Define single input single output or point to point communication.

Ans:Single Input Single Output (SISO), also known as point-to-point

communication is a fundamental
concept in wireless communication that refers to a communication link
between a single transmitter and
a single receiver, where there is only one antenna at both ends of the
communication link.

Define equalization.

Ans:Equalization in wireless communication is a signal processing

technique used to correct or
compensate for distortions and interference that occur during the
transmission of data over a
communication channel.It aims to restore the original transmitted
signal's quality at the receiver,
especially when the channel introduces frequency-dependent attenuation
and phase shifts, which can
distort the signal.

Define channel inverse process.

Ans:the channel inverse process refers to the operation of reversing the

effects of the communication
channel on a transmitted signal. Wireless channels introduce various
impairments to signals as they
travel from the transmitter to the receiver, such as attenuation, noise,
multipath fading, and interference.
The channel inverse process aims to mitigate or eliminate these
impairments to recover the original
transmitted signal as accurately as possible.

Coherence Time(Tc)
->Time interval over which signal parameters like gain,amp remains same.
Tc =10-60 ms(4G/5G)
Tc is related to Doppler spread

Coherence Bandwidth(Bc)
->It is the freq interval over which signal parameters remains constant.
It is related to delay spread.

Models for measuring avarage receiving signal strength

->Depending on the Tx-Rx separation distance
1.Large scale pathloss model
distance in hundreds/thousands metres
Friis free space pathloss model
Shadowing is also considered

2.Small scale fading model

distance in few metres
fast fading/slow fading
frequency selective fading/frequency flat fading
Flat fading:

Channel response of flat fading signal has flat gain/linear phase over
bandwidth (BW) which is greater
than signal BW.In the flat fading all the components of the frequency of
the signal will have the same
magnitude of fading with respect to each other.
Here all frequency components of the received signal fluctuate in the
same proportions simultaneously.
Signal undergoes flat fading if following conditions are met:

Bs << Bc

Ts >>στ

Selective Fading:

In selective fading, channel response of signal has constant gain/linear

phase over bandwidth (BW) which
is less than that of signal BW.
Here different components of the frequency signal will not experience the
same fading.
Selective fading affects unequally the different spectral components of a
radio signal.
Signal undergoes selective fading if following conditions are met:

Bs >Bc

Ts <στ

Difference between flat fading and frequency selective fading

Following points summarize difference between flat fading and frequency

selective fading.
➨In flat fading, BW of signal is less than the BW of channel where as in
frequency selective fading, BW of
signal is greater than BW of channel.
➨In flat fading, delay spread is less than symbol period where as in
frequency selective fading, delay
spread is greater than symbol period.
➨In flat fading, range of frequencies in a frequency spectrum are
equally faded unlike in frequency selective
fading where in one part of frequency spectrum is faded more than the
other part of frequency spectrum.

The wired channels are stationary and predictable where as wireless

channels are extremely random and
the analysis is quite complex.Relative distance between the transmitter
and receiver plays a vital role
in the analysis.The radio channels are moderate using statistical
approach.The wireless channel between
transmitter and receiver can very from simple line of sight to severely
obstructed by high rise buildings,
mountains and forests.The prominent mechanism having effect from the
electromagnetic propagation are
reflection,diffraction and scattering. Due to multiple reflection from
various object the electromagnetic
wave travels different paths of varying lengths. The interaction between
these waves causes multipath fading
at a specific location.The strength of the waves decreases as the
distance between transmitter and receiver
increases.The propagation models primarily target A: predicting the
average received signal strength at a
given distance from the transmitter Tx.point B: The variability of the
signalstrength enclose special
proximity at particular location.

Propagation model that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary
transmitter receiver separation
are useful in estimating the radio average area of the transmitter. These
models are called large scale
propagation model as these models characterize the signal strength over
large area transmitter receiver
distance. This is large scale path loss model.
dx>=r>d1
Typically the local average received power is computed by a averaging
signal measurements over measurement
track of 5λ to 40λ where λ specify the wavelength corresponding to the
single frequency or
communication frequency.

On the other hand the propagation model that characterised the Rapid
fluctuation of the receipt signal
over very short travel distance or short time duration are called small
scale feeding models.

If a mobile moves over a short distance the received signal strength can
fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small
scale fading.The reason behind this is that the received signal is vector
sum of many contributions
coming from different directions(multipath).

Small scale feeding is used to describe the rapid fluctuation of the

signal amplitude,phases or multiple
delays of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance
so that the large scale path loss
effect may be ignored.

Fading is caused by the interference phenomena between two or more

versions of same transmitted signal
with arrive at the receiver at slightly different times. These waves are
called as multipath waves.
The resultant of this multipath waves varies widely in amplitude and
phase.

