SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

A semiconductor diode is composed of two electrodes, the anode and the cathode
which are illustrated as a hole-electron pair. The anode, which is the positive region is
composed of holes equal to its electron (cathode in the negative region).

Semiconductor Diode Operation

A silicon diode has the property of conducting current when connected in forward
bias as illustrated below. In this condition, the negative side of the DC source forces
electrons into the n-type material and drives them to the center or junction area. Holes,
or electrons voids, in the p-type material are driven to the junction area because the
p-type material is connected to the positive side of the DC source.

When holes and electrons meet at the junction (PN junction) of a silicon diode, they
combine and permit conduction of current. The process is continuous. For each hole
filled with an electron, a new hole is formed by removing an electron from the p-type
material. Electrons are also supplied to the n-type material as a result of its connection
to the negative side of the DC source. The resistor R in the circuit is used to limit the
current to a reasonable value. Excessive current has a tendency to damage diodes.

Operation of diode, (A) forward bias, (B) reverse bias.

Rectifier Diode

The term diode and rectifier will be used interchangeably; however the term diode
usually implies a small signal device with current typically in the milliamp range; and a
rectifier, a power device, conducting from 1 to 1000 amps or even higher. Many diodes
or rectifiers are identified as 1NXXXX. The most important function of a diode is to act
as one way valve for passage of electrons. The diode permits electrons to flow through
it in one direction, but bars their passage in the other direction.

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 Rectifier Diode, (A) Actual picture, (B) Schematic symbol

Ideal diode equivalent circuit (A) forward Bias, (B) Reversed Bias

Diode Behavior:

1. Conventional current can flow only in the direction of the diode arrow. This
current direction is called forward current.

2. Current is blocked from flowing in the direction opposite to the diode symbol
arrow. Thus, reverse current is negligible.

3. When conventional current flows in the forward direction.

As illustrated on figure previously, the equivalent simple diode circuit and its equivalent
circuit. On the given circuit, the diode acts like a switch (Ideal Diode). If the bias was
forward, the diode acts like switch on, therefore, full current will flow on the circuit.
When the bias voltage was inverse, the diode acts like a switch off, therefore, there
will be no current flow in the circuit. But in reality, there are no diode acts like this. The
truth is, there is a voltage drop in each diode (as shown in the figure below). The
forward voltage required for conduction is about 0.3 for germanium and 0.7 for
silicon, therefore, the supply voltage of a diode circuit should be equal or greater than
0.3 for germanium and 0.7 for silicon. For instance, if you have a supply voltage of 3
volts for silicon, the total voltage will be 2.3 volts (3 – 0.7 volts). But be careful when

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you apply input voltages on a diode because there are different specifications on every
diode, you should know first the voltage and current rating of the diode.

Germanium and silicon diode drop voltages. (Forward Bias)

Diode Application
1. Rectifier
2. Voltage Multiplier
3. Limiter or Clipper and Clamper

Note:

Semiconductor – A material that lies between conductors and insulators in its

conductive property. Ex. Diode, Transistor, and IC.

Conductor – A material that conducts electrical current very well. Ex. Wire, Metal.

Insulator – A material that does not conduct current. Ex. Plastic, Rubber, Paper,
etc.

Forward Bias – When the diode is connected to DC source so that the anode or
p-type material is connected to positive voltage and the cathode or n-type material
is connected to negative voltage.
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 Reverse Bias – Opposite supply for forward bias.

SPECIAL-PURPOSE DIODES

Zener Diode

Zener diode was designed for limiting the voltage across its terminals in reverse bias.
This diode is intended to operate at that voltage, and so finds its greatest application
as a voltage regulator. Recall the discussion of diode. Diode operates in forward bias
in zener diode, the normal operation is in reverse bias.

