Discrete mathematics

12 Euclidean spaces
12.1. Find the dot product of a and b, and the norm of the vectors.
   
−1 2
a=  2  b=  2
1 −3

Solution.

h a, bi = (−1) · 2 + 2 · 2 + 1 · (−3) = −1
p p √
||a|| = h a, ai = (−1)2 + 22 + 12 = 6
p p √
||b|| = h b, bi = 22 + 22 + (−3)2 = 17

12.2. Find the angle between the vectors a and b.

1
Solution.

(a)

h a, bi = 2 · 1 + 3 · 1 = 5
p √ √
||a|| = h a, ai = 22 + 12 = 5
p √ √
||b|| = h b, bi = 12 + 32 = 10
√
5 5 5 1 2
cos α = √ √ = √ = √ =√ =
5 · 10 50 5· 2 2 2
π
Therefore α = .
4
(b)
√
h a, bi = 3 · 2 + 3 · 0 = 6
√ 2 √ √
q
p
||a|| = h a, ai = 32 + 3 = 12 = 2 3
p √
||b|| = h b, bi = 22 + 02 = 2
√
6 3 3
cos α = √ = √ =
2 3·2 2 3 2
π
Therefore α = .
6
(c)

h a, bi = 1 · (−4) + 3 · (−2) + 1 · 0 = −10

p √ √
||a|| = h a, ai = 12 + 32 + 12 = 11
p p √ √
||b|| = h b, bi = (−4)2 + (−2)2 + 02 = 20 = 2 5
√
−10 − 55
cos α = √ √ = ≈ −0.674199862463242
11 · 2 5 11

Therefore α ≈ 47.607954285227066◦ .
(d)

h a, bi = (−2) · (−6) + 3 · (−4) + 4 · 2 = 8

p p √
||a|| = h a, ai = (−2)2 + 32 + 42 = 29
p p √ √
||b|| = h b, bi = (−6)2 + (−4)2 + 22 = 56 = 2 14
√
8 2 406
cos α = √ √ = ≈ 0.19851666679418606
29 · 2 14 203

Therefore α ≈ 78.549768863388◦
(e)

h a, bi = 1 · 2 + (−2) · 4 + 3 · 2 = 0
π
Therefore α = .
2

2
 (f)
√
h a, bi = 1 · 1 + 1 · 1 + 0 · (− 2) = 2
p √ √
||a|| = h a, ai = 12 + 12 + 02 = 2
p q √ √
||b|| = h b, bi = 12 + 12 + (− 2)2 = 4 = 2
√
2 2
cos α = √ =
2·2 2
π
Therefore α =
4
(g)
√ √
h a, bi = 0 · 1 + (−1) · (− 3) + 0 · 0 = 3
p p
||a|| = h a, ai = 02 + (−1)2 + 02 = 1
p q √ √
||b|| = h b, bi = 12 + (− 3)2 + 02 = 4 = 2
√ √
3 3
cos α = =
1·2 2
π
Therefore α =
6
12.3. Find the value of λ, when a and b are orthogonal.

Solution.

(a)

h a, bi = 1 · (−2) + 1 · λ = 0 →
− λ=2

(b)

h a, bi = 4 · (−4) + 2 · (−2) + 1 · λ = 0 →
− λ = 20

(c)

h a, bi = 1 · (−4) + 2 · (−2) + 1 · 2 + 1 · λ = 0 →
− λ=6

3
 (d)

h a, bi = 1 · (−3) + λ · (−2) + λ · λ = 0
λ2 − 2λ − 3 = 0
−c
a−b+c=0 → − λ1 = −1 and λ2 = =3
a
Therefore
   
1 −3
a = −1 b = −2
−1 −1
OR
   
1 −3
a = 3
 b = −2
3 3

12.4. Find the vectors in R2 which are orthogonal to

 
−1
x=
2

Solution. 
y
Let y = 1 an orthogonal vector to x. Then h x, yi = 0.
y2

(−1) · y1 + 2 · y2 = 0
2y2 = y1
1
y2 = y1
2
1
Let y1 = t, t ∈ R →
− y2 = t.
2
! !
t 1
y= 1 = 1 ·t , t∈R
t
2 2
12.5. Find the vectors in R3 which are orthogonal to
 
−1
x= 2 
4

Solution. 
y1
Let y = y2  an orthogonal vector to x. Then h x, yi = 0.

