical motion, enabling precise
execution of automated tasks.
1.7.2.1 Electric motors
Electric motors are the most commonly used actuators in automation systems, converting
electrical power into mechanical motion. Here's a closer look at different types of electric
motors:
1. DC Motors:
o Powered by Direct Current (DC): These motors convert DC power into
rotational movement.
o Traditional Design: They typically use a commutator and brushes to switch
magnetic fields and create torque. This design, while effective, can lead to
maintenance issues due to wear on the brushes and commutator.
o Common Applications: DC motors are widely used in systems like automotive
applications where DC power (e.g., from batteries) is readily available.
o DC Servomotors: These are a specialized type of DC motor that includes a
feedback loop for precise control of speed and position. They usually feature
permanent magnets in the stator and a wound armature in the rotor, providing
high torque and precise control, making them ideal for automation tasks
requiring frequent starts, stops, and directional changes.
2. AC Motors:
o Powered by Alternating Current (AC): These motors are more commonly
used in industrial applications where AC power is the standard.
o No Brushes: AC motors operate without the need for brushes, reducing
maintenance and enhancing durability.
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o Types:
▪ Synchronous Motors: These maintain a rotor speed synchronized with
the AC frequency. They are ideal for applications requiring constant
speed.
▪ Induction Motors: The most widely used motors globally, induction
motors are simple in construction and cost-effective. They operate at
speeds slightly lower than the synchronous speed and are suitable for
constant-speed applications. Adjustable-frequency drives (inverters)
can control their speed.
3. Stepper Motors:
o Precise Incremental Rotation: Stepper motors rotate in small, precise
increments, making them ideal for applications requiring accurate positioning.
o Common Applications: These motors are often used in CNC machines,
robotics, and other systems where precise control of position is crucial.
4. Linear Motors:
o Direct Linear Motion: Unlike traditional rotary motors, linear motors generate
motion in a straight line, eliminating the need to convert rotary motion into
linear motion.
o Ideal Applications: Linear motors are perfect for tasks that require direct linear
movement, such as in conveyor systems or linear actuators in industrial
machinery.
1.7.2.2 Rotary-to-Linear Motion Conversion
In many industrial applications, although electric motors primarily produce rotary motion and
torque, the required output may be linear motion and force. Several mechanisms are commonly
used to convert rotary motion into linear motion:
1. Leadscrews and Ball Screws:
✓ The motor shaft is connected to a screw with helical threads.
✓ A lead nut or ball nut is threaded onto the screw and prevented from rotating,
resulting in linear motion along the screw when it rotates.
✓ The direction of linear motion is determined by the rotation direction of the
screw.
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✓ Commonly used in machine tools, industrial robots, and precision

automation systems.
2. Pulley Systems:
✓ The motor shaft drives a pulley system with a belt, chain, or other flexible
material looped around two wheels.
✓ As the motor rotates, the flexible material moves linearly between the wheels.
✓ Pulley systems are frequently employed in material transport systems like
conveyors and hoists.
3. Rack and Pinion:
✓ The motor shaft is connected to a pinion gear that engages with a linear rack (a
straight gear).
✓ As the pinion gear rotates, the rack moves linearly.
✓ Rack and pinion systems are commonly used in steering mechanisms and
automated positioning systems.
Applications and Advantages:
• Among these conversion mechanisms, leadscrews and ball screws are the most
commonly used in precision applications like CNC machines and robotics.
• Gear reduction boxes are often used between the motor and screw to enhance torque,
precision, and control by reducing speed.
• Ball screws, which reduce friction using ball bearings, offer smoother motion and
higher efficiency compared to conventional leadscrews.
• Pulley systems are ideal for material transport applications, providing smooth linear
motion in belt conveyors and similar setups.
• Belt-driven pulley systems can also be used for positioning. Rack-and-pinion
mechanisms are found in gear systems, for example, rack-and-pinion steering in
automobiles.
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Fig. 1.16 Mechanisms to convert rotary motion into linear motion: (a) leadscrew or ball screw,
(b) pulley system, and (c) rack and pinion.

