DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Definition: This is the use of electronic devices to transfer and or receive data in digital
form using digital signals rather than analogue format.

Assignment: Why digital communication?

CHAPTER 1: SIGNALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

A signal is simply any quantity that varies with time. Examples are voltage, current, force,
speech intensity, velocity etc.

Figure 1

Typically, signals find application in terms of communication and information such as

radio signal, broadcast or cable TV, audio, electric voltage or current in a circuit etc. so it
can also be seen as a series of data.

A system: a system simply transforms a signal (input signal) into another signal (output
signal). Consider a system denoted, h, below transforming the signal x(t) above into
another signal y(t).

Figure 2

Internally, a system may contain many different types of signals.

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
Examples of systems are; radio receiver, audio amplifier, modem, microphone, cell
telephone etc.

Types of Signals

a) Continuous/Analog signal: Varies continuously with time

Figure 3

b) Discrete/Digital signal: Maintains a constant level over sometime duration and

then switches into another level

Figure 4

c) Periodic signal: Its pattern is repeated after a specific time duration (signal
period).

Figure 5

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
 d) Non-periodic signal: The opposite of periodic, i.e., its pattern is not repeated.

TYPES OF SYSTEMS

Systems are classified according to the types of input and output signals

 Continuous-time system has continuous-time inputs and outputs e.g. AM or FM

radio
 Discrete-time system has discrete-time inputs and outputs.
 Hybrid systems are also very important (A/D, D/A converters).

SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MODELS

1) Operations on the time dependence of a signal

2) Signal characteristics even/odd
3) Periodic signals
4) Complex signals
5) Signals sizes
6) Signal Energy and Power

1) Operations on the time dependence of a signal

a) Amplitude Scaling
A signal 𝑥(𝑡) can be scaled by a constant factor “a” giving rise to a
signal 𝑎𝑥(𝑡).
Example: scaling the amplitude signal 𝑥(𝑡) by a factor of 2

Figure 6: Continuous Signal

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
 Figure 7: Discrete signal

Exercise: Scale the amplitude signal 𝑥(𝑡) by 1/2

b) Time scaling
A signal 𝑥(𝑡) is scaled in time by multiplying the time variable by a positive
constant b, giving 𝑥(𝑏𝑡). A positive factor of b either expands (0 < 𝑏 < 1) or
compresses (𝑏 > 1) the signal in time.

Figure 8: Continuous signal time scaling

Similarly, Discrete Time Scaling

The discrete-time sequence x[n] is compressed in time by multiplying the index n by an

integer k, to produce the time-scaled sequence x[nk].

- This extracts every kth sample of x[n].

- Intermediate samples are lost.
- The sequence is shorter.

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
 Figure 9

It is also called downsampling, or decimation.

The discrete-time sequence 𝑥(𝑛) is expanded in time by dividing the index n by an integer
m, to produce the time-scaled sequence 𝑥(𝑛/𝑚)

- This specifies every 𝑚𝑡ℎ sample.

- The intermediate samples must be synthesized (set to zero, or interpolated).
- The sequence is longer.

Figure 10

It is also called upsampling, or interpolation.

c) Time reversal

Continuous time: replace 𝑡 with −𝑡, time reversed signal is 𝑥(−𝑡)

Figure 11

Discrete time: replace 𝑛 with −𝑛, time reversed signal is 𝑥(−𝑛)

Figure 12

d) Time shift
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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
For a continuous-time signal 𝑥(𝑡), and a time 𝑡1 > 0,

 Replacing 𝑡 with 𝑡 − 𝑡1 gives a delayed signal 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡1 )

 Replacing 𝑡 with 𝑡 + 𝑡1 gives an advanced signal 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑡1 )

Figure 13

For a discrete time signal 𝑥(𝑛), and an integer 𝑛1 > 0

- 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑛1 )is a delayed signal.

- 𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑛1 )is an advanced signal.
- The delay or advance is an integer number of sample times.

Figure 14

e) Combinations

- Time scaling, shifting, and reversal can all be combined.

- Operation can be performed in any order, but care is required.
- This will cause confusion.

