Gender and development

A Woman's Three Roles by Moser

1. Reproductive Role
This encompasses responsibilities related to the care of the household and its members. Key tasks include:

 Bearing and caring for children.

 Domestic duties such as food preparation, collecting resources like water and fuel, shopping,
housekeeping, and ensuring family health care.

Reproductive work goes beyond biological reproduction, encompassing all tasks essential for maintaining and
reproducing the labor force of a society. While childbearing is a biological function unique to women, there is
no inherent reason or logic as to why child-rearing, nurturing, and caring for the family should predominantly
fall to women.

2. Productive Role
This involves the production of goods and services for consumption and trade. Examples include:

 Agriculture.
 Basket-making.
 Pickle-making.

Women's productive work often receives less visibility and value compared to men's contributions. It can be
categorized into:

 Market-based production: Earning monetary income, typically dominated by men.

 Subsistence/home-based production: Generating in-kind value rather than monetary earnings.

3. Community Role
Women often play a significant role in organizing and participating in community-level activities, which
include:

 Social events and ceremonies.

 Engagement in groups, organizations, and local politics.
 Voluntary services, such as teaching at local schools.

These roles illustrate the multifaceted contributions of women to households, economies, and societies, often
underappreciated despite their critical importance

Practical Needs and Strategic Needs by Moser

Moser distinguishes between two types of women's needs: Practical Needs and Strategic Needs, emphasizing
the difference between immediate requirements and long-term transformative changes.

1. Practical Needs

These are immediate, urgent necessities that arise from women's current social roles and responsibilities.
Addressing practical needs typically does not aim to change the existing gender dynamics. Examples include:

 Access to clean water.

  Food-processing technologies.
 Income-generating activities.
 Basic health services.
 Employment opportunities.

Practical needs are tied to women’s roles as caretakers, focusing on providing solutions within the current
societal framework. For instance, teaching women to prepare nutritious meals addresses a practical need but
reinforces the gendered assumption that meal preparation is solely their responsibility.

2. Strategic Needs

Strategic needs focus on resolving gender-based inequalities and transforming women's subordinate status in
society. These derive from a deeper analysis of women’s oppression and aim to create lasting change. Examples
include:

 Legal rights (e.g., property ownership).

 Transformation of the sexual division of labor.
 Access to reproductive health and freedom of choice in childbearing.
 Equal political participation.
 Protection from gender-based violence.
 Economic independence through access to credit.

Strategic needs challenge the institutionalized discrimination faced by women and seek to shift power
dynamics. For instance, a girl’s practical need for education can be addressed strategically by incorporating a
rights-based curriculum that empowers her to envision a life beyond traditional gender roles.

Contrasting Practical and Strategic Needs

 Practical Needs focus on immediate, tangible benefits and work within the existing gender relations without
questioning them.
 Strategic Needs aim at systemic change to challenge and improve women’s social positions, addressing issues
like institutional discrimination and gender-based violence.

Examples

 Providing women's shelters to protect from domestic violence addresses both practical safety and strategic
empowerment by offering a safe space and autonomy.
 Health care projects that include access to reproductive health services address practical health needs while
strategically empowering women to control their reproductive decisions.

By addressing both needs simultaneously, efforts can ensure that women's immediate well-being is secured
while paving the way for long-term gender equality

Different Needs and Priorities for Transport

In rural development, transport needs often reflect the differing priorities of men and women based on their
roles and responsibilities. For instance, in one village, women prioritized constructing a road in the direction
of the nearest village to access basic services such as healthcare, education, and daily necessities. On the other
hand, men preferred the road to be built in the opposite direction, leading to a larger town and market, to
facilitate economic activities and travel by horseback.
This example highlights how gender roles influence infrastructure preferences, demonstrating the
importance of incorporating both perspectives into decision-making for equitable and effective development
projects.

Women in Development (WID): A Comprehensive Analysis

Modernization and Trickle-Down Model

During the 1950s and 1960s, modernization—viewed as economic growth through industrialization—was
expected to uplift living standards in developing countries. This approach assumed that the benefits of economic
development would "trickle down" equally to all, with male breadwinners distributing benefits within families.
Development policies were considered gender-neutral, focusing on men while treating women as passive
recipients with their primary role being child-rearing. Consequently, women were rarely included in
development planning as active participants or considered as a separate analytical unit.

Changed Perception in the 1970s

By the 1970s, it became apparent that women were not benefiting equally from development efforts.
Technological advancements in agriculture were directed at men, marginalizing women despite their significant
roles in subsistence farming. In industries, women were relegated to low-paying and monotonous jobs due to
limited education and their perceived role as supplementary wage earners.

The Danish economist Esther Boserup, in her groundbreaking book Women's Role in Economic Development
(1970), highlighted the critical role of women in agriculture and criticized the modernization model for being
unequal. Boserup argued that:

 Women’s roles in agriculture had historically been significant but were rendered invisible by male-dominated
bureaucracies.
 Technological advancements excluded women, marginalizing them and reducing their income, status, and
power relative to men.
 Women were relegated to subsistence sectors, while men dominated cash-cropping and modern farming
techniques.
 Development policies benefited men disproportionately, with no guarantee that women gained from increased
household income.

Boserup emphasized that development assistance must address the inequalities faced by women and integrate
them as equal participants.

Key Contributions of WID

1. Integrationist Approach:
WID sought to integrate women into existing development structures, emphasizing women’s roles as
productive members of society rather than mere beneficiaries of welfare programs. This approach aimed
to dismantle patriarchy by enhancing women’s economic power and visibility.
2. Focus on Women’s Productive Roles:
Advocates of WID rejected the narrow view of women as mothers and wives. Instead, they highlighted
their contributions to the economy and portrayed women as active contributors to development
processes.
3. Policy Impact:
o The term "WID" was popularized by female development professionals in Washington, D.C., aiming to
influence U.S. policy. Their efforts led to the Percy Amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act in 1973,
integrating women into national economies.
 o The UN Decade for Women (1976–1985) and the establishment of UNIFEM underscored global efforts
to improve women's status and integrate them into development processes.

4. Liberal Feminist Roots:

The WID approach emphasized equal opportunities, reflecting liberal feminist principles. It sought to
address women’s "condition," such as poverty and lack of education, through income-generating
programs like sewing and handcrafting.

Legacy and Criticism

The WID framework played a significant role in bringing women's issues to the forefront of development
agendas. However, it did not challenge existing social structures or address deeper issues of gender inequality
comprehensively. While it emphasized improving women’s conditions, it often overlooked the need to
transform gender relations fundamentally.

The contributions of WID remain a foundational step in recognizing women’s importance in development,
paving the way for more transformative frameworks like Women and Development (WAD) and Gender and
Development (GAD)

Caroline Moser's Policy Approaches to Women and Development

Caroline Moser (1993) proposed five key policy approaches to addressing women's roles and issues in
development. These approaches reflect the evolution of thought from the Welfare Approach to the
Empowerment Approach and highlight shifts in priorities and strategies over time.

• The Welfare Approach

• The Equity Approach
• The Anti-poverty Approach
• The Efficiency Approach
• The Empowerment Approach

The Welfare Approach (Pre-WID: 1950–1970)

Overview

The Welfare Approach, predating Ester Boserup's landmark work, was rooted in modernization theory. It
perceived women primarily as mothers and carers, with development efforts aimed at supporting their
reproductive roles.

Key Features

The Welfare Approach focused on incorporating women into development through programs addressing
practical needs. It emphasized:

1. Family planning to control population growth, seen as the main cause of poverty.
2. Eradication of malnutrition through education on nutrition, population control, home economics, and
parenthood.
3. Maternal and child health (MCH) programs, which included providing food aid for family survival.
This approach assumed that women's primary contribution to development was through child-rearing.
Development programs were implemented in a "top-down" manner, involving handouts of free goods and
services.

Strengths

The Welfare Approach played a significant role in promoting maternal and child healthcare. This led to
reductions in infant mortality and, to a lesser extent, maternal mortality rates.

Criticisms

Despite its achievements, the approach was criticized for its limitations:

1. Women were seen as passive beneficiaries rather than active participants in development.
2. The "top-down" nature of welfare programs created dependency rather than fostering independence.
3. The approach failed to address strategic gender needs, such as empowerment and equality.

The Equity Approach (1975–1985)

Introduction

The Equity Approach was a significant Women in Development (WID) strategy, introduced during the UN
Decade for Women (1976–1985). It aimed to address systemic inequalities between men and women by
focusing on gender equity. Unlike gender equality, which seeks to provide the same opportunities for both
genders, gender equity acknowledges the different needs and interests of men and women and requires a
redistribution of power and resources to achieve equivalent life outcomes.

Overview

The Equity Approach emerged during the UN Decade for Women (1976-1985) and was the first Women in
Development (WID) strategy. This approach aimed to achieve gender equity, recognizing that women required
additional resources and efforts to achieve equivalence in outcomes with men.

Key Concepts of Gender Equity and Equality

1. Gender Equality: Involves providing women the same opportunities as men to participate in life, particularly in
the public sphere.
2. Gender Equity: Focuses on achieving equivalent outcomes for men and women by addressing the relative
disadvantages women face. More resources and efforts are directed toward women to level the playing field.

For equity and equality to result in similar outcomes, both genders must be equally privileged within society.

Key Features

The Equity Approach sought to address systemic inequalities by:

1. Challenging women's subordinate position in society.

2. Introducing legislative measures and policies to ensure equal opportunities.
3. Supporting civil and political rights for women, including laws against violence.
This approach focused on meeting women's strategic gender needs, viewing them as active participants in
development.

Strengths

The UN's support for the Equity Approach resulted in lasting impacts, such as:

1. Advancements in social and political legislation in various countries.

2. Enhancements in women's civil and political rights, leading to some progress in gender equity.

Criticisms

The Equity Approach faced significant challenges, including:

1. Rejection by developing nations, which criticized it as "Western feminism" that failed to address the immediate
practical needs of women, such as food, water, and shelter.
2. Over-reliance on legislative measures, assuming equal opportunity would automatically lead to equal outcomes,
which was often not the case due to societal and cultural barriers.
3. Failure to account for the diversity of cultures and the patriarchal power dynamics that perpetuate inequality.

Moreover, while the approach succeeded in reducing discriminatory laws, it did not sufficiently address the
structural and cultural barriers that hinder women's access to education, freedom from harassment, and equitable
participation in society

The Efficiency Approach (Post-1980s)

Introduction

The Efficiency Approach emerged in response to the economic challenges of the 1980s debt crisis and was
introduced as a strategy to improve development by incorporating women's economic contributions. Unlike
previous approaches, this approach emphasizes the efficiency of development through the active participation of
women in the labor force. It highlights the necessity of harnessing women's economic potential for achieving
greater productivity and growth in restructured economies.