Zener Diode (A) actual picture (B) schematic symbol

Simple Zener Voltage Regulator Circuit

Note:

The value of a resistor (R) was depending on the input voltage

Zener Regulation

Zener diodes are widely used for voltage regulation. Figure above illustrates how
zener diode can be used to regulate a varying voltage. This is called input or line
regulation. As the input varies (within limits), the zener diode maintains a nearly
constant output voltage across its terminal.

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 Purpose of Regulation

1. Because of inconstant input supply voltage (particular in some power supply),

we should need to regulate the supply to maintain the constant output voltage.
If the supply was not regulated, the device or appliance to be supplied might
affect the operation or cause trouble.

2. This is also applicable if the power supply is greater than the supply needed ,
because the zener diode maintains its rated voltage even when the supply
voltage is higher than zener. But watch out for the voltage and current rating
of the zener because the input voltage requirement for the zener diode has
limitations. Note also that the supply voltage going to zener must be greater
than the rated voltage of the zener.

The Basic Parameters of a Zener Diode

a) Obviously, the zener voltage must be specified. The most common range of
zener voltage is 3.3 volts to 75 volts. However, voltages out of this range are
available.
b) A tolerance of the specified voltage must be stated. While the most popular
tolerances are 5% and 10%, more precision tolerances as low as 0.05% are
available.
c) The power handling capability must be specified for the zener diode. Popular
power ranges are: ¼, ½, 1, 5, 10, and 50 Watts.

Varactor Diode

Varactor diodes are also as variable-capacitance diode because the junction

capacitance varies with the amount of reverse-bias voltage. Varactor are specifically
designed to take advantage of this variable-capacitance characteristics. The
capacitance can be changed by changing the reverse voltage. These devices are
commonly used in electronic tuning circuits used in communication system.

Varactor Diode, (A) picture, (B) schematic symbol

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 Varactor Diode capacitance varies with reverse voltage.
(A) greater voltage less capacitance, (B) lesser voltage
greater capacitance.

Application

A major application of varactor is in tuning circuits. For example, electronic tuners

in TV, FM receiver and other commercial receivers utilize varactor.

OPTICAL DIODES

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The Light-Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor device specifically a pn junction

diode fabricated from materials that emit light when forward bias. LEDs are available
in different color, size, and shape.

Light-emitting Diode, (A) actual picture, (B) schematic symbol

LED Materials

LEDs are made of gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP),
or gallium phosphide (GaP). Silicon and Germanium are not used because they are
essentially heat-producing materials and very poor at producing light.

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Infrared (IR) – GaAs which is non visible

Red/Yellow – GaAsP which is visible

Red/Green – GaP which is visible

Blue and white are also available but expensive. Red is the most common and the
cheaper price. The Red “Super Bright” is a little bit expensive than ordinary red.

LED Biasing

LEDs are current-dependent devices and therefore, need to be protected from

excessive current. It is very important to protect the LEDs from supply voltage and
current by adding a resistor as illustrated in the figure below.

LED proper operation protected usually 470 Ω resistor or higher

Subminiature LED

Many applications require a very small, low cost LED lamp to be used. The small
size allows for a very high packaging in an array. The transfer molding process used
to encapsulate the device.

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Rectangular LED

In some applications, a cylindrically shaped device is not effective. For these

applications, the rectangular LED was developed. The rectangular LED is most
effective for illuminating a legend by directly backlighting a transparent character so
that it will stand out broadly.

Hermetic LED

The hermitic LED is assemble in a TO-18 package. The top of the metal cap is cut
to allow light to be visible. The LED is sealed with a coating of silicon jell and a
hermetic glass to metal seal. The exterior of the package is gold plated to resist
corrosion. Hermetic means tight, closed, or sealed.

Tri-color LED

The tri-color LED is actually two different colored LEDs connected in reversed
polarity, parallel to each other, and in a single package. Normally, one LED is ON
while the other is OFF.

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Because the LEDs are in reverse polarity, they provide reverse voltage protection
to each other and can be operated on an AC voltage.

When operated on 60 hertz AC, one LED would be ON when the voltage is positive
with respect to the other terminal and the other would be ON, when the voltage is
negative. If you see, the LED would appear to be yellow or yellow orange.