1.7.2.3 Other Types of Actuators

In addition to motors, various other actuators are essential in automation systems, including
solenoids, relays, hydraulic, and pneumatic devices.
1. Electrical Actuators Other Than Motors
• Solenoids:
✓ Consist of a movable plunger inside a stationary coil.
✓ When current passes through the coil, it acts as a magnet, drawing the plunger
into the coil.
✓ When the current stops, a spring returns the plunger to its original position.
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✓ Linear solenoids are used to open and close valves in fluid systems, providing
linear push or pull actions.
✓ Rotary solenoids offer limited angular motion (e.g., 25° to 90°) and are used in
specific applications.
• Relays:
✓ Electromechanical switches with a stationary coil and a movable arm that opens
or closes electrical contacts using magnetic fields.
✓ Operate with low current levels to control high-power circuits, making them
useful for remotely switching on/off high-power equipment safely.
2. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators
• Hydraulic Actuators:
✓ Powered by pressurized oil.
✓ Provide high force and smooth motion due to the incompressibility of the fluid.
✓ Commonly used in applications requiring substantial force, such as heavy
machinery.
• Pneumatic Actuators:
✓ Powered by compressed air.
✓ Provide quick and lightweight operation but are less precise than hydraulic
actuators due to air compressibility.
✓ Often used in applications where speed is prioritized over force, such as in light
automation.
• Linear Motion Devices (Cylinders):
✓ Single-Acting Cylinder: Fluid pressure moves the piston in one direction,
while a spring returns it.
✓ Double-Acting Cylinder: Fluid pressure moves the piston in both directions,
offering more versatile control.
• Rotary Motion Devices (Motors):
✓ Hydraulic motors deliver high torque, ideal for heavy-duty applications.
✓ Pneumatic motors provide high-speed rotation, suitable for lightweight and fast-
moving tasks.
✓ Different mechanisms (pistons, vanes, turbine blades) drive these motors
depending on the application requirements.
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Fig. 1.17 Cylinder and piston: (a) single acting with spring return and (b) double acting.

Key Differences
• Hydraulic systems provide precise and powerful control but are slower.
• Pneumatic systems offer faster action but are less predictable and have lower force
output.

1.7.3 Analogue to digital converters

In automation systems, continuous analogue signals from sensors must be converted into digital
signals for computer processing. The conversion process typically involves several key steps
and devices:
1. Sensor and Transducer:
o The measuring device generates the analogue signal, such as a voltage or
current.
2. Signal Conditioning:
o The raw analogue signal may need conditioning before further processing.
o Common techniques include:
▪ Filtering to remove noise.
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▪ Signal Conversion from one form to another, e.g., converting a current

signal into a voltage.
3. Multiplexer:
o A switching device that allows multiple input channels to share a single ADC.
o It selects one input channel at a time, making the process cost-effective for
applications with many inputs.
4. Amplifier:
o Used to adjust the signal's amplitude, making it compatible with the ADC's
input range.
5. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC):
o Converts the conditioned analogue signal into a digital form.

Key Concepts in Analog-to-Digital Conversion

• Sampling:
o The process of capturing the continuous analogue signal at discrete time
intervals.
o A higher sampling rate allows for a more accurate representation of the
analogue signal.
• Quantization:
o Each sampled analogue value is assigned to a predefined amplitude level, which
is a discrete value.
• Encoding:
o Converts the quantized amplitude level into a binary digital code.