Key Features of the Efficiency Approach

 Focus on Women's Economic Contribution: The approach emphasizes that women, constituting half of the
population, must be integrated into the labor force to ensure the efficiency of development. Women’s
participation in economic activities is seen as essential for achieving economic growth.
 Associated with Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs): The IMF and World Bank’s SAPs, which emphasize
efficiency and productivity, are linked to this approach. These programs advocate for the inclusion of women in
the workforce, particularly in factories and other productive sectors.
 Neo-liberal Economic Reforms: The approach is grounded in neo-liberal economic ideas, promoting market
forces, economic restructuring, and international trade as means to spur growth.
 Assumption of Increased Equity: A key assumption of the Efficiency Approach is that the increased economic
participation of women will automatically lead to increased equity. Proponents, such as USAID, the World Bank,
and OECD, argue that women's economic participation ties together the goals of efficiency and equity.
Criticism of the Efficiency Approach

 Limited Liberation of Women: While the approach assumes that economic participation will empower women,
it has often resulted in new forms of exploitation. Rather than liberating women, globalization and
modernization have led to a new underclass of low-paid or unpaid women workers.
 Exploitation in the Workforce: The need for cheap labor in globalized markets has led to the exploitation of
women in factories and other low-wage sectors. Women are often employed in precarious jobs with minimal
pay and poor working conditions, serving capitalist interests by providing low-cost labor for profit.

The Efficiency Approach (Post-1980s)

Introduction

The third WID approach, adopted since the 1980s debt crisis, emphasized that development is more efficient
and effective through harnessing women's economic contribution. It seeks to meet women's practical needs. It is
associated with the IMF and World Bank Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPS) that emphasize efficiency
and productivity.

Key Features of the Efficiency Approach

 Economic Participation: The approach stresses that, as half the population, women must be used efficiently in
the labour force in restructured economies to achieve economic growth. If women do not work in the
marketplace, then their working potential is being wasted.
 Focus on Market Work: This approach emphasizes women working in factories, etc.
 Neo-liberal Economic Shift: The efficiency approach rests on the neo-liberal notions of restructuring to reap the
benefits of market forces, economic growth, and international trade.

Assumptions and Impact

 Link Between Efficiency and Equity: This shift towards development also had an underlying assumption that
increased economic participation of Third World women is automatically linked with increased equity. On this
basis, organizations such as USAID, the World Bank, and OECD have argued that an increase in women's
economic participation in development links efficiency and equity together.

Criticism

 Exploitation of Women: Rather than liberating women into the workplace, globalization or modernization has
bred a new underclass of low-paid or unpaid women workers. Capitalists need low-paid women workers for
profits

The Empowerment Approach (1975 Onward, Accelerated in the 1980s)

Introduction

The Empowerment Approach is the cornerstone of the Gender and Development (GAD) doctrine. Its purpose is
to empower women through greater self-reliance and means of supporting bottom-up/grassroots mobilization,
such as the microcredit scheme. It seeks to empower women through the redistribution of power within
societies and addresses women's strategic needs to change laws and structures that oppress them.

Key Features of the Empowerment Approach

  Focus on Redistribution of Power: The Empowerment Approach aims to redistribute power within societies,
challenging male oppression (such as domestic violence) and neo-colonial oppression.
 Strategic Needs: It addresses women's strategic needs, particularly those related to legal and structural changes
to fight oppression.
 Laws and Rights: Pakistan's Protection against Harassment of Women at the Workplace Act (2010) is an example
of legislation aimed at creating a safe working environment for women, free from harassment, abuse, and
intimidation, thus fulfilling their right to work with dignity.

Comparison with the Equity Approach

 While the Equity Approach also identifies women's strategic needs, it differs in its modus operandi. The Equity
Approach relies on top-down legislations and interventions, whereas the Empowerment Approach operates
through a bottom-up, participatory planning framework, empowering women's organizations at the grassroots
level.

Women’s Roles and Consciousness

 The Empowerment Approach recognizes all three roles of women (community participation, reproduction, and
production) and seeks to raise women's consciousness.
 It mobilizes women against subordination through grassroots organizations.

Prominent Example

 The Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) is widely acknowledged as the best-known
champion of the Empowerment Approach

Women and Development (WAD): A Neo-Marxist Approach

Challenging Capitalism

WAD, a Marxist-feminist paradigm, emerged in the latter half of the 1970s as a critique of both modernization
theory and the Women in Development (WID) approach. WID treated women as "untapped resources,"
assuming that their integration into the market economy would enhance its efficiency. In contrast, WAD
regarded this as an "add women and stir" approach, similar to liberal feminism, which sought merely to
integrate women into the political and economic system without challenging the existing structures.

Criticism of WID and Modernization Theory

Third World feminists criticized the idea that women were merely excluded from development. Instead, they
argued that women were being integrated into a development process that inherently exploited them. WAD
asserted that while women had always been part of development, they would not benefit until international
systems became more equitable.

Focus on Inequality Between the North and South

The approach critiques international structures of inequality between the rich North and the poor South, positing
that development, as currently practiced, makes the rich richer and the poor poorer. WAD theorists often
pointed to the advances of women in communist countries where the state had abolished private property,
believing that only through radical, systemic reform could women benefit from development.
Neo-Marxist Roots: Dependency Theory and World Systems Theory

WAD draws from neo-Marxism, particularly the dependency theory and world systems theory. It originated in
1975 in Mexico City as an effort to discuss women's issues from a neo-Marxist and dependency theory
perspective. The WAD approach seeks to explain the relationship between women and the capitalist
development process, particularly focusing on the material conditions contributing to their exploitation.

Marxism and Economic Determinism

Karl Marx, in works like The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1868), emphasized the economic
basis of conflict. Marx argued that the economic substructure determines the nature of all other institutions and
social relationships. Under capitalism, the proletariat (working class) is exploited by the bourgeoisie (capitalist
class), which leads to poverty and other social problems. Marx viewed the history of societies as a class
struggle, wherein capitalism (thesis) eventually leads to its own destruction, giving birth to a proletarian
revolution (antithesis) and, ultimately, a socialist world order (synthesis).

Dialectical Materialism and Class Conflict

This theory is part of Neo-Marxism and its offshoots: Dependency Theory and World Systems Theory,
which challenge the assumptions of modernization theory.

Dependency and World Systems Theory

Contrary to modernization theory, which assumes that all countries will follow a linear path to development
through free trade, dependency theorists and world systems theorists argue that the prosperity of First World
nations (the core) is based on the exploitation of Third World nations (the periphery). This exploitation, rooted
in European colonization and continued through neo-colonialism, keeps Third World countries poor and
dependent. According to this view, the unequal relationship persists as long as First World nations rely on the
natural resources and cheap labor of the Third World.

Women's Role in the Development Process

In the WAD approach, scholars believe that women, especially poor, working women, have always been active
participants in the development process. However, their oppression is primarily due to their countries' historical
dependence on industrial capitalist states. Drawing from dependency and world systems theories, WAD
emphasizes the material conditions contributing to women's exploitation but, like the WID approach, focuses on
women's income-generating "productive" activities without adequately addressing their unpaid "reproductive"
labor in the household.

Capitalism and Women's Oppression

As subsistence economies transformed into capitalist economies, production shifted from personal use to
exchange for profit. This transition disproportionately benefitted men over women, as capitalist economies
often marginalize women’s roles. For Marxist feminists, capitalism produces an oppressive society for the
working class, including women, who are treated as commodities in a system controlled by a few wealthy
individuals.

The Commodification of Women's Labor

Women's problems, therefore, are inseparable from the critique of capitalism and class structure. WAD critiques
how women's labor, both paid and unpaid, becomes commodified and exploited under capitalist systems.
Focus on Class, Not Gender

WAD advocates emphasize classism over sexism, arguing that gender inequality is a manifestation of class
inequality, perpetuated by capitalism. WAD theorists argue that patriarchy, which leads to the subordination
and oppression of women, is not sufficiently addressed.

Downplaying Patriarchy and Gender Relations

WAD tends to downplay the role of patriarchy in the oppression of women, focusing instead on the broader
economic structures of class and capitalism. As such, it does not fully engage with gender relations as a critical
area of analysis.

Women’s Productive and Reproductive Roles

WAD’s limited focus on women’s productive roles while neglecting their reproductive labor is a key critique.
WAD’s emphasis on the productive work of women, often in the formal labor market, overlooks the significant
unpaid work that women perform in the household.

Conclusion

WAD advocates argue that women’s oppression will only be resolved when capitalism and the class structure
are abolished. They focus on reforming international structures of inequality, believing that once these systems
become more equitable, women's status will improve. However, WAD's limited attention to gender dynamics,
particularly patriarchy, and its focus on class relations rather than a comprehensive gender analysis, make it a
controversial and incomplete framework for understanding women’s oppression

Gender and Development (GAD)

The Shift from WID to GAD

The transition from the Women in Development (WID) approach to the Gender and Development (GAD)
approach in the early 1990s stemmed from the realization that focusing solely on women was insufficient to
address the unequal gender power relations that underpin poverty. While WID focused on integrating women
into development, GAD emphasized the need to examine the social and cultural relations between men and
women, with the aim of changing these unequal gender dynamics.

What is Gender Mainstreaming?

Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the implications for both women and men of any planned
action, including legislation, policies, or programs, in all areas and at all levels. According to the United Nations
Economic and Social Council (UNECOSOCI), gender mainstreaming seeks to make both women’s and men’s
concerns and experiences central to the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and
programs in political, economic, and social spheres. The ultimate goal of gender mainstreaming is to achieve
gender equity and ensure that inequality is not perpetuated.

Gender mainstreaming was first introduced at the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi and was
formally incorporated into international policy at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. The
strategy involves analyzing the likely effects of decisions on both women and men before actions are taken,
ensuring that policies and programs contribute to gender equity.
Key Differences Between WID and GAD

The primary difference between WID and GAD lies in their approach to addressing women's unequal position
in society.

 WID Approach: Focused exclusively on women, aiming to integrate them into development by
improving their economic independence and participation in income-generating activities. However,
WID was criticized for its limited scope, as it did not address the root causes of gender inequality or the
power relations between men and women. While it could bring about greater economic independence
for women, it did not challenge the broader social structures that contributed to their oppression.
 GAD Approach: Recognizes that improvements in women's status require a deeper analysis of the
gender relations between men and women. GAD emphasizes that both women and men must be
involved in addressing gender inequality and that the cooperation of men is essential for fundamentally
changing women's social and economic position. GAD focuses on understanding how unequal gender
relations contribute to women's exclusion from the development process and emphasizes that both men
and women need to be actively engaged in efforts to promote gender equity.