y3

(−1) · y1 + 2 · y2 + 4 · y3 = 0
2 · y2 + 4 · y3 = y1

4
Therefore
 
2y2 + 4y3
y= y2 
y3

Let y2 = t and y3 = s ; t, s ∈ R. Then

     
2t + 4s 2 4
y=  t  = 1 · t + 0 · s
   t, s ∈ R
s 0 1

12.6. Find the vectors in R3 which are orthogonal to

   
−2 1
x=  3  and y = −2

4 1

Solution. 
z1
Let z = z2  an orthogonal vector to x and y. Then h x, zi = 0 and h y, zi = 0
z3
(
(−2) · z1 + 3 · z2 + 4 · z3 = 0
z1 − 2 · z2 + z3 =0

 
−2 3 4 0
L1 ↔ L2
1 −2 1 0
 
1 −2 1 0
L2 ← L2 − 2L1
−2 3 4 0
 
1 −2 1 0
L1 ← L1 − 2L2
0 −1 2 0
 
1 0 −3 0
L2 ← L2 · (−1)
0 −1 2 0
 
1 0 −3 0
0 1 −2 0

( (
z1 + 0 − 3z3 =0 z1 = 3z3
→
−
0 + z2 − 2z3 =0 z2 = 2z3

Let z3 = t , t ∈ R
   
3t 3
z = 2t = 2 · t , t∈R
t 1

12.7. Prove, that the columns of the following matrices are orthogonal for arbitrary ϑ value

Solution.

5
 (A)
     
cos ϑ − sin ϑ 0
a1 =  sin ϑ  , a2 =  cos ϑ  and a3 = 0

0 0 1

h a1 , a2 i = cos(ϑ) · (− sin ϑ) + sin ϑ · cos ϑ + 0 · 0 = 0

h a1 , a3 i = cos(ϑ) · 0 + sin ϑ · 0 + 0 · 1 = 0
h a2 , a3 i = − sin(ϑ) · 0 + cos ϑ · 0 + 0 · 1 = 0
→
− Columns of A are orthogonal.

(B)
     
cos ϑ 0 − sin ϑ
b1 =  0  , b2 = 1 and b3 =  0 
sin ϑ 0 cos ϑ

h b1 , b2 i = cos(ϑ) · 0 + 0 · 1 + sin ϑ · 0 = 0
h b1 , b3 i = cos(ϑ) · (− sin ϑ) + 0 · 0 + sin ϑ · cos ϑ = 0
h b2 , b3 i = 0 · (− sin(ϑ)) + 1 · 0 + 0 · cos ϑ = 0
→
− Columns of B are orthogonal.

(C)
     
1 0 0
c1 = 0 ,
 c2 = cos ϑ and c3 = − sin ϑ
0 sin ϑ cos ϑ

h c1 , c2 i = 1 · 0 + 0 · cos(ϑ) + 0 · sin ϑ = 0
h c1 , c3 i = 1 · 0 + 0 · (− sin ϑ) + 0 · cos ϑ = 0
h c2 , c3 i = 0 · 0 + cos ϑ · (− sin(ϑ)) + sin(ϑ) · cos ϑ = 0
→
− Columns of C are orthogonal.

12.8. For the matrices given in the previous example calculate AT A, B T B and C T C

Solution.

(AT A)

cos2 ϑ + sin2 ϑ + 0
 
− sin ϑ · cos ϑ + sin ϑ · cos ϑ + 0 0 + 0 + 0
− sin ϑ · cos ϑ + cos ϑ · sin ϑ + 0 · 0 sin2 ϑ + cos2 ϑ + 0 0 + 0 + 0
0+0+0 0+0+0 0+0+1
 
1 0 0
= 0 1 0 = I3

0 0 1

If the columns of a matrix A are orthogonal →

− A−1 = AT

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  
−1
12.9. Find the unit vector which points into the same direction as x =  2  .
1

Solution.
Let ux be the unit vector which points into the same direction as x. Then
x
ux =
||x||
p √
||x|| = (−1)2 + 22 + 12 = 6
Therefore
1
ux = √ · x
6
 
−1
1  
=√ · 2
6 1
−1
 
√
 6
 2 
= √ 
 
 6
 1 
√
6

12.10. Let Q be a matrix with orthonormal columns. Find Q−1 .

Solution.
Check Example at page 11/12 in LEC_12.pdf.