Biology 14/09/2024

Topics
Animal and plant cells

Animal and plant cells are fundamental units of life, each with unique structures and functions.
Animal cells lack a cell wall and chloroplasts, while plant cells have both.

Animal cells contain centrioles which are absent in plant cells.

Plant cells have a large central vacuole that helps maintain turgor pressure.
Both cell types have a nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.
Cell membranes are present in both types but are structurally slightly different, with plant cell
membranes containing additional components like plasmodesmata.

bacterial cells

Bacterial cells are prokaryotic single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.

Bacterial cells have a cell wall for structural support and protection.
They come in various shapes, including cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilla
(spiral-shaped).
Some bacteria have flagella for movement, while others attach to surfaces using pili or
fimbriae.
Bacterial cells reproduce asexually through binary fission, resulting in identical daughter cells.

Bacterial cell structure

Bacterial cells are prokaryotic, single-celled organisms with a cell wall, plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, ribosomes, and genetic material in the form of a circular chromosome.

Cell wall helps maintain cell shape and provides protection.

Plasma membrane regulates what enters and exits the cell.
Cytoplasm contains enzymes necessary for cellular processes.
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.

Cell membrane

The cell membrane is a semi-permeable barrier encircling cells, regulating molecular traffic to
maintain a stable internal environment and supporting cellular structure.
 It's composed of a lipid bilayer interspersed with proteins.
It's involved in processes like endocytosis, exocytosis, and signal transduction.
Proteins embedded in the membrane fulfill functions like transport and receptor signaling.
Membrane fluidity is influenced by lipid composition and temperature.

Cells

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms, responsible for
processes such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction.

Cells are enclosed by a cell membrane that regulates the movement of substances in and out
of the cell.
Cells can be classified as prokaryotic (without a nucleus) or eukaryotic (with a nucleus).
Examples of eukaryotic cells include animal and plant cells, while bacteria are examples of
prokaryotic cells.
The organelles within cells, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, play important roles in
energy production and specialized functions.

Cell wall

The cell wall is a rigid outer layer found in plants, fungi, and some prokaryotes, providing support
and protection for the cell.

The cell wall is made up of cellulose in plants, chitin in fungi, and peptidoglycan in
prokaryotes.
It is not present in animal cells.
Cell walls allow plants to stand upright and resist mechanical stress.
The cell wall also helps in preventing the entry of pathogens and provides shape to the cell.

Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in plant cells that contain chlorophyll, allowing
them to photosynthesize and convert solar energy into chemical energy.

They have a double membrane to protect the contents inside.

Chloroplasts contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
They are responsible for the green color in plants.
Chloroplasts are abundant in leaf cells, where photosynthesis takes place.

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is the jelly-like fluid that fills the cell, excluding the nucleus. It contains various
organelles and is responsible for supporting cell structure and housing cellular processes.
 Cytoplasm is composed of water, salts, proteins, and other molecules.
It allows for the movement of organelles within the cell.
Many cellular reactions, including protein synthesis, occur in the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm helps maintain cellular shape and acts as a cushion to protect the organelles.

Microscopes

Microscopes are scientific instruments used to magnify small objects, allowing for detailed
observation of their structures and functions.

There are different types of microscopes such as compound microscopes, stereo

microscopes, and electron microscopes.
Magnification power varies among microscopes, with some capable of magnifying up to
1000x or more.
Microscopes require proper handling and care to maintain optimal performance and prevent
damage to the lenses and components.
When using a microscope, it is important to adjust the focus carefully to obtain a clear and
sharp image of the specimen.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are organelles found within eukaryotic cells that function as the cell's power
producers, generating most of the ATP energy cells require.

The number of mitochondria within a cell varies depending on the cell's energy needs.
Mitochondria have their own DNA, separate from the cell's nuclear DNA.
Through a process called cellular respiration, mitochondria convert nutrients into energy.
Disorders in mitochondria can lead to various diseases, like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Nucleus

The nucleus is the central organelle in a eukaryotic cell, responsible for storing genetic material
and controlling cellular activities.