Practical Gender Interests vs. Strategic Gender Interests

Caroline Moser (1993) and scholars like Molyneux and Deborah Steinberg (1995) introduced the distinction
between practical gender interests and strategic gender interests.

 Practical Gender Interests: These refer to the immediate needs and necessities of women, such as
access to food, shelter, and basic resources. Meeting practical gender interests is vital for ensuring
survival and day-to-day well-being.
 Strategic Gender Interests: These are longer-term interests aimed at addressing the structural
inequalities that underpin gender discrimination, such as changes in laws, policies, and power relations
that affect women’s position in society. Strategic gender interests seek to empower women and shift the
power dynamics between genders.

GAD advocates for addressing both practical and strategic gender interests, recognizing that eliminating poverty
and achieving gender equality requires more than just increasing women’s income. It requires structural
changes that ensure access to essential services like sanitation, safe drinking water, health and education
facilities, and other public infrastructure.

The Role of Men in GAD

One of the significant shifts in the GAD approach is the recognition that the participation and commitment of
men are crucial for altering gender power relations. Men must be engaged in gender-aware programming to
challenge and change the social and cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality. This collaborative
approach encourages both men and women to work together to create a more equitable society.

Strengthening Women's Legal Rights

GAD places an emphasis on strengthening women’s legal rights, including inheritance and land rights,
recognizing that legal empowerment is key to achieving gender equity. By focusing on both practical and
strategic aspects of gender inequality, GAD aims to ensure that women have equal access to resources, legal
protection, and opportunities for social and economic advancement.
Limitations of WID and the Need for Broader Social Change

While WID could lead to greater economic independence and a sense of empowerment for some women, it
often left women vulnerable to ongoing exploitation and economic instability. Without addressing the structural
inequalities in society, WID interventions could only provide temporary relief rather than lasting change.
GAD’s egalitarian perspective, by contrast, aims to address the root causes of gender inequality through a more
holistic approach, acknowledging the importance of social, legal, and economic empowerment for women.

Addressing Poverty Through Comprehensive Development

GAD advocates for a more comprehensive approach to poverty reduction, one that goes beyond increasing
income. It emphasizes the need to include the needs of vulnerable groups such as children, the elderly, and
people with disabilities in the development agenda. This broader focus requires a shift from household
consumption to infrastructure and service provision, such as improved sanitation, safe drinking water, public
transportation, and access to health and education services. By addressing these broader needs, GAD aims to
create a more equitable and inclusive development process that benefits all members of society.

Conclusion

The GAD approach marks a significant departure from earlier development strategies by addressing the root
causes of gender inequality through a more comprehensive and inclusive framework. By emphasizing gender
mainstreaming, the importance of engaging men, and the need for structural changes in society, GAD seeks to
create a more equitable world where both women and men can benefit equally from development

Comparing WID and GAD

1. Integration into the Existing Structure

 WID: Accepted the existing social and power structures and worked within them to improve the position of
women. It aimed to integrate women into development without challenging the reasons behind their exclusion.
WID focused on how women could benefit from development projects specifically targeted at them, without
questioning why women were not prioritized in the first place.
 GAD: Takes a more critical approach by questioning and challenging the existing structures. GAD focuses on
transforming the social, economic, and political systems that perpetuate gender inequality. It seeks to change
power relations between men and women by addressing the root causes of gender oppression rather than
simply integrating women into an unequal system.

2. Focus on Sex or Gender

 WID: Focused primarily on sex by targeting women exclusively in its development projects. It viewed women as
the sole category in need of improvement, without considering how gendered power relations (i.e., the
relationship between men and women) influenced women’s position in society.
 GAD: Focuses on gender, rather than just women, using gender as an analytical tool to understand the different
ways economic, political, and social systems impact men and women. GAD seeks to address the underlying
social and cultural relations that perpetuate inequality. It aims to improve the quality of life for all members of
society, regardless of sex, race, or class.

3. Women as Beneficiaries or Agents of Change

 WID: Treated women as passive beneficiaries, expecting them to receive development benefits, such as
income-generating activities, without including them in the decision-making processes. WID projects were
 designed to integrate women into development but did not provide them with tools to influence the outcomes
of the projects.
 GAD: Recognizes women as agents of change who can take control of their lives and challenge the structures
that oppress them. GAD promotes empowerment, which involves the ability of women to make strategic
choices and decisions. It focuses on strengthening women’s agency, which is their capacity to act autonomously
and affect change.

4. Women Considered Homogeneous

 WID: Treated women as a homogeneous group and often ignored the diversity of experiences among women
based on factors such as class, race, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. WID projects tended to represent all
women as poor, backward, and in need of help, ignoring the social and economic differences between women.
 GAD: Acknowledges the diversity among women and recognizes that their experiences of oppression and
marginalization are influenced by other factors such as class, race, ethnicity, and socio-economic background.
GAD recognizes that different groups of women (e.g., poor women, indigenous women, women of color) may
face different types of exploitation and that their needs and priorities may differ significantly.

5. Focus on Productive/Reproductive Role of Women

 WID: Focused primarily on the productive roles of women, emphasizing their participation in the formal
economy through income-generating activities. WID supported women’s involvement in paid work outside the
home but did not address the unequal burden of reproductive work (household tasks and caregiving), which
remains largely unpaid and disproportionately burdens women.
 GAD: Takes a holistic approach by linking the productive and reproductive roles of women. It recognizes that
women's oppression is rooted in the social construction of these roles, which are shaped by cultural norms and
social expectations. GAD seeks to address both types of work and promote more equitable distributions of labor
between men and women.

6. Focus on Poverty/Oppression

 WID: Focused on poverty and saw economic development as a way to lift women out of poverty. However, it
did not recognize poverty as an outcome of gender oppression. WID theorized that economic development and
integration into the workforce would liberate women, without addressing the broader social structures that
maintain gender inequality.
 GAD: Focuses not only on poverty but also on women’s position in society. GAD targets the condition of women
(poverty) and their social position (disempowerment and marginalization). It challenges both the structural
inequality and gender-based oppression that keeps women in poverty. GAD emphasizes women’s
emancipation and works to change laws, access to resources, and participation in decision-making processes.

7. Focus on Practical/Strategic Needs

 WID: Primarily addressed women’s practical needs, which are short-term and direct, such as providing income-
generating opportunities or better access to education or healthcare. WID aimed to improve women’s
immediate living conditions without challenging the broader systems of gender inequality.
 GAD: Focuses on women’s strategic needs, which are long-term and transformative. These needs involve
addressing the root causes of gender inequality, such as changing laws, policies, and cultural norms. GAD seeks
to eliminate inequality through political means, for example, through legal reforms and advocacy for women’s
rights.

8. Focus on Equality/Equity
  WID: Focused on gender equality, which typically means providing women with the same opportunities as men.
WID’s goal was to ensure that women had equal participation in the public sphere, such as employment and
education.
 GAD: Focuses on gender equity, which goes beyond equality of opportunity to ensure equality of outcomes.
GAD recognizes that women and men have different needs and interests, and achieving equality may require
different treatment. GAD emphasizes redistributing power and resources to achieve transformative change in
the lives of women. It stresses the need to address both structural inequalities and gender roles.

9. Role of Men

 WID: Ignored the role of men in perpetuating gender inequality. WID approached gender development as a
women-only issue, without engaging men in the process of change.
 GAD: Recognizes that men are also part of the problem and the solution. It sees men as key players in the
development process and stresses the importance of engaging men as allies in challenging gender inequalities.
GAD emphasizes that improving women’s status is not only a women’s issue but a societal goal that requires the
active participation of both men and women.

Summary:

The comparison highlights key differences between WID and GAD:

 WID focused on integrating women into existing structures without addressing the underlying power dynamics,
while GAD seeks to transform these structures.
 WID treated women as homogeneous and passive recipients of development, whereas GAD recognizes the
diversity among women and sees them as agents of change.
 WID emphasized short-term practical needs and equality, while GAD addresses long-term strategic needs,
equity, and transformative change.
 GAD stresses the importance of engaging men and addressing both men’s and women’s roles in perpetuating
gender inequalities, whereas WID focused solely on women’s participation without questioning broader societal
norms.

Shift from WID to GAD: Key Changes and Theorization

The shift from Women in Development (WID) to Gender and Development (GAD) marked a dramatic
evolution in development thinking and practice. This transformation addressed the deeply entrenched gender
inequalities that WID failed to resolve. The shift reflected the recognition that women needed to be agents of
change, rather than merely beneficiaries of development. This transition also reflected changing political
contexts, from reliance on state-driven development in the 1970s to a greater emphasis on non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) in the 1980s.

1. Context of the Shift (1970s-1990s):

 1970s: WID focused on integrating women into existing development projects, assuming that women would
benefit from the economic growth generated by such initiatives. The state was seen as the primary agent of
transformation, and the focus was on improving the welfare of women within traditional development
frameworks.
 1980s: There was a growing critique of WID’s failure to address underlying gender inequalities. A shift towards
NGOs emerged, with organizations focusing on grassroots efforts and emphasizing women's empowerment. This
decade witnessed the birth of GAD, influenced by socialist feminism and the UN Decade for Women (1976-
1985), which highlighted the need for more inclusive and transformative approaches.
  1995: The Beijing Fourth World Conference on Women formalized the GAD approach, advocating for the
mainstreaming of gender in all policies. The Beijing Platform for Action asserted that to achieve sustainable
development, both men and women must be included in every development project.

2. Core Theorization of GAD:

 Oppression and Power Relations: GAD theorizes that women’s oppression is deeply rooted in unequal power
relations between men and women, rather than just women's limited access to resources. It argues that gender
inequality is not a women’s issue but a systemic issue that involves social structures and power dynamics that
perpetuate female subordination.
 Social Construction of Gender: GAD emphasizes gender, which is seen as a social or cultural construct, as
opposed to sex, which is biologically determined. According to GAD, gender roles are modifiable through
changes in social values, norms, and attitudes. Therefore, the gendered division of labor and societal
expectations are not static, and they can be reshaped through societal change.
 Participatory Approach: Unlike WID, which often isolated women’s issues in development projects, GAD
advocates for a participatory approach that involves both men and women in redefining gender roles. This
collaborative process recognizes the role of men in both maintaining and changing gender norms, underlining
the necessity of both genders working together for transformative change.

3. GAD’s Key Principles:

 Gender Equity: GAD emphasizes gender equity, not just equality. This means ensuring fair treatment for both
men and women, taking into account their different needs, roles, and contributions.
 Empowerment: GAD focuses on empowering women by ensuring their active participation in economic, social,
and political spheres. Empowerment in GAD is a process of recognizing and addressing gendered power
imbalances, allowing women to make strategic decisions for their lives.
 Transformative Change: GAD seeks transformative change in gender relations, not just incremental
improvements. This involves questioning and rethinking all societal structures, policies, and practices from a
gendered perspective.

