2022 SUMMARY

H2 MATHEMATICS
(9758)

NAME :________________________

CLASS :________________________

TUTOR : _______________________

CATHOLIC JUNIOR COLLEGE

MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
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 Module 0 – GCE ‘O’ Level Topic

Content Page
Page
Module 0 – GCE ‘O’ Level Topic
Trigonometry 1
Module I − Functions and Graphs
Graphing Techniques 2
Functions 3
Transformations 4
Conics 6
Inequalities 7
System of Linear Equations 8
Module II − Sequences and Series
Sigma Notation 9
Arithmetic and Geometric Progression 10
Module III − Vectors 11
Module IV − Complex Numbers 15
Module V − Calculus
Techniques of Differentiation 17
Applications of Differentiation 19
Maclaurin’s Series 20
Techniques of Integration 21
Definite Integrals 23
Parametric Equations 25
Differential Equations 26
Module VI − Statistics
Permutations and Combinations 27
Probability 28
Discrete Random Variables 29
Binomial Distribution 30
Normal Distribution 31
Sampling Distribution 32
Hypothesis Testing 33
Correlation and Linear Regression 35

Acknowledgements
This H2 Math Summary Book is made possible by the kind contribution of current JC1 H2
Math Subject Head, Ms Chia Shing-li, and her team of dedicated teachers.

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 Module
ModuleI –0 Functions and Graphs
– GCE ‘O’ Level Topic

Trigonometry

Identities and Formulae Circular Measure

Basic Identities sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 Arc length, s = r

1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ Area of sector, A =
1 2
r 
2
cot 2 θ + 1 = cos ec 2θ
where  is in radians
Double Angle sin 2 A = 2sin A cos A
Formulae
cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
= 1 − 2sin 2 A O
r
= 2 cos2 A − 1 
A B
2 tan A s
tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A
Addition sin( A  B ) = sin A cos B  cos A sin B
Formulae cos( A  B ) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
tan A  tan B Sine and Cosine Rules
tan( A  B ) =
1 tan A tan B
sin A sin B sin C
Factor Formulae P+Q P −Q Sine Rule: = =
“Sum to Product sin P + sin Q = 2sin cos a b c
2 2
Formulae” Cosine Rule: a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
P+Q P −Q
sin P − sin Q = 2 cos sin
2 2
P+Q P −Q A
cos P + cos Q = 2 cos cos b c
2 2
P+Q P −Q C B
cos P − cos Q = −2sin sin a
2 2
Factor Formulae 2sin A cos B = sin( A + B ) + sin( A − B )
“Product to Sum 2 cos A sin B = sin( A + B ) − sin( A − B )
Formulae”
2 cos A cos B = cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B )
−2sin A sin B = cos( A + B ) − cos( A − B )
R-formulae a sin  + b cos  = R sin( +  )
a sin  − b cos  = R sin( −  )
a cos  + b sin  = R cos( −  )
a cos  − b sin  = R cos( +  )
b
where R = a 2 + b 2 ,  = tan −1  
a

Special Angles

  
or 30 or 60 or 45
6 3 4
1 3 1
sin sin 2
2 2 2  2 1
6 3 
3 1  1
cos 3
cos 4
2 2 2
1
1 1
tan 3 tan 1
3

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 Module I – Functions and Graphs

Graphing Techniques

Procedure to Sketch a Curve

Step : Intercepts on Co-ordinate Axes

x - intercepts y - intercepts
Analytical Method Let y = 0 to find the corresponding Let x = 0 to find the corresponding
(EXACT) value(s) of x . value(s) of y .

Use of G.C.

Step : Asymptotes [must be drawn in dotted lines]

Vertical Horizontal Oblique

Let denominator of a rational Find the value which y Find the expression which y
Procedure function be zero and solve approaches as x →  . approaches as x →  .
for the value(s) of x in the Note: A rational function
equation. has an oblique
asymptote if the
degree of numerator
is 1 more than
degree of
denominator.

Example 2x + 1 2x + 1 x 2 − 3x + 6
y= y= y=
x+3 x+3 x −1

Using long division, Using long division,

Solution Let x + 3 = 0 5 4
y = 2− y = x−2+
 x = −3 x+3 x −1
 x = −3 is the As x →  , y → 2. As x →  , y → x − 2.
vertical asymptote.  y = 2 is the horizontal  y = x − 2 is the oblique
asymptote. asymptote.

Step : Stationary Points

Analytical Method (EXACT) Use of G.C.

dy Minimum point: Maximum point:

 Determine .
dx

dy
 Put = 0 and find the corresponding x and y
dx
co-ordinates.
 Use the first or second derivative test to check the
nature of the stationary points.

Step : Use G.C. to obtain the Shape of the Graph

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 Module I – Functions and Graphs

Functions

Definition

A function is defined by its rule and domain.