The nucleus contains chromosomes comprised from DNA and proteins.

The nucleolus inside the nucleus synthesizes ribosomal RNA.
Surrounded by a two-layered nuclear envelope which has pores for substance transportation.
Nuclear activities are crucial for cell replication, growth, and metabolism.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are minute particles consisting of RNA and associated proteins that function as the
site of protein synthesis in living cells.
 They are found in both prokaryotic (bacteria, archaea) and eukaryotic (plant, animal) cells.
In eukaryotic cells, they are located in the cytoplasm and on the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes are composed of two subunits: one large and one small.
The process of protein synthesis they carry out is called translation.

Specialised cells

Specialised cells are cells that have unique structures and functions to perform specific roles
within multicellular organisms.

Specialised cells include red blood cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, and sperm cells.
These cells are adapted to carry out specific tasks efficiently.
Differences in specialised cells are due to variations in gene expression and protein
production.
Specialised cells work together in tissues and organs to support the overall functioning of the
organism.

Tissues and Organs

Tissues are groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function, while organs are
groups of tissues that work together to carry out complex functions.

Tissues can be categorized into four main types: epithelial, connective, muscular, and
nervous.
Organs consist of two or more types of tissues working in unison.
Tissues are made up of cells that have similar structures and functions.
Organs have specific shapes and sizes to perform their specialized functions effectively.

Vacuole

A vacuole is a cell organelle in both plant and animal cells that stores nutrients, waste products,
and water, aiding in cellular regulation and growth.

In plant cells, vacuoles are larger, maintaining turgor pressure.

Animal cells contain multiple, smaller vacuoles.
Vacuoles can also store defensive substances against herbivores.
Vacuoles participate in processes like endocytosis and exocytosis.

Key Terms
Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into energy in the presence of
oxygen, yielding carbon dioxide and water as byproducts.

It occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.

It is the most efficient way of producing ATP.
The overall reaction of aerobic respiration is C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP.
Aerobic respiration releases a large amount of energy (approximately 36-38 ATP molecules
per glucose molecule).

cell sap

Cell sap refers to the fluid found inside plant cells that contains various nutrients, ions, sugars,
and water.

Cell sap helps maintain turgidity, which is crucial for plant support and growth.
It plays a role in transferring nutrients and storing reserves within the plant cell.
Cell sap may contain pigments responsible for the coloration of plant petals or fruits.
Changes in cell sap composition can affect plant health and response to environmental
conditions.

Chromosome

A chromosome is a thread-like structure made up of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus of a
cell, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

A human cell typically contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes.

In prokaryotes, such as bacteria, the chromosome is a circular DNA molecule.
Chromosomes are visible under a microscope during cell division when they condense and
become tightly coiled.
Abnormalities in chromosome structure or number can lead to genetic disorders, such as
Down syndrome.

DNA

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains the genetic instructions for the
development and functioning of all living organisms.

DNA is often referred to as the 'blueprint' of life.

It is a double-stranded structure made up of nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar,
phosphate, and nitrogenous base.
DNA is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and can also be found in some organelles,
such as mitochondria.
Through the process of replication, DNA can create copies of itself, which is crucial for cell
division and growth.

Electron micrograph
An electron micrograph is a detailed image captured using an electron microscope, allowing for
high-resolution visualization of small structures such as cells, viruses, and molecules.

The electron microscope uses electrons instead of light to create magnified images.
It has a higher magnification and resolution compared to a light microscope.
Electron micrographs are used in research to study the ultrastructure of biological
specimens.
They provide a closer look at organelles, tissues, and pathogens at a nanometer scale.

Fully Permeable

Fully Permeable refers to a membrane that allows all substances, including large molecules and
ions, to pass through freely.

Fully permeable membranes do not restrict the movement of any substance across them.
This property is essential for enabling efficient transport of nutrients and waste products in
living organisms.
In contrast to semi-permeable membranes, fully permeable membranes have unrestricted
permeability.
Fully permeable membranes play a crucial role in various biological processes, such as
diffusion and osmosis.

magnification

Magnification is a process that increases the size of an object, allowing scientists to observe fine
details that may not be visible to the naked eye.