4. Illustrative Examples of GAD in Action:

 UNDP's AIDS Program in Africa: The community conversations initiative in Africa is an example of
GAD in practice. Through open discussions, men learned about the impact of AIDS and understood how
their lives could be enriched by more respectful relations with women. These discussions have been
more effective in changing behaviors than laws alone, demonstrating how GAD’s emphasis on shifting
attitudes can foster deep behavioral changes.
 Cyclone Relief in Ossetia, India: After a destructive cyclone, UNDP volunteers restructured disaster
preparation by involving both men and women in the emergency teams and conducting mock-drills
that engaged entire communities. By breaking traditional gender roles in disaster management, the
program led to a more collaborative relationship between men and women and mutual respect, an
outcome that laws alone could not achieve.

5. Three Major Departures from WID:

 Identifying Unequal Power Relations: GAD explicitly identifies the unequal power relations between women
and men as the root cause of gender inequality. WID did not emphasize power dynamics to the same extent and
often worked within the existing patriarchal structures.
 Reexamining Social, Political, and Economic Structures: GAD reexamines all societal structures—political,
social, and economic—from the perspective of gender. This critical analysis considers how these structures
reinforce gendered divisions and subordination.
  Achieving Transformative Change: GAD recognizes that achieving gender equality and equity requires
transformative change in gender relations at every level—from households to global systems. This shift
contrasts with WID, which focused on integrating women into pre-existing systems without challenging their
inherent inequalities.

Conclusion:

The shift from WID to GAD was driven by the need to address the root causes of gender inequality. WID’s
approach, which largely treated women as passive beneficiaries of development, was inadequate in challenging
the deeper social, political, and economic structures that perpetuate women's subordination. In contrast, GAD’s
focus on transforming gender relations and empowering women has proven more effective in driving
sustainable and meaningful change. Through participatory, gender-sensitive approaches and a focus on
equity, GAD aims for a future where both women and men can achieve true gender equality

Empowerment through Credit Facilitation: GAD's Microcredit Approach

The Gender and Development (GAD) approach has significantly advanced women's empowerment through
microcredit schemes, improving upon earlier income-generation projects under the Women in Development
(WID) framework. These initiatives aim to facilitate economic independence for poor women by providing
them with small loans to start or expand small businesses, thereby enabling them to become entrepreneurs.
Notable successful projects under the GAD framework include:

 Grameen Bank (Bangladesh): Founded by Muhammad Yunus in 1983, this bank provides microloans to the
poorest, particularly women, enabling them to initiate small-scale businesses. The bank's model has expanded
globally and serves as a key example of microcredit and its role in women's empowerment.
 SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association, India): A trade union for poor self-employed women, SEWA
provides access to credit, social security, and other benefits, contributing to the economic and social
empowerment of women in the informal sector.
 Mudzi Fund (Malawi): This fund provides women with loans to help them develop microenterprises and access
other resources needed for their economic activities.
 GABRIELA (Philippines): An organization focused on empowering women through reforms, equality, and
leadership, GABRIELA works to address women's needs in various sectors, including credit facilitation.

1. Microcredit and Its Impact on Women:

 Targeting the Informal Sector: Microcredit schemes are particularly significant in addressing the needs of the
informal sector, where a large percentage of the poor, especially women, work and reside. Traditional large-
scale development projects have largely ignored this sector, leaving a gap that microcredit programs aim to fill
by targeting small-scale, grassroots initiatives.
 Access to Credit: Microcredit is a lending process in which small loans are provided to groups of borrowers
(typically 4 or 5 people) at commercial interest rates. These loans are intended to help borrowers start or
expand small businesses and provide access to basic financial services, such as savings accounts.
 Example of Grameen Bank: The Grameen Bank model is the most well-known and successful example of
microcredit in action. It started when Muhammad Yunus, an economics professor, lent $26 to a group of 42
workers in Bangladesh, enabling them to buy materials for a day's work of weaving chairs and making pots. By
the end of the day, the workers sold their products, made a profit, and repaid the loan. This experience
demonstrated the potential of microcredit to foster entrepreneurship among the poor, especially women.
 Women as Primary Beneficiaries: The majority of microenterprise borrowers under these schemes have been
women. Yunus observed that women tend to use the profits from their microenterprises to improve the well-
being of their families, especially by feeding their children and reinvesting in their businesses. In contrast, men
often spent their profits on personal goods and electronics. This highlighted the impact of women’s
entrepreneurship on family welfare and community development.
2. Key Success Factors of Microcredit Schemes:

 High Repayment Rates: One of the notable successes of the Grameen Bank and similar schemes is the high loan
repayment rate, especially among women. For instance, Grameen Bank’s women borrowers have consistently
achieved a repayment rate of above 98%, a remarkable achievement for a program targeting the poorest.
 Empowerment and Social Development: Beyond economic benefits, microcredit schemes have empowered
women by providing them with financial independence and a sense of agency. These women gain access to
economic resources that were previously unavailable to them, enabling them to improve their lives, access
healthcare, and contribute to community development.

3. Global Replication of Grameen’s Success:

 The success of Grameen Bank in Bangladesh has been replicated in various countries, including India, Egypt,
Zambia, Bolivia, and other developing regions. These programs have targeted women as the primary
beneficiaries and have had profound impacts on local economies and communities.
 The Nobel Peace Prize (2006) awarded to Muhammad Yunus recognized his efforts in creating social and
economic development for the world’s poor using bottom-up, people-centered approaches. His work continues
to inspire microcredit initiatives globally, proving that small loans can have large impacts on women’s
empowerment and community development.

4. Challenges and Criticisms:

 While microcredit has been heralded as a tool for empowerment, there are also criticisms. Some argue that
high-interest rates can lead to debt traps, especially when borrowers are unable to generate sufficient income
to repay loans. Others suggest that microcredit does not always lead to long-term empowerment if it is not
accompanied by comprehensive support systems like education, healthcare, and infrastructure development.

Conclusion:

Microcredit schemes have proven to be an effective strategy for empowering women in the informal sector,
offering them opportunities to become entrepreneurs and improve their families' socio-economic status. These
schemes, including the Grameen Bank, SEWA, and others, exemplify the core principles of the Gender and
Development (GAD) approach by providing women with economic independence and a voice in decision-
making. However, for sustained empowerment, it is important to address the underlying structural inequalities
and support these women with additional resources and training to ensure their long-term success.

WID/GAD and Education: A Gendered Approach to Learning

In contrast to the Women in Development (WID) approach, which focuses primarily on access and equal
opportunities for girls' education, the Gender and Development (GAD) framework offers a more
comprehensive perspective by analyzing the impact of gender on the education of both girls and boys. GAD
recognizes that gender inequality in education is not limited to the barriers faced by girls alone but extends to
the wider socio-political and cultural contexts that affect the educational experiences of both genders.

1. The GAD Approach to Education:

 Gender Sensitivity: GAD emphasizes the need for gender-sensitive education that challenges the existing
gender norms and roles, ensuring that both boys and girls are treated equally in educational settings.
 The Impact of HIV/AIDS: In countries like Malawi, Swaziland, and Zambia, where the HIV/AIDS pandemic has
hit hard, adolescent girls are often more vulnerable than boys due to their social roles, lack of access to
healthcare, and unsafe school environments. For example, the prevalence rates of HIV/AIDS are higher among
 adolescent girls than boys, pointing to the need for policies that address the intersection of gender, health, and
education.
 Unsafe School Environments: Many schools are unsafe for girls due to prevalent sexual harassment, male-
dominated discourse, and curricula that reinforce outdated and subservient roles for women. GAD advocates
for safe, girl-friendly schools with basic facilities like separate, well-maintained restrooms, and policies that
promote equal participation in all subjects, whether traditionally male or female.

2. Curriculum and Gender Equality:

 Challenging Gender Inequality: GAD calls for revised curricula that challenge the status quo of inequitable
gender relations. Educational content should not only teach girls but also critically engage with gender norms
and gender inequalities within the society.
 Equal Subject Access: GAD advocates for girls to have the freedom to choose subjects that are traditionally
gendered, such as STEM subjects (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) and literature. This
ensures gender-neutral education, where boys and girls are equally encouraged to pursue their interests and
talents without being restricted by societal expectations.

3. Policies for Gender-Responsive Education:

 Educational Policies: Under the WID approach, educational focus may be limited to providing girls with
education within the existing patriarchal structures. However, GAD-based policies advocate for gender analysis
and the involvement of both women and men in the design of educational policies. This includes promoting the
importance of educating boys and men about gender equality, the value of girls' education, and the need to
challenge ingrained gender stereotypes.

WID/GAD and Health: Addressing Gendered Health Needs

The WID and GAD frameworks also provide distinct perspectives on health, particularly concerning the role of
gender in shaping health needs and experiences. While WID tends to focus on addressing maternal health and
biological differences, GAD adopts a more holistic approach to health by examining how gender roles,
gender norms, and gender relations affect the health experiences of both men and women.

1. Biological and Gendered Health Differences:

 Biological Differences: WID often attributes health differences between men and women to biological factors,
primarily focusing on maternal health. However, GAD emphasizes the need for a gendered lens to understand
how social roles influence health. While women’s health needs (e.g., maternal health) are acknowledged, men’s
health risks associated with gender roles, such as masculinity norms and risk-taking behaviors, are also
considered.
 Men's Health Risks: Men may face health risks linked to their gender roles, such as working in hazardous
conditions (e.g., carrying heavy loads), engaging in alcohol consumption, or participating in risky behaviors like
reckless driving. These behaviors are often influenced by societal expectations of masculinity, which can lead to
health issues such as heart disease, injuries, and mental health problems.

2. Gender Norms and Health Behavior:

 Health Risks for Men: Gender norms often pressure men to be non-emotional, self-confident, or aggressive,
which may prevent them from seeking healthcare for conditions such as infertility or mental health issues. This
reluctance to seek medical attention is a critical issue that GAD seeks to address by encouraging gender-
sensitive health education and public health campaigns.
  Women's Health Risks: Women, on the other hand, may face health risks due to their traditional roles as
caregivers for children, the elderly, and disabled family members. This caregiving role may lead to stress,
burnout, or lack of access to healthcare for themselves. GAD aims to raise awareness of these gendered health
risks and ensure that healthcare professionals are trained to recognize them.

3. Gender Mainstreaming in Health:

 Gender-Sensitive Health Services: GAD advocates for gender mainstreaming in health programs, which means
incorporating gender analysis into the design and implementation of health strategies. This includes raising
awareness among healthcare providers about how gender roles influence health risks and care needs.
 Inclusive Health Policies: Under gender mainstreaming, health programs should be designed to address the
specific needs of both women and men, including culturally appropriate care. For example, in some contexts,
Muslim women may only consult female doctors, and uneducated individuals may have difficulties
understanding medical prescriptions. Addressing such gender-based health barriers ensures that both women
and men receive adequate and inclusive healthcare.