Basics propagation Mechanisms

Reflection:

Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impings open

object which has very large
dimension as compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Examples
earth's siurface,large
buildings,walls. When a radio wave propagating in one medium impings on
other medium having different
electrical properties then the wave is partially reflected and partially
transmitted. The electric field
intensity of this reflected and transmitted to waves are related to
fractional reflection coefficient.
If the radio wave is incident on a perfect dielectric material a part of
energy is transmitted to the new
medium and rest energy is reflected back to the first so no energy is
lost in absorption.If the reflection
surface is perfect conductor then all the energy is getting reflected
back.

Diffraction:

Diffraction occurs when the radiopath between the transmitter and

receiver is obstructed by surface which has
some irregularities.This gives rise to the bending the waves around the
obstacles.
Reflection and diffraction at high frequency depend on the geometry of
object/obstacle, amplitude,phase and
polarization of the incident wave.

Scattering:

Scattering occurs when the radio wave propagate through a medium

consisting of large number of obstacles with
dimensions small when compared to wavelength of incident wave.The number
of obstacles per volume is very high.

Free Space Propagation Model

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal

strength when the transmitter and receiver
have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them. Satellite
communication systems and microwave
line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space propagation.
The free space power received bya receiver antenna which is separated
from a radiating transmitter antenna by
a distance d, is given by the Friis free space equation,

Pr(d) =(Pt*Gt*Gr*λ^2)/(4*π)^2*d^2*L

where Pt=Transmitted power

Pr=Received power
Gt=Transmitter antenna gain
Gr=Receiver antenna gain
d=T-R separation distance in meters
L=L is the system loss factor
λ=Wavelength

The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture,Ae,by

G=(4*π*Ae)/λ^2

A value of L = I indicates no loss in the system hardware.

The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity
measured in dB, is defined as the
difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the
received power, and may or may not include
the effect of the antenna gains. The path loss for the free space model
when antenna gain are included is
given by
PL(dB)=10*log(Pt/Pr)
=10*log[((4*π)^2*d^2*L)/(Gt*Gr*λ^2)]

The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr for values of
d which are in the far-field of the
transmitting antenna. The far-field, or Fraun hofer region, of a
transmitting antenna is defined as the
region beyond the far field distance df, which is related to the largest
linear dimension of the
transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wavelength. The Fraunhofer
distance is given by

df=2*D^2/λ
where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.
Additionally, to be in the far-field
region, d1 must satisfy
df>>D and df>>λ

For d>=do>=df (do->distance of reference point)

Pr(d)=Pr(do)(do/d)^2
Pr(d)dBm=10log[Pr(do)/0.001W]+20log(do/d)
pr(do) is in unit of watts

Pr In Terms Of Electric Power

In free space, the power flux density Pd(expressed in W/m^2) is

given by

Pd=EIRP/4*π*d^2=Pt*Gt/4*π*d^2=E^2/Rfs=E^2/n
W/m^2
n=377Ω

EIRP=Effective isotropic radiated power=Pt*Gt

E=magnitude of electric field in far field region

Received power=Pr(d)
=Pd*Ae
=(Pt*Gt/4*π*d^2)*(Gr*λ^2/4*π)
=|E|^2*Ae/377 watts

Ground Reflection Two Ray Model

In a mobile radiochannel,a single direct path between the base station

and a mobile is seldom the only
physical means for propagation, and hence the free space propagation
model of equation (3.5) is in most
cases inaccurate when used alone. The 2-ray ground reflection model shown
in Figure 3.7 isa useful propagation
model that is based nn geometric optics, and considers both the
directpath and a ground reflected propagation
path between transmitter and receiver. This mnodel has been found to be
reasonably accurate for predicting the
large-scale signal strength over distances of several kilometers for
mobile radiosystems that use tall towers
(heights which exceed 50 m), as well as forline-of-sight microcell
channels in urban environments.

If Eo is the free space E-field (in units of V/m) at a reference distance

do from the transmitter,then
for d >do,the free space propagating E-field is given by

E(d,t)=(Eo*do/d)cos(wc(t-d/c)) where
wc=2*π*fc

Large Scale Pathloss model

1.Friis free space model

2.2Ray/Ground Reflection Model

Small Scale Fading

Related to rapid fluctuation of single strength

Depends on multipath environment
This will be a function of
Flat fading ->Delay spread/smearing effect/signal spread/ISI/coherence
bandwidth
Frequency selective Fading->Doppler spread and coherence time(Fast fading
and slow fading)

Factors influencing small scale fading

Multipath propagation:
Thepresence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the channel creates a
constantly changing
environment that dissipates the signal energy in amplitude, phase, and
time. These effects
result in multiple versions of the transmitted signal that arrive at the
receiving antenna,
displaced with respect to one another in time and spatial orientation.
The random phase and
amplitudes of the different multipath componentscause fluctuations in
signal strength,
thereby inducing small-scale fading, signal distortion, or both.

Speed of mobile:

The relative motion between the base station and the mobile results in
random frequency
modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath
components. Doppler shift
will be positive or negative depending on whether the mobile receiver is
moving toward or
away from the base station.

