Introduction to Computers

CSCMD-101: Fundamentals of Computing

Data v/s Information
• Raw facts, figures, etc. about individuals, places, that is expressed by
numbers, letters, symbols or even images
• Data is raw, unorganized facts which requires processing to become
meaningful
• Information is refined form of data, it is what you obtain after
processing or analysing raw data
• Since every piece of information is derived from some data, we can
say that information relies on data while data does not rely on
information
Data Information
• It is low level • It is higher level
• Does not directly help in • Directly helps in decision
decision making making
• Collection of facts • Processing facts to put
them in a meaningful
context
What is a Computer?
• It is a device that transforms data into meaningful information
• A device that processes input according to the set of instructions
provided by the user and gives the desired output quickly
• Following set of functions are performed in general:
• Accept data
• Store data
• Process data as desired
• Retrieval of stored data as and when desired
• Print the result in desired format
Basic Structure of a Computer
Peripheral Devices
• Input Devices:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Light pen
• Scanner
• Output Devices:
• Monitor
• Printer
• Speakers
• Other Peripherals:
 Computers

Hard-Wired Stored-program
Hard-wired v/s Stored Program Computers
• Earlier computers : • Stored-program computer:
• Instructions determined by the • Stores instructions in its memory
wiring of the machine or by holes • Introduced in the late 1940s
on punched tape by John von Neumann
Classification of Computers

Computers

Micro Mini Mainframe Super

Computer Computer Computer Computer
Classification of Digital Computers
• Micro Computers :
• Also known as Personal Computers
• Can work on small volume of data
• Versatile and can handle variety of applications.
• Mini Computers :
• Support multiple users working simultaneously
• These are mainly used in an organization where computers installed in various
departments are interconnected.
• Useful for small business organizations.
Classification of Digital Computers
• Main Frames :
• Large and very powerful computers with very high memory capacity.
• Can process huge databases such as census at extremely fast rate.
• Suitable for big organizations, banks, industries etc.
• Can support hundreds of users simultaneously on the network.
• Super Computers :
• Fastest and very expensive computers.
• Can execute billions of instructions per second.
• Multiprocessor, parallel systems suitable for specialized complex scientific
applications involving huge amounts of mathematical applications such as
weather forecasting.
Structure of a Computer System
• A Computer System consists of:
• Users (people who are using the computer)
• Application Programs (Compilers, Databases, Games, Video player,
Browsers, etc.)
• System Programs (Shells, Editors, Compilers, etc.)
• Operating System ( A special program which acts as an interface
between user and hardware )
• Hardware ( CPU, Disks, Memory, etc)
Software
Operating System
• Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and the
hardware
• It provides an environment to the user so that, the user can perform its
task in convenient and efficient way
• In the Computer System (comprises of Hardware and software), Hardware
can only understand machine code (in the form of 0 and 1) which doesn't
make any sense to a naive user
• We need a system which can act as an intermediary and manage all the
processes and resources present in the system
• OS is responsible for the execution of all the processes, Resource
Allocation, CPU management, File Management and many other tasks
What does an Operating system do?
• Process Management
• Process Synchronization
• Memory Management
• CPU Scheduling
• File Management
• Security
Types of Operating System
• Batch Operating System
• Multi-Programming System
• Multi-Processing System
• Real-Time Operating System
• Time-Sharing Operating System
• Distributed Operating System
• Network Operating System
Batch Operating System
• In the 1970s, Batch processing was viral. In this technique, similar
types of jobs were batched together and executed in time. People
were used to having a single computer, which was called a
mainframe.
• In the Batch operating system, access is given to more than one
person; they submit their respective jobs to the system for execution.
• The system puts all of the jobs in a queue on the basis of first come,
first serve and then executes the jobs one by one. The users collect
their respective output when all the jobs get executed.
Multiprogramming Operating System
• Multiprogramming is an extension to batch processing where the CPU
is always kept busy. Each process needs two types of system time:
CPU time and IO time.
• In a multiprogramming environment, when a process does its I/O, The
CPU can start the execution of other processes. Therefore,
multiprogramming improves the efficiency of the system.
Multiprocessing Operating System
• Parallel computing is achieved.
• There are more than one processors present in the system which can
execute more than one process at the same time.
• Increased throughput
• Since several processors work concurrently, more tasks are completed
faster.
• Enhances speed of processing.
• If one processor is faulty, the others will continue running, hence
enhancing system reliability.
• Best suited for highly computationally intensive environments needing high
processing power, for example, scientific simulations, real-time data
processing, and server environments
Network Operating System
• Type of an operating system that exists to allow computers to
communicate and share resources over a network,
• almost like the backbone of networking, ensuring that different
devices (like computers, printers, and even servers) can always
connect and interact seamlessly.
• Examples of network operating systems are Microsoft Windows
Server, Linux, and Novell NetWare.
Real Time Operating System
• A Real-Time Operating System is conceived as a design for tasks that
need to be completed under very strict time constraints.
• In such systems, each task has a clear deadline; failing to achieve
completion by that deadline can, in turn, bring about significant
consequences
• Real-time systems are widely used in areas where timing is the issue,
for example, the manufacturing of medical equipment, automotive
controls, military applications as also in industrial automation.
• For instance, in an anti-lock braking system (ABS) in a car, the
response must come in milliseconds in order to assure safety.
Time-Sharing Operating System
• A Time-Sharing Operating System allows multiple users to access the
system concurrently, and this occurs by allocating a small time slice or
quantum to each task.
• The CPU switches between the tasks so rapidly that the users feel
their programs have been running concurrently.
• This kind of operating system is most effective in systems where
multiple users require access to the central system in real-time or
near real-time.
Distributed Operating System
• The Distributed Operating system is not installed on a single machine;
it is divided into parts, and these parts are loaded on different
machines.
• A part of the distributed Operating system is installed on each
machine to make their communication possible.
• Distributed Operating systems are much more complex, large, and
sophisticated than Network operating systems because they also have
to take care of varying networking protocols
Binary Representation of Numbers
• 231.45 – decimal value
• 231.45 – binary value?