4. Challenges in Health Systems:

 Cultural and Social Barriers: Problems may arise when gender roles and socio-cultural norms hinder access to
healthcare. For example, some women may prefer to consult female doctors for cultural reasons, while
uneducated men may not ask questions about their health treatment out of embarrassment. Gender
mainstreaming within healthcare systems must acknowledge and address these barriers to ensure equitable
access to quality care.

Conclusion

In both education and health, the shift from WID to GAD brings a more comprehensive understanding of
gender roles, norms, and relations, emphasizing the importance of addressing gender inequality in all sectors.
By focusing on both girls and boys in education, and considering gendered health risks in health policies, the
GAD approach fosters a more equitable and inclusive environment for all, aiming to eliminate gender
disparities in both learning and well-being.

Comparing WID and GAD: A summary

1. THE APPROACH: WID views the absence of women in development plans as the majo problem; GAD regards unequal
social relations between men and women as the major problem."

2. THE FOCUS: The focus of WID is on women; the focus of GAD is on the socially constructed relations between men
and women, with special focus on the subordination of women.

3. THE PROBLEM: For WID, it is the exclusion of women from the development process; for GAD it is unequal power
relations leading to inequitable development.

4. THE GOAL: For WID it is efficient development that includes women; for GAD it is equitable development with both
women and men as full participants in decision-making.

5. THE SOLUTION: WID [integrate women into the existing development process]; GAD [transform unequal relations,
and empower the disadvantaged and women].

6. THE STRATEGIES: WID [focus on women's projects; increase women's productivity and income; increase women's
ability to look after the household]; GAD [reconceptualize the development process, taking gender and global inequality
into account; identify and address practical needs to improve the conditions of men and women; at the same time,
address women's strategic needs].

"The WID approach is associated with a concern to increase women's participation and benefits, thereby making
development more effective. Gender and Development represents a transition to not only integrate women into
development, but look for the potential in development initiatives to transform unequal social and gender relations and
to empower women." [The Canadian Council for International Cooperation]

Gender Mainstreaming Projects Under UN-Habitat

1. Facilitating Access to Land for Earthquake Affected Families in Pakistan

Project's Main Objective

The project aimed to support the Government of Pakistan in facilitating access to land for people affected by the
2005 earthquake, particularly those rendered landless or virtually landless. The goal was to ensure that these
affected individuals, particularly women, had access to land during the rehabilitation process.

Gender Issues Covered

In Pakistan, women traditionally have limited land and property rights, and the earthquake exacerbated their
vulnerabilities. Women are often deprived of financial and material resources. The disaster resulted in
significant loss, further marginalizing women and increasing their hardships. This project addressed these issues
by focusing on granting land ownership to women within the rehabilitation program.

Gender Strategy and Implementation

UN-Habitat introduced a joint land-titling scheme, supported by the Earthquake Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation Authority. The scheme provided women with equal ownership of land and housing, and male
heads of households were not allowed to sell the land without the approval of female family members. This
initiative aimed to change the community’s mindset toward respecting women's property rights. Women were
also given the opportunity to participate in reconstruction discussions and oversee the construction process,
utilizing skills learned through training.

Knowledge Products from the Project

UN-Habitat created various educational materials such as flyers, posters, and banners to educate the community
about land rights and grievance mechanisms. Additionally, two video documentaries—Building on New
Ground (in Urdu) and New Beginning (in English)—were produced to highlight the project's successes and
challenges.

Lessons Learned
The project emphasized the importance of including women in decision-making and policy formulation. When
women were granted property rights, it empowered them at all levels and fostered a sense of security within the
community.

2. Water and Sanitation Improvement Through Gender Mainstreaming and Capacity-

Building of Local Authorities in Five Cities of Pakistan

Project's Main Objectives

This project aimed to improve health and sanitation in urban slums, with a specific focus on empowering
women within local decision-making mechanisms. It sought to provide safe drinking water and sanitation
facilities in selected informal settlements, improving the quality of life for women and girls.
Target Beneficiaries
The project primarily targeted residents of urban slums, with a particular emphasis on women and girls who
suffered most due to inadequate water and sanitation services.

Gender Issues Covered

Women in urban slums bear the brunt of inadequate water and sanitation systems. They are often responsible
for collecting water from distant sources and maintaining household hygiene. Waterborne diseases like cholera
and diarrhoea disproportionately affect women and children. Furthermore, the lack of sanitation facilities
exposed women to harassment and other safety concerns. Gender-sensitive planning was previously lacking,
and women were excluded from local decision-making processes.

Gender Strategy and Implementation

The project focused on training over 200 local government officials in gender-sensitive planning to ensure that
women's needs were considered in service delivery. It also equipped 323 women from 24 informal settlements
with leadership skills, enabling them to take active roles in monitoring the construction of water infrastructure.
Women were educated on water treatment and hygiene practices. Additionally, separate toilets were constructed
for women at bus stands, and solid waste management systems were introduced.

Impact
The project led to significant improvements, including the recognition of women's needs in local planning, a
reduction in harassment, and better community health outcomes. The provision of closer water sources
eliminated the risks women and girls faced while collecting water, and a 90% reduction in waterborne diseases
was observed. The time saved from water collection was repurposed for productive activities, such as education
and domestic work.

Lessons Learned
The project faced challenges in achieving maximum participation from women and girls due to cultural norms
and male-dominated decision-making. However, the community was sensitized to the importance of women's
involvement in decision-making, and children were identified as change agents who helped spread water,
sanitation, and hygiene messages. The project's success demonstrated the potential for engaging local
communities in improving public health and sanitation through gender mainstreaming.

3. Alignment with the Millennium Development Goals

The gender mainstreaming projects align with several of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs),
specifically:

1. Eradicating Extreme Poverty and Hunger

The land access project contributed to alleviating poverty for affected families, especially women, by
providing them with secure property rights.
2. Achieving Universal Primary Education
The water and sanitation project improved community health, enabling children, particularly girls, to
attend school instead of spending time collecting water.
3. Promoting Gender Equality and Empowering Women
Both projects emphasized women's empowerment by granting them equal land ownership and involving
them in decision-making processes related to water and sanitation.
4. Improving Maternal Health
Improved access to clean water and sanitation facilities directly contributed to better maternal health by
reducing the risk of waterborne diseases.
 5. Ensuring Environmental Sustainability
The water and sanitation project included the introduction of sustainable waste management practices,
contributing to environmental sustainability.

Through these projects, UN-Habitat has worked towards achieving the MDGs by addressing the specific needs
of women, improving their living conditions, and promoting gender equality in various aspects of community
development.

GENDER AND THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS The Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2002 at the
United Nations Millennium Summit, commits the Member Countries to striving to achieve eight specific goals by the
year 2015. To give definition to each of the goals, specific targets have been set for each and a set of indicators defined
against which performance can be monitored. Gender issues are highly relevant to achieving all of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) not just the ones where women's roles and responsibilities may be more evident such as
reducing child mortality or improving maternal health. Understanding men's and women's roles and relationships are
also central to combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases and ensuring environmental sustainability. As the MDGs
are mutually reinforcing progress towards one goal affects progress towards the others. Success in many of the goals will
have positive impacts on gender equality, just as progress towards gender equality will help further other goals. The
third of the Millennium Development Goals (to promote gender equality and empower women) addresses gender
equality specifically.

Globalization and Gender Development

Introduction to Globalization and Gender Equality

Modernization theorists have long associated economic development with the empowerment of women,
particularly through the displacement of traditional gender roles. In this view, patriarchal control and the
subjugation of women are seen as key features of traditional societies, which are transformed as market-based
capitalist relations spread.

Impact of Modernization on Gender Equality

Economic development is believed to create opportunities for women by encouraging individualism, which
values people based on their achievements rather than ascribed status. As capitalist economies grow, there is a
higher demand for skilled and educated workers, which opens doors for women to pursue education and enter
various careers. The United Nations' rankings of countries based on the Gender-related Development Index
(GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) show that developed countries consistently outperform
developing ones, suggesting that gender equality is tied to modernity.

Globalization and the Feminization of Labor

Globalization has created new job opportunities for women, particularly in developing nations. One of the most
notable trends is the rise of feminized or "pink collar" jobs in the service sector, such as retailing and data
processing. These roles provide employment to many women, particularly in urban areas, as labor markets shift.

Critique from a Feminist Perspective

However, feminist perspectives argue that the conception of modernity driving gender equality is rooted in
masculine norms. The Women in Development (WID), Women and Development (WAD), and Gender and
Development (GAD) frameworks critique this approach, highlighting that it overlooks structural and
intersectional factors that affect women’s lives. This has resulted in the “feminization of poverty,” where
despite their labor, women remain underpaid and disproportionately disadvantaged. The United Nations report
highlights these disparities, stating that women perform a significant portion of the world's work yet receive a
minuscule share of the income and ownership of property. Approximately 70% of the world’s poor are women,
illustrating how economic progress often fails to benefit women equitably.

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs)

Origins of SAPs

By the 1970s, many developing countries faced economic stagnation, exacerbated by rising oil prices. The
resulting debt crisis led to the involvement of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which provided loans to
countries like Mexico but required economic reforms in exchange. These reforms, known as Structural
Adjustment Programmes (SAPs), were designed to address the debt crisis but have faced substantial criticism
for their negative social impact, particularly on women.

IMF Policies and Their Social Impacts

SAPs were rooted in the IMF’s diagnosis that poor economic growth in developing nations resulted from
misguided policies. In response, the IMF imposed austerity measures, including fiscal discipline and balanced
budgets. These measures typically involved cuts to government spending, particularly in social and welfare
services. Education, healthcare, and other vital public services were particularly affected, which had severe
consequences for women who often rely on these services for their families.

Impact on Women and Girls

As government funding for social services decreased, women were expected to pick up the slack by expanding
their domestic responsibilities. This further entrenched gender inequality, as women were expected to take on
more work without corresponding support. In societies with a gender bias favoring male children, increased fees
for education and healthcare often meant that girls were the first to be excluded from these essential services.
Additionally, the reduction in government subsidies and the opening up of economies to foreign competition led
to job losses in the public sector, with women being disproportionately laid off.

Impact of Trade Liberalization and Foreign Investment

The opening of economies to unrestricted foreign investment, another condition of SAPs, had a damaging effect
on local industries. As domestic industries in the Global South struggled to compete with cheap foreign labor,
wages were driven down, and women were often the first to bear the brunt of these economic pressures.
Multinational corporations, attracted by the availability of low-cost labor, exploited women workers by paying
them meager wages despite the substantial profits they generated. This dynamic exacerbated the "feminization
of poverty," where economic globalization and neoliberal policies led to worsening conditions for women.