Surrounding objects:
If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a time varying
Doppler shift on
multipath components.If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate
than the mobile,then
this effect dominates the small-scale fading.

Transmission bandwidth of the signal:

If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the "bandwidth"
of the multipath channel,
the received signal will be distorted, but the received signal strength
will not fade much over
a local area.

Write the aadvantages and disadvantages of Two Ray Ground Model

->The advantages of the two ray ground reflection model in the analysis
of path loss is that it considers
both the direct path and the ground reflected path propagation between
transmitter and receiver.
The disadvantage is that this model is over simplified in that it does
not include important factors such
as terrain profile, vegetation and buildings.

Disadvantages of Okumura Model

->It is based on measured data

It does not provide any analytical explanation

->It has low responses to rapid changes in terrain

This model is fairly good for urban and suburban areas
This model is not considered good for rural areas
Fast Fading

It varies quickly with the frequency. Fast fading originates due to

effects of constructive and destructive
interference patterns which is caused due to multipath.

Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading.

Fast Fading results due to following:

➨High Doppler Spread
➨Coherence Time < Symbol Period
➨Channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration.
➨Occurs if Ts > Tc, Bs < BD
➨It occurs for very low data rates

Slow Fading
It does not vary quickly with the frequency. It originates due to effect
of mobility. It is result of signal
path change due to shadowing and obstructions such as tree or buildings
etc.

Slow Fading results due to following:

➨Low Doppler Spread
➨Coherence Time >> Symbol Period
➨Impulse response changes much slower than the transmitted signal.
➨It occurs if Ts << Tc, Bs >>BD

Cell Splitting:

Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into

smaller cells, each with its own base
station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter
power.
Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it
increases the number of times that
channels are reused.
By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells
and by installing these smaller
cells (called microcells) between the existing cells, capacity increases
due to the additional number of
channels per unit area.

An example of cell splitting is shown in Figure 2.8. In Figure 2.8, the

base stations are placed at corners
of the cells, and the area served by base station A is assumed to be
saturated with traffic (i.e.,the
blocking of base station A exceeds acceptable rates).New base stations
are therefore needed in the region
to increase the number of channels in the area and to reduce the area
served by the single base station.

Advantages of cell splitting

It increases signal to noise ratio
It reduces interference which increases capacity
It reduces the cluster size
System capacity gradually expands as demand

Disadvantages of cell splitting

Hand off is more frequent
Channel assignment becomes difficult
All cells are not simultaneously ,so special care have to be taken for
propes
allocation of the problem.

Cell Sectoring:

It is the method to increase capacity to keep the cell radius unchanged

and seek methods to decrease D/R
ratio.Increases signal to interference ratio(SIR), so that the cluster
size maybe reduced. First SIR is
improved using directional antennas, then capacity improvement achieved
by reducing the number of cells in
the cluster thus increasing the frequency reuse.To achieve this it is
necessary to reduce the relative
interference without increasing the transmit power.There are two types of
factoring in a cell:

3sectors

6sectors

Disadvantages of cell sectoring:

Increased infrastructure cost: Can be expensive due to need for more base
stations.
Complex network planning: Planning becomes more intricate raising
deployment and maintenance cost.
Handover management: Managing semeless handovers between sectors adds
complexity to network management
Limited coverage in some areas: Coverage gap occurs between sectors
particularly in a remote regions.
Increased power consumption: Operating multiple bases stations consume
more power and may not be ecofriendly.

Advantages of cell sectoring:

Increased capacity: Enhances network capacity by efficiently reusing the

frequency spectrum.
Improved coverage: It provides targeted better coverage in specific area.
Enhanced quality of service: Users experience congestion and better data
rates.
Reduced Interference: Interference between cells is minimised leading to
better network performance.
Improved resource allocation: Resources are allocated dynamically
optimising network performance.
Micro-cell Zone Concept:

The increased number of hand off, increase load on the switching and
control link because of sectoring.
Association to this problem is given by microcell zone concept.Large
control base station is replaced
by several lower power transmitter on the age of cell. The mobile retains
the same channel and the base
station simply switches the channel to a different zone and the mobile
moves from zone to zone.
Since the channel is active only in a particular zone in which mobile is
travelling, base station radiation
is localised and interference is reduced.Advantage of zone cell technique
is that while the cell maintains a
particular coverage radius,co-channel interference in the cellular system
is reduced.As the large central
base station is replaced by several lower power transmitters on ages of
cell.Decreased co-channel interference
improves signal quality leading to increase in capacity without
degradation in trunking efficiency caused by
sectoring.

Advantages:
Decrease co-channel interference which leads to an improvement in signal
quality and also leads to an increase
in capacity.
Not degradation of trunking efficiency.

Disadvantages:
More antennas are required.
Base station need to be more sophisticated to handle transfer of cell
from one zone to another zone
within the cell.