2 14 0
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
2 0 1
Decimal conversion
0.875 × 2 = 1.750 ⇒ 1
0.75 × 2 = 1.50 ⇒ 1
0.50 × 2 = 1.00 ⇒ 1
• 17.375
2 17 1
• 0.375 × 2 = 0.750 ⇒ 0 8 0
• 0.75 × 2 = 1.5 ⇒ 1 4 0
2 0
• 0.5 × 2 = 1.0 ⇒ 1 1 1
0
Hexadecimal Numbers
• 0010 0111 1010.1010 0100
2 7 A . A 4

• 2 × 162 + 7 × 161 + 𝐴 × 160 . 𝐴 × 16−1 + 4 × 16−2

10 4
• 512 + 112 + 10 + + =
16 256
• 10 1101 0010 1010 . 1100 1
• 0010 1101 0010 1010 . 1100 1000
2 D 2 A . C 8
Exercise
• Convert to binary:
• 22.625
• 6.02
• -10.125
• 15.8
• Convert to decimal, octal and hex:
• 1011.1101
• 1110111.00111
Computer Languages
• Means of communicating with the computer
• Machine Language – 0/1
• Low Level Languages:
• Assembly Language
• High Level Languages:
• BASIC
• COBOL
• Fortran
• C
• C++
• Java
• Python
Compilers, Assemblers and Interpreters
Compiler v/s Interpreter
• Scans the whole program • Translates one statement at a
time
• Execution time is less • Slow in executing
• Converts source code to • Does not convert source code to
object code object code rather scans it line
• Does not require source code by line
for later execution • Requires source code for later
• Often take large amount of execution
time for analyzing the source • Takes less time in analyzing
code source code
• More efficient • Less efficient
• C, C++, C# are compiled • Python, Ruby, Perl, MATLAB, R
languages etc. are all interpreted languages
Storage Types
Internal Memory or
Primary Storage

External Memory or
Secondary Storage
Memory Hierarchy

Increasing Capacity and Access Time

CPU
Registers
Increasing Cost

Cache Memory
(SRAM)

Main Memory (DRAM)

Magnetic and Optical Disk

Magnetic Tape
The Processor
• Definition: a chip or logical circuit that responses to and process the
basic instructions to drive a particular program
• Manufacturers: Intel, AMD, Qualcomm, IBM, Motorola, Samsung etc.
• Material: Silicon chip
• Speed Measurement: Mega-Hertz or Giga Hertz
• Functions: Fetch, decode, execute, write back instructions
References
• https://www.javatpoint.com/operating-system
• https://www.javatpoint.com/types-of-operating-systems