Conclusion

The effects of globalization and Structural Adjustment Programmes on gender development have been
profound. While globalization may have opened new job opportunities for women, it has also deepened gender
inequality by reinforcing traditional patriarchal structures. SAPs, with their focus on fiscal austerity and
deregulation, have further marginalized women, limiting their access to vital services and economic
opportunities. Feminist critiques emphasize that these policies have not empowered women but rather
entrenched their poverty and exploitation, demonstrating how economic policies shaped by global capitalism
often fail to address the structural inequalities that women face. The result is a widening gap in gender equality
and an ongoing cycle of poverty for many women across the developing world
GENDER ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPMENT THEORIES; MODERNIZATION THEORY, WORLD SYSTEM THEORY, DEPENDENCY
THEORY, STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM.

MODERNIZATION THEORY

Modernization Theory, grounded in the works of Max Weber and developed further by Talcott Parsons,
presents the idea that the development of a state follows a predictable and linear progression toward
modernization. The theory asserts that less developed nations are at a similar stage where the developed nations
once stood, and thus, they too can evolve through a set sequence of stages. The theory also emphasizes the role
of external help in facilitating this process.

Historical Context and Rise of Modernization Theory

A modernized state, according to this theory, falls under the category of a developed nation, characterized by
technological advancement, high economic growth, and a culture oriented towards modern ideas. The theory
gained prominence in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly during the post-World War II period, when
decolonization and the Cold War shaped the global political landscape. Modernization Theory became the
dominant approach to global developmental issues, aiming to identify what underdeveloped countries lacked—
such as technology, capital, and entrepreneurs—and suggesting that these deficiencies were the cause of their
lack of development. Walt Whitman Rostow compared developed and undeveloped nations to explain the
developmental gap, suggesting that underdeveloped countries lacked key factors for progress.

Characteristics of Modernization Theory

1. Stages of Development:
o Modernization Theory suggests that societies evolve through similar stages, moving from traditional to
modern states. These stages are linear, with each society progressing through stages like traditional
society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption, as outlined
by economist W.W. Rostow.

2. Focus on Economic Growth:

o The theory stresses the importance of economic growth, often achieved through industrialization.
Economic advancement is seen as a key factor in the development process.

3. Internal Cultural Barriers:

o Modernization theorists argue that cultural norms in impoverished nations, particularly those in Latin
America, Africa, and Asia, impede development. These internal societal structures—including
governance, customs, and economic practices—are seen as major barriers to progress.

4. Western-Centric Approach:
o The theory assumes that Western industrialized nations represent the ideal model of development, and
non-Western countries should follow this path to achieve modernization.

5. Cultural and Social Change:

o Modernization Theory proposes that the adoption of rationality, individualism, secularism, and other
modern values is necessary for modernization to occur.

Gender-Analysis of Modernization Theory

Modernization Theory is criticized for focusing on internal cultural factors as the root of women's subordination
in developing nations. The theory attributes gender inequality to traditional cultures, religious ideologies, and
patriarchal structures, which grant men dominance over women’s roles and activities. According to the theory,
more developed nations exhibit greater gender equality, and there is believed to be a correlation between
modernization, economic growth, and gender equality.

Ester Boserup's Contributions:

 Ester Boserup, in her book Women's Role in Economic Development, was one of the first feminists to explore the
effects of modernization on women. She argued that while modernization might improve the overall economic
conditions of a country, women often remain excluded from the benefits of this development. Boserup
identified that women's subordination in many developing countries was a result of their exclusion from waged
labor. She advocated for women’s inclusion in the formal economic sector to ensure they could reap the full
benefits of development.

Impact of Modernization Theory on Gender Inequality

1. Economic Growth and Industrialization:

o Modernization Theory prioritizes industrial sectors typically dominated by men, such as manufacturing
and formal employment, often ignoring sectors where women are more active, like agriculture and the
informal economy. This exacerbates gender inequality by limiting women's access to economic
opportunities.

Example: The Garment Industry in Bangladesh:

o In countries like Bangladesh, modernization has led to an industrial shift towards export-oriented
garment factories. Women make up the majority of the workforce in this sector. While the employment
of women in this industry provides income opportunities, the work is often poorly paid, lacks job
security, and exposes women to exploitation and unsafe working conditions, illustrating how
modernization can widen gender disparities rather than reduce them.

2. Urbanization and Migration:

o Urbanization, as a key step toward modernization, can offer women more opportunities by breaking
down traditional social structures. However, without adequate support systems like childcare and safe
housing, women—particularly those from rural areas—may struggle to integrate into urban economies,
reinforcing gender inequalities.

Case Study: Rural-to-Urban Migration in India:

o In India, large-scale rural-to-urban migration, driven by modernization policies, has increased women's
participation in the informal sector, especially in urban slums. Despite greater economic opportunities,
these women often lack formal rights and face exploitation, reflecting the complexities of urbanization
for women in developing countries.

3. Education and Cultural Change:

o Modernization Theory advocates for the spread of Western education models, but this one-size-fits-all
approach may conflict with local gender norms. While education is crucial for gender equality, resistance
to foreign educational models and lack of prioritization for girls' education may slow gender progress.

Example: Girls' Education in Afghanistan:

o The modernization push for education in Afghanistan faced significant barriers, particularly for girls.
Despite international pressure and funding for educational reforms, local cultural norms and ongoing
 conflict have limited girls' access to education, showing the challenges of imposing a Western model of
education in regions with strong cultural resistance.

4. Political Development and Democratization:

o While democratization can provide platforms for gender equality, women’s political participation is
often limited by male-dominated political structures. The lack of gender quotas or active measures to
encourage women’s involvement can perpetuate gender inequality.

Case Study: Women's Political Participation in Pakistan:

o In Pakistan, while modernization efforts in the form of democratization have led to the election of
women to political offices (such as Benazir Bhutto's prime ministership), women still face significant
barriers to political participation. Socio-cultural restrictions, the lack of political education, and
patriarchal structures limit the potential for full gender parity in political representation.

5. Cultural Modernization and Secularization:

o Modernization Theory supports secularization, moving away from traditional and religious norms. While
this can challenge patriarchal religious norms and promote gender equality, it can also lead to backlash
in societies where traditional values are deeply entrenched.

Example: Secularization and Women's Rights in Turkey:

o In Turkey, the secularization policies initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the 20th century led to the
modernization of the state and greater rights for women, including the right to vote and participate in
the workforce. However, recent shifts towards more conservative religious policies have sparked
debates about the role of women in public life, showing the complex relationship between
modernization, secularization, and gender equality.

6. Technological Advancement:
o The technological progress advocated by Modernization Theory can widen the gender gap if women are
excluded from new technological industries due to lack of access to education and training.

Case Study: Women and Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa:

o In Sub-Saharan Africa, women’s access to technology and training remains limited despite
modernization initiatives. While men are often favored for training in information technology and
telecommunications, women continue to face barriers in acquiring the skills necessary for participating
in the growing tech industry. This gender gap in technology threatens to leave women further behind in
the digital economy.

Internal Factors Responsible for Women’s Subordination

1. Traditional Social Norms and Values:

o Traditional patriarchal norms often assign women inferior roles in both domestic and public spheres.

2. Lack of Education and Skills:

o Limited access to education and skill development impedes women's ability to participate fully in the
economy.

3. Economic Dependence on Men:

o Women’s economic dependency on men restricts their autonomy and ability to make independent
decisions.
 4. Legal and Institutional Barriers:
o Discriminatory laws and lack of legal protection often prevent women from achieving equality in many
aspects of life.

5. Cultural Resistance to Change:

o In many societies, cultural resistance to gender equality is strong, and modernization efforts can face
opposition due to the perceived threat to traditional values.

6. Limited Political Participation:

o Women’s lack of political representation and participation in decision-making processes can perpetuate
gender inequality.

Women in Development (WID) Approach as a Solution

 In the 1970s, the Women in Development (WID) approach emerged to address the gender inequalities in
development. Feminists like Boserup called for the inclusion of women in the formal economic sector to
ensure they benefit from development.
 WID emphasized women’s access to education, jobs, and capital. It led to the recognition of gender
equality as a development goal and contributed to the adoption of frameworks like the Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).
 Despite WID's successes, women in developing countries entering the formal workforce still face
challenges, such as low pay and unstable jobs.

Women in Development (WID) Approach

In response to the gender inequalities observed in the development process, the Women in Development (WID)
approach was formulated in the 1970s. This approach sought to address the fact that women were not benefiting
as much as men from development initiatives, particularly in the Global South. WID advocates for women's
active participation in development, including access to education, jobs, and capital.

Boserup’s Contributions:

 Boserup theorized that women’s subordination and exploitation in poor countries were largely due to their
exclusion from waged labor. She argued that for development to be truly effective, women must be included in
the formal economic sector.

Impact of WID:

 WID led to the recognition of gender equality as a development goal in its own right, further solidified by
conventions like the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW),
signed by many developing countries. The approach has also been adopted by major international organizations,
including USAID.

Limitations:

 Although WID has increased women's participation in the formal workforce, many women in poor countries still
work in low-paying, unstable jobs, often in export-processing factories, which continue to reinforce gender
inequalities rather than solving them.

Criticisms of Modernization Theory

1. Capitalist Development:
 o Critics argue that the capitalist framework of modernization, which emphasizes industrialization and
export-led growth, actually leads to greater exploitation of marginalized groups, including women. The
spread of individualism and meritocracy is seen as a pathway to further inequality.

2. Ethnocentrism:
o Modernization Theory has been accused of being ethnocentric, as it tends to view Western culture as
superior and assumes that other societies should follow the same development trajectory. This
dismisses the diversity of cultural practices and social norms that shape gender roles.

3. Dependency Theory:
o Dependency theorists argue that the relationship between the Global South and Global North is
exploitative, with the underdeveloped nations remaining dependent on developed nations. This
challenges the idea that all nations can follow the same developmental path.

4. Neglect of Internal Factors:

o Modernization Theory often overlooks the influence of local political, economic, and cultural conditions
in the development process, instead attributing underdevelopment primarily to the lack of external
modernization.

5. Gender-Blindness:
o Modernization Theory has been critiqued for being gender-blind. It often fails to address the unique
barriers that women face in the development process, focusing instead on economic and technological
progress without considering gender-specific challenges.

Dependency Theory: Overview and Gender Analysis

Introduction to Dependency Theory

Dependency Theory is a socio-economic and political framework that explains global inequality as a result of
exploitative relationships between developed (core) countries and developing (peripheral) countries. It emerged
in the 1960s and 1970s, rejecting Modernization Theory's premise that underdeveloped countries were simply
less developed versions of developed nations. Instead, Dependency Theory argues that underdevelopment is a
consequence of the historical exploitation of peripheral countries by wealthy, developed nations.

