Course Outline

Theories of Memory/Models of memory

a) Sensory memory
b) Short-term memory
c) Long-term memory
d) Types of long-term Memory
 1) Sensory Memory
(SM)
Definition
“It refers to the initial momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant.”

“Sensory memory is the initial short lined storage of information recorded as a meaningless
stimulus.”(Feldman)

Characteristics of Sensory Memory

❖ It is first stage or component of memory.
❖ The other name of sensory memory is sensory register.
❖ It holds information for brief interval.
❖ Storage of information on SM is irrelevant of attention to the stimulus.
❖ Sensory modality is really brief, and memory is continuously replaced by new memory
once the previous information decays. Information once lost from SM is gone for good
and there is no way to recover it.

Example
When a person sees an object briefly before it disappears. One the object is gone; it is still
removed in the memory from a very short period of time.

Types of Sensory Memory

Types of Sensory Memory

Iconic Memory Echoic Memory

 Iconic Memory (visual stimuli)
“The process that reflects information from our visual system.”
It is a fast decaying store of visual information; a type of sensory memory that briefly
stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration.

Echoic Memory (aural stimuli)

“The process that stores information coming from the ears.”

It is a fast decaying store of auditory information, another type of sensory memory that
briefly stores sounds that have been perceived for short durations.

Encoding of Sensory Memory

To get into the sensory register, the physical stimuli must be encoded into the biochemical
processes that give rise to sensation and perception. At this stage selectivity occurs. Stimuli of
vital Importance to organisms take priority over others that are not as important.

Through "sensory gating" (which is directed by processes in the brain), Information in one
sensory channel is boosted while Information in another is suppressed.

Storage in Sensory Memory

Though fleeting, our sensory storage capacity is large. At first, researchers underestimated the
amount that could actually be stored during this brief interval, because of the reporting procedure
they used. They asked subjects to look at a visual display for a fraction of a second and then
recall as many letters as they could. In this method of whole report procedure, subjects could
report only about four items.

George Sperling used the partial report procedure and reported that subjects could recall nine
items. Sperling's experiments demonstrate that immediate visual storage is quite accurate, but
that the image or trace of the stimulus decays very rapidly.

As the new information is constantly coming in, and it too must be processed; old information
must last just long enough to give a sense of continuity, but not long enough to interfere with
new sensory impressions. New inputs that are similar can erase iconic or echoic representation.
Processing for Transfer to STM
It is obvious that some processes must take place before the sensory memories fade to get into
STM. The requirement is that they must be attended. From lots of sense impressions, only those
are eligible for more memory that captures our attention.

Selective attention is a familiar experience for us. At a party, we can participate intelligently in
only one conversation at a time and we manage to "tune out" the others going on around us.
Through selective attention we can choose which stimulus to focus upon. Those stimuli which
are not attended to are lost.

Information in sensory storage becomes eligible for longer storage when pattern recognition
occurs.

Familiar information has the best chance of receiving attention and getting into STM. For
example, "Odckekn" will not be processed; "Knocked" will be; even though both words have the
same letters. However, some type of novel stimuli are better remembered than familiar ones.
 2) Short Term Memory
(STM)
Definition
“The storage of information for 15-25 seconds is called short-term memory.”

“the ability to hold information in mind over a brief period of time.’

Example
The example of STM is to retain a new telephone number we see a telephone number in
the directory, dial it and recall to check it. When you have talked to the required person. You
become busy in other matters and forget the telephone number due to intervening reactions.

Characteristics of Short-Term Memory

❖ STM is transient.
❖ It has direct access to STM contents.
❖ It is also called working memory.
❖ It has limited capacity.
❖ Rehearsal, maintenance is also present in STM.
❖ Chunking of information to increase the capacity of STM.
❖ It has short duration for retention.
❖ STM is only the stage of memory in which conscious processing take place.
❖ It is the part of psychological present.
❖ It helps in comprehension of information and new perception.

Encoding of Short-Term Memory

When information is encoded into memory, it is deposited in a certain code of representation.
This code can be visual, acoustic or semantic. Research indicates that we can use any of these
possibilities to encode information into STM.
Example: In textbook we must easily remember practical material or information that is
interesting to read.

Storage of Short Term Memory

The limited, brief storage capacity for short term memory is called the immediate memory span.

Capacity of Short Term Memory

Short term memory has limited capacity or storage. Only about seven items or digits can be
stored at a time.

Example: The example of storage or capacity of STM is a telephone number of seven digits for a
short time it takes to place the call after looking up the number.

Processing in Short Term Memory

There are two methods that can increase the capacity of short term memory.
1- Chunking
2- Rehearsal

Chunk
“A chunk is a meaningful unit of information. A chunk can be a single letter or number, a
group of letters or other items, even a group of words or a sentence.”
Example: The sequence 1 9 8 4 consists of four digits which could be chunks. About half of what
our STM can hold but 1984 is only one chunk if we see the digits as a year.

Chunking
“Chunking is the process of taking single items, grouping these items organizing or combining
these items on the basis of similarity or any other organization principle.”

Rehearsal
Herman Ebbinghaus firstly described the importance of rehearsal through nonsense material.
Rehearsal is most important for learning the material.

“Rehearsal is the process of repeating information to keep it in mind for a larger period of time.”
 Forms of Rehearsal

Maintenance Elaborative
Rehearsal Rehearsal

1. Maintenance Rehearsal
“Mental Repetition of information in order to keep it in memory.”

Example
We would use it if we wanted a phone number long enough to make a call.

1. Elaborative Rehearsal
“This kind of rehearsal in which new information is related to information that is already
known.”

Example
This happen when you note that the phone number 358-9211 can also be thought of as 3+5=8
and 9+2=11 . this elaboration depends upon your having addition and summation rules stored in
an transferred from long term memory

Thinking in Short Term Memory

In short-term memory conscious thoughts are present. Three process in the thinking of short-term
memory.

Process of thinking in STM

Serial Position Effect Primacy Effect Recency Effect

 Serial Position Effect
“The tendency to recall more accurately the first and last items in a series is known as serial-
position effect.”

Primacy Effect
“The tendency to recall the initial items in a series of items.”

Recency Effect
“The tendency to recall the last items in a series of items.”