Graphical Test

Vertical Line Test

Function If any vertical line cuts the graph of y = f ( x ) at most once, then f is a function.
Horizontal Line Test
One-one Function If any horizontal line cuts the graph of y = f ( x ) at most once, then f is a one-one
function.

Restriction of a Function

A restriction of a function f , is a function

(i) that has the same rule as f and
(ii) whose domain is a subset of the domain of f .

Inverse Function

Test If f is one-one, then f −1 exists.

Find the expression for f −1 ( x ) :
• Let y = f ( x ) and then manipulate to make x the subject, i.e. express x in
terms of y .
Procedure • If the expression for x is not unique; choose the correct one by considering the
domain of f , Df .
• Then f −1 ( y ) = x [expression in terms of y ].
• Rewrite the expression by replacing y with x , to obtain f −1 ( x ) .
Df f Rf
Df -1 = R f
Domain and Range
f −1 R f -1 = Df
D
f −1

Relationship between The graphs of f and f −1 are reflections of each other about the line y = x .
f and f−1 (When drawing, the scales of the x -axis and y -axis must be the same)

Composite Function

Test
For composite function fg to exist, R g  Df
Dg Df Rf
g f
Dg Df
g Rg R fg

Dfg fg
If fg exists:
• Write down the rule
• Dfg = Dg
• R fg is determined by considering graph of fg

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 Module I – Functions and Graphs

Transformations

Translation, Scaling and Reflection

Geometric From ( x , y )
From Replacement To
Interpretation to
y − a = f ( x) A translation of a
y = f ( x) replace y with ( y − a ) units in the positive ( x, y + a )
y = f ( x) + a y -direction.

y − ( −a ) = f ( x ) A translation of a
y = f ( x) replace y with ( y − ( −a ) ) units in the negative ( x, y − a )
y = f ( x) − a y -direction.

A translation of a
y = f ( x) replace x with ( x − a ) y = f ( x − a) units in the positive ( x + a, y )
x -direction.
A translation of a
y = f ( x) replace x with ( x − ( −a ) ) y = f ( x − ( −a ) ) units in the negative ( x − a, y )
x -direction.
y
= f ( x) A scaling parallel to
y a
y = f ( x) replace y with the y -axis by a scale ( x, ay )
a
y = af ( x )
factor of a

x A scaling parallel to
replace x with  x
y = f ( x) a y=f  the x -axis by a scale ( ax, y )
a
factor of a
− y = f ( x)
A reflection in the
y = f ( x) replace y with − y ( x, − y )
x -axis
y = −f ( x )
A reflection in the
y = f ( x) replace x with − x y = f (−x) ( − x, y )
y -axis

To Sketch the Graph of Modulus Functions

Graph of … Steps
Given the graph of y = f ( x ) ,
y = f ( x)  Retain the portion above the x − axis (where y  0 ) of y = f ( x ) .
 Reflect the portion below the x − axis (where y  0 ) in the x -axis.
Given the graph of y = f ( x ) ,
y=f(x)  Retain the portion of y = f ( x ) for x  0 .
 Reflect the retained portion about the y -axis.

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 Module I – Functions and Graphs

1
Important Aspects of the Graph of y = f ( x ) and y =
f ( x)

1
S/N y = f ( x) y=
f ( x)
 1
1 ( x, y )  x,  , y  0
 y
1
2 • f ( x)  0 0
f ( x)
Graph lies above the x -axis Graph lies above the x -axis
1
• f ( x)  0 0
f ( x)
Graph lies below the x -axis Graph lies below the x -axis
1
f ( x) = 1 = 1
f ( x)
The 2 graphs will intersect at the points where f ( x) = 1
1
f ( x) = 0 is not defined
f ( x)
i.e. x -intercept, ( a, 0 ) i.e. Vertical asymptote, x = a
1
f ( x) →  → 0
f ( x)
i.e. Vertical asymptote, x = b i.e. x -intercept, ( b, 0 )
i.e. Oblique asymptote, y = ax + b i.e. Horizontal asymptote, y = 0
1
3 f ( x)  
f ( x)
1
f ( x)  
f ( x)
4 Horizontal asymptote Horizontal asymptote (for g  0 )
1
y=g y=
g
5 y -intercept y -intercept (for h  0 )
 1
( 0, h )  0, 
 h
6 • Maximum point Minimum point (for d  0 )

 1
( c, d )  c, 
 d
• Minimum point Maximum point (for f  0 )
 1
( e, f )  e, 
 f 

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 Module I – Functions and Graphs

Conics

Parabola

y = k ( x − a ) + b, k  0 ( y − b) = k ( x − a), k  0
2 2

k>0 k<0 k>0 k<0

y y y y
(a, b)
(a, b) (a, b)
x x
x x
(a, b)