Key Concepts of Dependency Theory:

1. Exploitation of Resources and Labor: Wealthier countries exploit the natural resources and cheap labor of poor
countries.
2. Creation of Dependence: Developed countries maintain control over peripheral nations by dominating
economics, politics, media, culture, education, and other aspects of human resource development.
3. Resistance to Independence: Wealthier countries resist any attempts by poorer nations to break free from their
influence, using economic sanctions or military force if necessary.

Dependency theorists define development as the ability of a country to free itself from external control and to
define its own path of growth, based on its unique needs rather than external pressures.
Gender Analysis of Dependency Theory:

While Dependency Theory focuses primarily on economic exploitation, it often overlooks the gendered nature
of these exploitative relationships. Women in peripheral countries are disproportionately affected by economic
dependency due to their roles in both formal and informal economies.

1. Gendered Impacts of Economic Dependency:

Dependency Theory emphasizes economic exploitation but often neglects how this exploitation is gendered.
Women in peripheral countries face heightened vulnerability due to their involvement in export-oriented
industries like textile manufacturing, where they work in poor conditions for low wages. This exploitation
reinforces both economic and gender-based inequalities.

 Example: The feminization of labor in industries such as textile manufacturing illustrates how women’s labor is
cheapened and exploited in global economic systems.

Quote: "Globalization has exacerbated existing gender inequalities by creating new forms of labor exploitation
that particularly target women in the developing world." — Naila Kabeer, feminist economist.

2. Social Reproduction and Unpaid Labor:

Dependency Theory often ignores the concept of social reproduction, which involves unpaid labor such as
childcare, eldercare, and household management, all of which are primarily carried out by women. This unpaid
labor is essential for sustaining the workforce but remains undervalued and invisible in both global economic
structures and the Dependency framework.

 Example: Women’s unpaid labor subsidizes the formal labor economy, allowing for continued extraction of
surplus value from the periphery to the core.

Reference: Feminist scholars like Maria Mies argue that "the capitalist world system is fundamentally based on
the exploitation of women’s labor, both paid and unpaid."

3. The Feminization of Poverty:

Dependency Theory’s critique of global economic structures can be extended to include the feminization of
poverty. Programs like Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) and austerity measures, imposed by
international financial institutions, disproportionately harm women by reducing access to vital social services
such as healthcare and education.

 Example: In many developing countries, cuts to public services under SAPs force women to take on additional
unpaid work, deepening their poverty and economic dependence.

Quote: "The economic adjustments imposed by global financial institutions have created a scenario where the
brunt of the crisis is borne by women, particularly in developing countries." — Sylvia Walby, feminist
sociologist.

4. Women’s Resistance Against Exploitative Structures:

Although Dependency Theory often depicts developing countries as passive victims of global capitalism, it
neglects the agency of women in challenging these structures. Women in the Global South have played crucial
roles in grassroots movements against both economic exploitation and gender oppression.
  Example: Women-led movements, such as the Zapatistas in Mexico, have resisted economic dependency while
advocating for gender justice.

Reference: Chandra Talpade Mohanty emphasizes the importance of recognizing women’s agency in these
movements, stating, “Third World women are not simply passive recipients of Western generosity but are active
agents in the fight for economic and gender justice.”

5. Decreased Women’s Participation in Economic Sectors:

The dependency created by core states excludes women from meaningful participation in the development
process, leading to their increased economic dependence on men. This marginalization stems from the belief
that women are inherently less productive than men, perpetuating a cycle of dependency.

 Impact: Women are excluded from decision-making and economic activities, further cementing their
dependence on male counterparts.

6. Women and Development (WAD) Approach:

In response to the marginalization of women under Dependency Theory, the Women and Development (WAD)
approach was formed. Unlike Women in Development (WID), which calls for the integration of women into the
development process, WAD emphasizes that women are already part of the development process, but their
contributions remain undervalued and unrecognized.

 Focus of WAD: The approach demands an equitable international structure that acknowledges and rewards the
contributions of women.

Feminist Critique of Dependency Theory:

While Dependency Theory explains how traditional exploitative structures, like race, caste, or class in colonies,
were used by developed countries for their own advancement, it overlooks how gender-based power relations
were also manipulated in these systems. Furthermore, the exploitation of women’s labor by multinational
corporations under global trade frameworks like the World Trade Organization (WTO) is often not fully
addressed by dependency theorists.

Conclusion:

Dependency Theory provides a valuable lens for understanding global inequality, particularly in the economic
exploitation of peripheral nations. However, a gendered critique highlights the disproportionate impact of this
exploitation on women. By incorporating feminist perspectives, the theory can be expanded to more fully
capture the gendered dimensions of global economic relations and to advocate for more inclusive and equitable
frameworks for development

World Systems Theory

World Systems Theory, developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein, is an approach to understanding world
history and social change, suggesting that there is a global economic system in which certain countries benefit
while others are exploited. Just as an individual's behavior cannot be understood without reference to their
culture and environment, a nation's economic system cannot be understood without reference to the global
system in which they exist.
The theory is structured around a three-level hierarchy consisting of core, periphery, and semi-periphery
countries:

1. Core Countries: These nations dominate and exploit peripheral countries for labor and raw materials.
2. Peripheral Countries: These nations are dependent on core countries for capital and often provide cheap labor
and resources.
3. Semi-Peripheral Countries: These countries share characteristics of both core and peripheral nations.

Temporal Stages of the World System

The world system also operates through four temporal stages:

1. Cyclical Rhythms: Short-term fluctuations in the economy.

2. Secular Trends: Long-term tendencies like general economic growth or decline.
3. Contradiction: Conflicts within the system, often between short-term and long-term trade-offs.
4. Crisis: A situation where a combination of circumstances leads to the collapse of the system.

Feminist Analysis of World Systems Theory

World Systems Theory can be critiqued from a feminist perspective, particularly concerning the role of gender
in global inequality. Feminist analysis emphasizes how the global economic system replicates societal gender
inequalities, with women often relegated to the periphery while patriarchal structures remain at the core.

Feminist Critique

The feminist critique of World Systems Theory highlights how the theory fails to fully integrate gender, race,
class, and ethnic analysis. The gendered division of labor, for instance, is not sufficiently addressed. The
economic systems that exploit peripheral countries also affect women disproportionately, and their experiences
are often marginalized within the theory.

Gendered Division of Labor

World Systems Theory highlights how peripheral countries supply cheap labor and raw materials to core
countries. Gender analysis examines how women, especially in peripheral countries, are relegated to low-wage,
labor-intensive sectors, which reinforces global inequalities.

Example: Garment Industry in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, millions of women work in the garment industry, which is central to global fashion supply
chains. Despite generating substantial revenue, these women face poor working conditions, long hours, and
minimal pay. Their low wages help sustain the profitability of global brands, reinforcing economic dependence
and gender inequality.

Reproductive Labor and Social Reproduction

World Systems Theory often overlooks unpaid reproductive labor, such as caregiving and domestic work,
which is predominantly performed by women but essential to the functioning of the economy.

Example: Unpaid Care Work in Sub-Saharan Africa

In many Sub-Saharan African countries, women are responsible for household chores, child-rearing, and
eldercare. This unpaid labor supports the formal economy but is neither recognized nor compensated. The
burden of unpaid care work limits women's opportunities for education and employment, thus reinforcing
gender inequalities.

Global Migration and Gendered Labor Exploitation

World Systems Theory examines labor migration from peripheral to core countries due to global economic
disparities. Gender analysis reveals that this migration often involves women who are employed in vulnerable,
low-paid sectors.

Example: Filipina Domestic Workers in the Middle East

Many women from the Philippines migrate to the Middle East to work as domestic workers. They face
exploitative conditions, including long hours, low pay, and abuse. Despite their contributions to both the
economies of host countries (through affordable domestic labor) and their home countries (through
remittances), these women remain marginalized and vulnerable.

Impact of Global Economic Policies

World Systems Theory critiques how global economic policies perpetuate inequalities between core and
peripheral countries. Feminist perspectives explore how these policies disproportionately affect women.

Example: Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) in Latin America

In the 1980s and 1990s, many Latin American countries implemented SAPs imposed by the IMF and World
Bank. These programs led to cuts in public spending on health, education, and social services, which
disproportionately affected women, who rely more heavily on these services due to their caregiving roles. The
reduction in public services increased the burden on women to provide unpaid care, further exacerbating gender
inequalities.

Gender and Development (GAD) Approach

In response to the marginalization of women and minority groups caused by the global system of dependency,
the Gender and Development (GAD) approach emerged. GAD broadens its scope by considering the
relationships between all genders and development. It provides a framework for understanding how gender
formation in society leads to discrimination, particularly against women and minority groups.

Criticism of World Systems Theory

1. Eurocentrism: The theory is often criticized for being Eurocentric, focusing mainly on the experiences of
Western Europe while marginalizing the histories and contributions of other regions.
2. Determinism: World Systems Theory is seen as overly deterministic, suggesting that countries' positions within
the global economic system are largely fixed, leaving little room for change or agency. This perspective overlooks
the dynamic and evolving nature of global economic relationships.
3. Neglect of Internal Factors: Critics argue that the theory focuses too much on external economic relationships
and neglects important internal factors such as domestic policies and social structures that play a critical role in
development.
4. Economic Reductionism: The theory is criticized for prioritizing economic factors over social, cultural, and
political aspects, which also contribute to global inequalities.
5. Lack of Attention to Gender and Other Social Inequalities: By focusing primarily on economic exploitation,
World Systems Theory fails to fully account for how gender, race, and other forms of social inequality intersect
with global economic structures to perpetuate inequality.

Conclusion
World Systems Theory provides a framework for understanding interactions between states in the global
economy. However, it often neglects the role of gender and other inequalities in these interactions. The
exploitation of peripheral countries by core countries impacts marginalized groups, particularly women, who
form a large portion of the poor population. Gendered analysis reveals how women in peripheral countries, such
as those in the garment industry in Bangladesh or domestic workers in the Middle East, are disproportionately
affected by the global economic system. Despite its contributions, the World Systems Theory needs to more
adequately incorporate gender, race, and other social inequalities in order to fully address the global systems of
dependency.