Dual-color LED

This type internally has two separate anodes and a common cathode. Thus, the
LED has three terminals instead of usual two. It is useful as it replaces two separate
panel indicators with the two color leads simultaneously available. It is ideal for an
active visual indication of binary electronic states.

(A) Tri-color LED is achieved through reverse-parallel connection of 2-color LED chips,
(B) The dual-color LED has 3 pins and is mounted in a single epoxy package

Flasher LED

The flasher LED has a built-in IC chip within its structure. The chip acts as a timer
so that the current pulses through the LED causing the light to flash three times per
second. The chip also controls the level of current through the LED at 20

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milliampere at 5 volts. The advantage of this type of LED is miniaturization as
compared with the equivalent discrete RC circuit combination. It also look like an
ordinary LED.

LED Application

Commonly used for indicators, VU meters, running lights, etc.

Different sizes, shapes of LEDs

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 LED Connection

Parallel Connection Series Connection

This parallel connection requires This series connection requires more

more current. The supply current voltage. The supply voltage should
should be the sum of the rated be the sum of the rated voltage
current requirement for LED. required for LED.

For example: For example:

Rated current of each LED is 30mA Rated voltage of each LED is 1.5
in two parallel connection, the supply volts in two series connection, the
needed for the LEDS should be supply needed for these LEDs
60mA. should be 3 volts.

Seven Segment LED

Each of the seven segments (and the decimal point) in a given digit contains an
individual LED. When a suitable voltage is applied to a given segment LED, current
flows through and illuminates the segment LED. By choosing which segments to
illuminate, any of the nine digits can be shown.

Application

For numeric display such as clocks, calculators, scoreboards, etc.

Seven-segments LED, (A) Actual Picture,

(B) Seven-segment LED letter designation

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 Seven-segment LED used to display numeric character

7-LED in a single number

Seven segment displays come in two varieties – common anode (CA) and common
cathode (CC). in a CA display, the anodes for the seven segments and the decimal
point are joined into a single circuit node. To illuminate a segment in a CA display,
the voltage on a cathode must be at a suitability lower voltage (about 0.7V) than the
anode. In a CC display, the cathodes are joined together, and the segments are
illuminated by bringing the anode voltage higher than the cathode node (again, by
about 0.7V).

Common Anode Common Cathode

Internal Connection Internal Connection

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InfraRed LED

Infrared (IR) is light that a range of wavelengths greater than the visible light.
Therefore, this LED can produce light but invisible light. The biasing is similar to regular
LED (see the LED biasing that was discussed earlier).

Application
This device more often used in television remote control transmitter and security
system, etc.

Infrared LED (A) actual picture, (B) schematic symbol

PhotoDiode

The Photodiode is a pn junction device that operates in reverse bias. The photodiode
has a small transparent window that allows light to strike the pn junction.

A photodiode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to
light. The reverse current increases with the light intensity. When there is no incident
light, the reverse current is most negligible and is called the dark current. An increase
in the amount of light intensity, produces an increase in the reversed current.

Application

Usually the receiver of infrared LED. See infrared application.

Photo diode (A) actual picture, (B) schematic symbol

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 Behavior of the LED when (A) flashing OFF, (B) flashlight ON.

(A) When there is no incident light, no current will flow in the circuit due to high
resistance, so the LED is off. (Dark current)
(B) When there is an incident light, resistance in the photodiode decreases, so the
LED is on. (Reverse current)

OTHER TYPE OF DIODES

Current Regulator Diode

The current regulator diode is often referred to as a constant-current diode. Rather

than maintaining a constant voltage, as the zener does this maintains a constant
current.

The current regulator diode operates in forward bias and the forward current becomes
a specified constant value at forward voltages ranging from about 1.5 volts to about 6
volts, depending on the diode type. The constant forward current is called the
regulator current.