Factors in Selecting an ADC

1. Sampling Rate:
o The speed at which the ADC samples the analogue signal.
o Higher sampling rates yield more accurate digital representations.
2. Conversion Time:
o The time needed to convert an analogue signal to its digital form.
o Depends on the conversion method and the number of bits (n) used. Higher bit
counts improve resolution but increase conversion time.
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3. Resolution:
o The precision with which the analogue signal is digitized, determined by the
number of quantization levels.
o The resolution improves with more bits but increases complexity.
4. Quantization Error:
o An inherent error introduced during the quantization step.
o The error is half of the quantization level spacing and results from the rounding
of signal values to the nearest predefined level.
Conversion Method: Successive Approximation
• The Successive Approximation Method is widely used in ADCs.
• It involves comparing the input signal with a series of known trial voltages.
• The comparison starts with half the full-scale range, and each subsequent voltage is half
the previous one.
• The results of these comparisons generate a series of binary digits, building the digital
equivalent of the input signal.

1.7.4 Digital to analogue converter

Digital-to-analogue converters (DAC) are devices that convert digital signals from a computer
into continuous analogue signals that can be used to drive analogue devices like actuators. The
conversion process involves two main steps:
1. Decoding:
o In this step, the digital output from the computer is converted into a series of
discrete analogue values.
o The conversion works by transferring the digital value into a binary register that
controls a reference voltage. The register assigns each bit a fraction of the total
reference voltage, determining the final output voltage.
o The output voltage depends on the status (on or off) of each bit, with each
successive bit representing half the voltage of the previous one.
2. Data Holding:
o After decoding, the next step is to create a continuous analogue signal from the
discrete data.
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o The most common approach is a zero-order hold, where the output remains
constant for the entire sampling period, producing a stepped output signal.
o Another approach is a first-order hold, where the output changes gradually
over time, resulting in a smoother signal. The rate of change is determined by
comparing the current and previous output values.
The choice between these methods depends on how closely the output signal needs to match
the original data and the application’s requirements. The zero-order hold is simpler and widely
used, while the first-order hold offers better accuracy in applications needing smoother
transitions.

1.7.5 Input/output devices for discrete data

Discrete data, unlike continuous analogue signals, can be directly processed by a digital
computer. Discrete data generally falls into three categories: (a) binary data, (b) non-binary
discrete data, and (c) pulse data. The devices that handle these types of data include contact
input/output interfaces and pulse counters/generators.
1. Contact Input/output Interfaces
Contact interfaces are used for reading and sending binary signals between the computer and
the process. These interfaces come in two forms: contact input and contact output.
• Contact Input Interface:
✓ Reads binary data from external devices and sends it to the computer. Examples
of binary data sources include limit switches (contact or no contact), valves
(open or closed), and motor pushbuttons (on or off).
✓ The computer periodically scans the status of these contacts to update its stored
values.
✓ This interface can also handle discrete data beyond binary by using a set of
contacts corresponding to a binary register. The collected binary data can be
processed into a conventional numerical format.
• Contact Output Interface:
✓ Sends on/off commands from the computer to control devices such as alarms,
indicator lights, solenoids, and constant-speed motors.
✓ The interface maintains the set positions (on or off) until a change is made by
the computer based on the process’s requirements.
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✓ Similar to the input interface, the output interface can transmit non-binary
discrete data by setting an array of contacts that represent a specific discrete
value.
2. Pulse Counters and Generators
Pulse data involves a series of electrical pulses generated or processed by devices such as
digital transducers or used for control tasks like operating stepper motors.
• Pulse Counters
✓ Convert a series of incoming pulses into a digital value that can be used by the
computer.
✓ These devices typically use sequential logic gates, such as flip-flops, which
store the counted values.
✓ Applications include counting objects on a conveyor belt or measuring the
rotational speed of a shaft using rotary encoders.
✓ In a speed measurement example, the counter records the number of pulses
during a set time and divides it by the duration and pulse count per rotation to
determine the rotational speed.
• Pulse Generators
✓ Produce a series of electrical pulses whose number and frequency are controlled
by the computer.
✓ These pulses can be used for driving devices like stepper motors, where the
pulse count determines position and the pulse frequency controls speed.
✓ The generator operates by rapidly opening and closing electrical contacts to
create the desired pulse sequence, ensuring compatibility with the controlled
device's voltage and frequency requirements.