Women’s Subordination in Modern Societies in Light of Global Economic Systems

1. Economic Hierarchies and Gender Inequality

 Core Nations: In economically advanced countries, women continue to face gender-based

discrimination despite the higher levels of economic development. Issues such as wage gaps,
occupational segregation, and underrepresentation in leadership roles reflect ongoing gender
inequalities. The economic prosperity of core nations does not always translate into gender equality, as
systemic barriers and cultural norms continue to perpetuate women’s subordination. For instance, in
many core nations, women are often overrepresented in lower-paid, part-time, or insecure employment
while remaining underrepresented in senior managerial or decision-making positions.
 Periphery Nations: In less developed or peripheral countries, women often experience more severe
forms of subordination. Economic exploitation by core nations exacerbates gender inequalities, with
women frequently occupying low-wage, informal, and precarious jobs. These conditions are linked to
the global demand for cheap labor and resources from periphery nations, reinforcing women's economic
dependence and marginalization. In countries like Bangladesh, women in the garment industry face poor
working conditions and minimal pay, demonstrating how global economic structures disproportionately
affect them.

2. Global Economic Structures and Gender Dynamics

 Labor Exploitation: The global economic system relies on the exploitation of labor from periphery
nations, where women are often employed in low-paying and exploitative conditions. The demand for
cheap labor in these countries benefits core nations, which capitalize on flexible labor markets. Women
in peripheral countries are often the backbone of low-cost industries that produce goods for export to
core nations, such as textiles, agriculture, and electronics.
 Global Supply Chains: Women in peripheral countries are disproportionately represented in global
supply chains, especially in industries like textiles, agriculture, and electronics. These supply chains are
structured to maximize profits for core nations, often at the expense of fair wages and working
conditions for female workers in peripheral nations. Women workers in these industries experience
precarious labor conditions, including long hours, poor health and safety standards, and low pay, which
reflects their marginalization in the global economy.

3. Cultural and Structural Influences

 Cultural Norms: The influence of core nations on global cultural norms can perpetuate gender
stereotypes and inequalities in both core and periphery countries. For instance, global media and
consumer culture reinforce traditional gender roles, such as the portrayal of women in passive, domestic
roles or the objectification of women in advertising and entertainment. These cultural depictions shape
societal expectations and limit women's social and economic opportunities worldwide, reinforcing their
subordination.
 Structural Dependency: Periphery nations’ economic dependence on core nations can lead to structural
inequalities that disproportionately affect women. Economic policies and trade agreements often
 prioritize the interests of core nations, which can result in reduced social services and support systems
for women in peripheral countries. For example, the implementation of structural adjustment programs
(SAPs) by international financial institutions like the IMF and World Bank in developing countries often
leads to cuts in public services, disproportionately affecting women who rely on social services for
healthcare, education, and childcare.

4. Resistance and Agency

Despite these systemic issues, women in both core and periphery nations engage in resistance and advocacy to
challenge and address gender inequalities. This can take the form of grassroots activism, international solidarity
movements, and policy reforms aimed at improving women’s economic and social status. Examples of such
movements include:

 Feminist Movements in Core Nations: Women in developed countries have long fought for equal
rights in the workplace, advocating for equal pay, reproductive rights, and the elimination of gender-
based violence. Movements like #MeToo and the push for gender pay equity exemplify the ongoing
struggle for gender equality even in economically advanced societies.
 International Solidarity Movements: Women in peripheral countries often form alliances with
international organizations to advocate for labor rights, better working conditions, and gender equality.
For instance, workers' rights organizations have worked to improve conditions for women in the
garment industry in countries like Bangladesh, raising awareness about exploitation in global supply
chains.

These movements reflect women’s agency in resisting economic and cultural subordination, and they aim to
build a more equitable global economic system where women are not marginalized.

Conclusion

The subordination of women in modern societies is deeply embedded in the global economic system, with
women in both core and peripheral nations facing gender-based economic inequalities. While the economic
prosperity of core nations is often built on the exploitation of women in peripheral nations, systemic barriers
and cultural norms continue to perpetuate gender inequality globally. However, despite these challenges,
women across the world continue to resist and demand change, engaging in advocacy and solidarity efforts to
improve their social and economic conditions

Relevance of Theories to Gender Equality

1. Modernization Theory

Overview:
Modernization Theory suggests that societies evolve in a linear process from traditional to modern stages. It
posits that economic development, industrialization, and technological progress will lead to societal
improvements, including gender equality.

Relevance to Gender Equality:

 Economic Development and Gender Roles: Modernization Theory assumes that as economies
develop, gender equality will naturally follow. The theory suggests that industrialization and
modernization will lead to increased female participation in the workforce and greater gender equality.
However, this assumption often overlooks the persistence of gender inequalities, even in modernized
 societies. For example, despite economic growth in countries like Japan or the United States, women
continue to face wage gaps, occupational segregation, and underrepresentation in leadership roles.
 Cultural Changes: The theory implies that modernization will bring cultural shifts that promote gender
equality. However, it often neglects how deeply entrenched cultural norms and gender roles can resist
change. Even in modernized societies, traditional gender expectations persist, limiting women’s
opportunities and reinforcing gender subordination. For instance, in many countries, women still face
societal pressures to prioritize family and caregiving roles over career development.
 Policy Implications: Modernization Theory's focus on economic growth may lead to policies that
prioritize economic development over gender equity. Without targeted efforts to address gender
disparities, economic progress alone is insufficient to dismantle systemic barriers. In this sense,
Modernization Theory may inadvertently reinforce the status quo, failing to promote real gender
equality unless combined with specific gender-conscious policies.

2. Dependency Theory

Overview:
Dependency Theory argues that the global economic system benefits wealthy (core) nations at the expense of
poorer (periphery) nations. It highlights the economic exploitation of peripheral nations and their dependency
on core nations.

Relevance to Gender Equality:

 Gender and Economic Exploitation: Dependency Theory emphasizes how the exploitation of
peripheral nations in the global economy disproportionately affects women. In these nations, women
often work in low-wage, precarious jobs, particularly within global supply chains for industries like
textiles, agriculture, and electronics. This reflects the way in which women’s labor is devalued and
exploited, reinforcing gender inequality.
 Structural Inequality: The theory highlights how economic dependency perpetuates gender
inequalities by limiting access to resources, education, and employment opportunities for women.
Women in peripheral countries often face compounded disadvantages due to both their gender and the
economic exploitation of their nations. The result is heightened poverty, marginalization, and limited
social mobility for women in these regions.
 Focus on Global Dynamics: Dependency Theory provides a framework for understanding how global
economic structures shape gender relations. It examines how international economic policies, trade
agreements, and global economic practices impact gender equality in less developed nations. For
instance, trade policies that favor core nations can prevent peripheral nations from investing in gender-
equitable education and healthcare, leaving women in these countries vulnerable to exploitation.

3. World Systems Theory

Overview:
World Systems Theory, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, builds on Dependency Theory by categorizing
countries into core, semi-periphery, and periphery based on their economic roles in the global system. It looks at
how the economic and political power of core nations shapes the global order.

Relevance to Gender Equality:

  Core-Periphery Dynamics: World Systems Theory helps explain how gender inequality is shaped by
global economic hierarchies. Women in core nations may face different forms of inequality compared to
women in peripheral nations, but both are affected by global economic processes. The theory highlights
how the exploitation of labor in peripheral countries and the consumption of cheap goods in core nations
create gender disparities in both contexts. For example, while women in the core nations may have more
economic opportunities, they still face issues such as wage discrimination, while women in peripheral
nations experience more severe forms of exploitation.
 Global Supply Chains and Labor: The theory highlights how global supply chains disproportionately
affect female workers in peripheral nations. Women often occupy low-wage jobs in industries such as
textiles and electronics, which are vital to the economies of core nations. World Systems Theory shows
how global economic practices undervalue and exploit women's labor, further entrenching gender
inequalities in both core and periphery nations.
 Cultural and Structural Factors: World Systems Theory also considers the influence of global
cultural practices and structures on gender roles. It explains how cultural exports from core nations can
perpetuate traditional gender roles, reinforcing gender inequality globally. For example, Western media
and consumer culture may perpetuate stereotypical depictions of women that affect gender expectations
worldwide, influencing women’s social and economic opportunities.

Conclusion

Each of these theories offers unique insights into the relationship between global economic systems and gender
inequality. While Modernization Theory emphasizes the potential of economic development to bring about
gender equality, it often overlooks cultural and structural barriers that can perpetuate gender roles. Dependency
Theory highlights the exploitation of women in peripheral nations within the global economic structure,
showing how economic dependence reinforces gender inequality. World Systems Theory extends this by
examining how global supply chains and core-periphery dynamics shape gender relations, offering a broader
perspective on how economic and cultural factors influence gender equality worldwide. Together, these theories
provide valuable frameworks for understanding and addressing the systemic barriers to gender equality in both
developed and developing countries.

Here's a comparison of the three theories—Modernization Theory, Dependency Theory, and World Systems
Theory—highlighting their key aspects in relation to gender equality:

Aspect Modernization Theory Dependency Theory World Systems Theory

Global economy is divided into

Societies progress through stages Core nations exploit peripheral
Core Concept core, semi-periphery, and
from traditional to modern nations, creating dependency
periphery

Global economic hierarchies and

Economic development and Economic exploitation and
Focus their impacts on gender
technological advancement dependency
relations

View on Gender Assumes modernization will lead Highlights gender inequalities Examines how global economic
Equality to improved gender equality exacerbated by exploitation roles affect gender dynamics

Shows how core-periphery

Economic Believes economic growth will Views economic dependency as
dynamics impact gender
Development naturally improve gender equality reinforcing gender inequalities
relations
 Aspect Modernization Theory Dependency Theory World Systems Theory

Implies cultural changes will Focuses on economic structures, Considers global cultural
Role of Culture
follow economic modernization often neglects cultural aspects influences on gender roles

Emphasizes how global Analyzes how global economic

Impact of Global Often overlooks global economic
economic exploitation impacts hierarchies influence gender
Relations relations affecting gender equality
gender equality relations

Approach to Economic development as a Structural inequalities resulting Structural and cultural impacts
Gender Issues pathway to gender equality from global exploitation of global economic positions

Policies focus on economic Calls for systemic change to Advocates for understanding
Policy
growth, which may not address address exploitation and gender global structures to address
Implications
gender issues directly inequality gender disparities

Gender roles may remain Women in periphery nations Women in peripheral countries
Examples of
traditional despite economic often face extreme economic are often exploited in global
Gender Impacts
growth and social inequalities supply chains

Key Takeaways:

 Modernization Theory focuses on economic development as a driver for gender equality but overlooks the
deep-seated cultural norms that may resist change.
 Dependency Theory critiques the global economic system and how it exploits women in peripheral nations,
highlighting economic dependency as a key factor in reinforcing gender inequalities.
 World Systems Theory builds on Dependency Theory by considering global economic hierarchies and how they
shape gender roles, emphasizing both structural and cultural influences.

These theories provide complementary frameworks for understanding gender inequality in different contexts,
from the potential of economic growth to the systemic exploitation and global economic dynamics that
disproportionately impact women.

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