Example: 𝑥[2(𝑡 − 1)]

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
 Solution

Correct Procedure Below

- Scale first, then shift

- Compress by 2, shift by 1

Figure 15

OR

Correct Procedure Below

- Shift first, then scale

- Rewrite 𝑥[2(𝑡 − 1)] = 𝑥(2𝑡 − 2)
- Shift by 2, scale by 2

Figure 17

Wrong procedure below

Figure 17: Wrong procedure

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
 2) Even and Odd Symmetry
 An even signal is symmetric about the origin
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡)

 An odd signal is anti-symmetric about the origin

𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡)
Note: An odd signal must be 0 at t =0. In other words, odd signal passes the origin

Any signal can be decomposed into even and odd components

1
𝑋𝑒 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)]
2
1
𝑋𝑜 (𝑡) = [𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)]
2

Check that
𝑋𝑒 (𝑡) = 𝑋𝑒 (−𝑡)

𝑋𝑜 (𝑡) = −𝑋𝑜 (−𝑡)

And that
𝑋𝑒 (𝑡) + 𝑋𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
Example:

Same type of decomposition applies for discrete-time signals.

The decomposition into even and odd components depends on the location of the origin.
Shifting the signal changes the decomposition.

Plot the even and odd components of the previous example, after shifting x(t) by 1/2 to
the right.

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
 3) Periodic signals

Continuous time signal is periodic if and only if there exists a T0 > 0 such that

𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡

𝑇0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

A discrete-time signal is periodic if and only if there exists an integer N0 > 0 such that

𝑥[𝑛 + 𝑁0 ] = 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛

𝑁0 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠

The smallest T0 or N0 is the fundamental period of the periodic signal.

Example:

Shifting x(t) by 1 time unit results in the same signal.

 Common periodic signals are sines and cosines

Periodic Extension

 Periodic signals can be generated by periodic extension by any segment of length

one period T0 (or a multiple of the period).

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
We will often take a signal that is defined only over an interval T0 and use periodic
extension to make a periodic signal.

Causal Signals

Causal signals are non-zero only for 𝑡 ≥ 0 (starts at t = 0, or later)

Non-causal signals are non-zero for some t < 0 (starts before t = 0)

Anticausal signals are non-zero only for 𝑡 ≤ 0 (goes backward in time from t = 0)

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
 4) Complex signals

 So far, we have only considered real (or integer) valued signals.

 Signals can also be complex

𝑍(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑗𝑦(𝑡)

Where 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(𝑡) are each real valued signals, and 𝑗 = √−1

- Arises naturally in many problems

- Convenient representation for sinusoids
- Communications
- Radar, sonar, ultrasound

Review of Complex Numbers

Complex number in Cartesian form: 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦

- 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒(𝑍), the real part of z

- 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑚(𝑍), the imaginary part of Z
- x and y are also often called the in phase and quadrature components of Z
- 𝑗 = √−1 (engineering notation)
- 𝑖 = √−1 (physics, chemistry and mathematics notations)

Complex number in polar form: 𝑍 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗∅

- 𝑟 is the modulus or magnitude of Z

- ∅ is the angle or phase of Z
- 𝑒 𝑗∅ = cos ∅ + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

Complex number in polar form: 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦)

Know how to add, multiply, and divide complex numbers, and be able to go between
representations easily.

5) Signal Energy and Power

If i(t) is the current through a resistor, then the energy dissipated in the resistor is

𝑇
𝐸𝑅 = lim ∫ 𝑖 2 (𝑡)𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ −𝑇

This is energy in Joules.

The signal energy for i(t) is defined as the energy dissipated in a 1𝛀 resistor

𝑇
𝐸𝑖 = lim ∫ 𝑖 2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ −𝑇

The signal energy for a (possibly complex) signal x(t) is

𝑇
𝐸𝑥 = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ −𝑇

In most applications, this is not an actual energy (most signals aren't actually applied to
1𝛀 resistor).

The average of the signal energy over time is the signal power

Properties of Energy and Power Signals

An energy signal x(t) has zero power

A power signal has infinite energy

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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute
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Course Instructor: Olome Baudouin Ekute