Magnification is measured using a microscope and can be calculated by dividing the image
size by the actual size of the object.
The magnification power of a microscope depends on the lenses used - the ocular and
objective lenses.
A higher magnification allows for a closer examination of small structures and cells in
organisms.
Magnification helps scientists study the internal structures of organisms, aiding in research
and understanding of biological processes.

Metabolic reactions

Metabolic reactions refer to the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to
convert nutrients into energy and molecules needed for growth, repair, and maintenance.

Metabolic reactions are categorized into two types: catabolic reactions that break down
molecules to release energy, and anabolic reactions that build up molecules requiring energy.
Enzymes play a crucial role in metabolic reactions by speeding up chemical reactions and
 ensuring they occur at a suitable pace.
The main energy currency used in metabolic reactions is adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
which is produced during cellular respiration.
Metabolic reactions are tightly regulated to maintain homeostasis and ensure proper
functioning of cells and overall organism.

Organ

An organ is a specialized structure composed of different tissues that work together to perform
a specific function in an organism.

Organs are made up of different types of tissues, such as muscle, nerve, and connective
tissue.
Examples of organs include the heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys.
The function of an organ is dependent on the specific arrangement and organization of its
tissues.
Organs are part of an organ system, which is a group of organs that work together to perform
a larger function.

organ system

An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform a specific function in a living
organism.

The human body consists of several organ systems, including the circulatory system,
respiratory system, and digestive system.
Each organ system is composed of organs that have specialized functions.
Organ systems are essential for the survival and overall functionality of an organism.
The interdependence and coordination between organ systems allow for efficient body
functioning and homeostasis.

Partially permeable

A 'partially permeable' membrane allows only certain substances to pass through based on size
and properties, maintaining selective permeability.

This property is crucial for regulating the movement of molecules in and out of cells.
Examples include cell membranes that allow water and small ions to pass while blocking
larger molecules.
Osmosis is an important process that demonstrates the concept of partial permeability.
Understanding this concept is key in various scientific fields beyond just biology.

Photomicrograph

A photomicrograph is a photograph taken through a microscope, allowing magnified views of

tiny structures that are not visible to the naked eye.

It is a valuable tool in scientific research for studying cells, tissues, and microorganisms.
Photomicrographs can reveal detailed structures and aid in diagnosing diseases.
Special techniques such as staining are often used to enhance contrast and visibility in
photomicrographs.
The field of histology heavily relies on photomicrographs to analyze tissue samples.

Prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells are simple, single-celled organisms that lack a true nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles.

Prokaryotic cells are typically smaller in size compared to eukaryotic cells.

Examples of prokaryotic cells include bacteria and archaea.
Prokaryotic cells reproduce through binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.
Prokaryotic cells have a simpler internal structure compared to eukaryotic cells.

Starch grains

Starch grains are storage granules found in plant cells, serving as a source of energy. They
consist of amylose and amylopectin molecules.

Can be observed under a microscope as distinct, oval-shaped structures.

Commonly found in seeds, tubers, and grains of plants.
Hydrolysis of starch grains breaks them down into glucose molecules for energy production.
Act as an essential component in human diet providing a significant portion of daily caloric
intake.

Tissue

In biology, tissue refers to a group of cells that work together to perform a specific function in an
organism.

Tissues can be classified into four main types: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous.
Epithelial tissues cover the surfaces of the body, such as the skin and lining of organs.
Connective tissues support and connect different parts of the body, such as bones, blood,
and cartilage.
Muscular tissues enable movement by contracting and relaxing, while nervous tissues
transmit and process signals in the body.

Vesicle

A Vesicle is a small, membrane-enclosed sac within a cell that contains substances involved in
various cellular processes.

Involved in functions like metabolism, transport, and enzyme storage.

Common types include lysosomes, peroxisomes, and vacuoles.
Can form naturally in cells or be synthesized for medical therapies.
They can help in cellular communication by releasing their contents.