Current Regulator Diode Schematic Symbol

Schottky Diode

Schottky Diode are used primarily in high-frequency and fast switching applications.
They are also known as Hot Carrier Diodes. A Schottky diode is formed by joining a
dope semiconductor region with metal such as gold, silver, or platinum.

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 Schottky Diode (A) Schematic symbol, (B) Basic internal construction

PIN Diode

The pin diode consists of heavily doped p and n regions separated by an intrinsic
region. When in reverse-biased, the pin diode acts like a nearly constant capacitance.
When forward-biased, it acts like a current-controlled variable resistance. As shown
below.

PIN Diode (A) Basic internal construction,

B) when reverse-biased, (C) when forward-biased

Note:

Intrinsic – the pure or natural state of a material (either good conductor or good
insulator)

Application

1. Used as a DC-controlled microwave switch operated by rapid changes in bias

or as a modulating device that takes advantage of the variable forward
resistance characteristics.
2. Can be also used in attenuator applications because its resistance can be
controlled by the amount of current.
3. Certain types of pin diodes are used as photodetectors in fiber-optic systems.

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Tunnel Diode

The tunnel diode exhibits a special characteristics known as negative resistance.

This feature makes it useful in oscillator and microwave amplifier applications.
Tunnel diodes are constructed with germanium arsenide by doping the p and n regions
much more heavily than in a conventional rectifier diode.

Tunnel diode schematic symbol

Laser Diode

The term stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser
light is monochromatic, which means that it consists of a single color and not a mixture
of colors. Laser light is also called coherent light, a single wavelength, as compared
to incoherent light, which is consists of a wide band of wavelengths. The laser diode
normally emits coherent light, whereas the LED emits incoherent light.

Laser Diode Schematic Symbol

Application
Laser diodes and photo diodes are used in the pick-up system of compact disk (CD)
players. Also used in laser printers and fiber communications.

Different types of diode packaging

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Diode Parts Lists

Rectifier Diode Standard Values

Signal Diode Standard Values

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 Schottky Standard Values

Varactor Standard Values

Zener Diode 0.5 watt Standard Values

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Zener Diode 1 watt Standard Values

Zener Diode 5 watts Standard Values

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 QUIZ ON SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

Direction: Write your answer in an A4 size bond paper. Write only the answer in your
paper. It can be hand written or computerized. You can submit by sending to my email
address: [email protected] or thru my facebook account (Ted Muncada) or
personal delivery.

Test I. Identify the following

1. An electronic device composed of two electrodes, the anode and cathode.

2. What is the majority carrier on the p-type material?
3. How many junction that diode have?
4. The color band of the diode denotes anode or cathode?
5. When diode is forward bias, with the load LED, what will happen to the LED?
6. What is the voltage drop in the germanium diode?
7. Give at least one example each of insulator and conductor.
8. Best application for zener diode.
9. What bias normally operates zener diode?
10. Also called a variable-capacitance diode.
11. What will happen to the capacitance of the varactor diode if the applied voltage is
greater?
12. The elements used in the LED which is non-visible.
13. What letters of the seven segment LED should illuminate to display digit “5”?
14. Usually the receiver of infrared LED.
15. What will happen to the resistance of the photo diode when exposed to light?
16. A diode is often referred to as constant-current diode.
17. A diode used in high frequency and fast switching applications.
18. Other name of Schottky diode.
19. What is the equivalent component of PIN diode if it is reverse-biased?
20. A diode that has a characteristics of negative resistance.

Test II. Matching Type. Select the schematic symbol of the given diodes.

a.
1. LED

b.
2. Photodiode

c.
3. Zener Diode

d.
4. Varactor Diode

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 e.
5. Tunnel Diode

f.
6. Schottky Diode

g.
7. Current Regulator Diode

h.
8. PIN Diode (forward-biased)

i.
9. PIN Diode (reverse-biased)

j.
10. Rectifier Diode

Prepared by:

THADDEUS L. MUNCADA, MAEd

Asst. Professor I

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