Properties: Properties:
• Symmetrical about line x = a • Symmetrical about line y = b
• Turning point (a, b) • Vertex (a, b)

Ellipse

( x − h) (y − k)
2 2

+ =1 ab0 Circle ( x − h) + ( y − k )
2 2
= r2
2 2
a b
y y
k+b k+r
a r
k k
b
k−b
x k−r
h−a h h+a x
h−r h h+r
Properties: Properties:
• Symmetrical about lines x = h and y = k • Symmetrical about any line that pass through (h,k)
• Centre (h, k) • Centre (h,k)
• Radius r

Hyperbola

( x − h) (y − k) (y − k) ( x − h)
2 2 2 2

− =1 − =1
a2 b2 b2 a2

x=h b
x=h y= ( x − h) + k
a
(h ,k+b)

(h−a, k) (h+a, k) y=k (h, k) y=k

(h, k)
(h, k-b)
b
y = − ( x − h) + k b
a y = − ( x − h) + k
a
Properties: Properties:
• Symmetrical about both x = h and y = k • Symmetrical about both x = h and y = k
• Centre (h, k) • Centre (h,k)
• Vertices are ‘a’ units from centre (h, k) in • Vertices are ‘b’ units from centre (h,k) in
the direction parallel to x-axis the direction parallel to y-axis
• Asymptotes at y =  b ( x − h) + k • Asymptotes at y =  b ( x − h) + k
a a

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 Module I – Functions and Graphs

Inequalities

Definition of Modulus Function

For x  , a  0,
 x if x  0 x  a  −a  x  a
x =
− x if x  0 x  a  x  −a or x  a

Algebraic Approach

Step : Simplify the inequality:

• Make the R.H.S of the inequality zero.
• Reduce L.H.S. to a single rational function.
• Factorise both the numerator and the denominator as far as possible.
• If a quadratic expression is non-factorisable, try completing the square.
Step : Apply the test-point method:
• Label critical values along the number line.
• Start from the rightmost interval to label intervals with alternating signs.
• Keep the same sign if crossing a critical value from a linear factor in even power.
Step : Present the solution:
• Read the solution set from the number line.
• Check carefully whether each critical value should be included in the solution set.

Illustration of Test-Point Method

Example Test-point Solution

( x − 4) − + − +
0 −2  x  2 or x  4
( x + 2 )( x − 2 ) −2 2 4
( x − 4) − + − +
0 −2  x  2 or x  4
( x + 2 )( x − 2 ) −2 2 4
( x − 4) − + − +
0 x  −2 or 2  x  4
( x + 2 )( x − 2 ) −2 2 4
( x − 4) − + − +
0 x  −2 or 2  x  4
( x + 2 )( x − 2 ) −2 2 4

Graphical Approach

To solve for f ( x )  g ( x ) by using the G.C., we first identify the asymptotes, then use either of the following:
Method : Method :
• Plot the graph of Y1 = f ( x ) . • Plot the graph of Y1 = f ( x ) − g ( x ) .
• Plot the graph of Y2 = g ( x ) . • Find the zeroes of the curve.
• The solution set consists of the intervals where
• Find the intersections of the two curves.
the graph is above the x-axis.
• The solution set consists of the intervals where
the graph of Y1 = f ( x ) is above that of
Y2 = g ( x ) .

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 Module I – Functions and Graphs

System of Linear Equations

Procedure to Solve Problems Involving System of Linear Equations

Step : Define the variables to be used in the question. If necessary, draw a diagram labeling all the
information to help you analyse the problem.
Step : Formulate the equations using the variables.
Step : Solve the equations using G.C. applications PlySmlt2 (2: Simult Eqn Solver).
Step : Interpret the final solution based on the word problem.

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 Module II – Sequences and Series

Sigma Notation

Sequences

A sequence can be generated by a formula for the nth term, un = f ( n ) , n  +

.

Series

n
 ur = um + um+1 + + un −1 + un
r =m

Rules/ Useful Results

n
1.  ur has ( n − m + 1) term
r =m
n n
2.  cur = c  ur , where c is a constant.
r =m r =m
n n n
3.  ( ur  vr ) =  ur   vr
r =m r =m r =m
n n m −1
4.  ur =  ur −  ur where k  m .
r =m r =k r =k
n
5.  c = ( n − m + 1) c , where c is a constant.
r =m
n
n
6.  r = 1+ 2 + 3 + +n =
2
(1 + n ) (Arithmetic Series)
r =1
n
a(a n − 1) a(1 − a n )
7.  a r = a + a 2 + a 3 + ... + a n =
a −1
or
1− a
(Geometric Series)
r =1

Method of Difference

n n
If ur can be expressed in the form of f ( r ) − f ( r + d ) , where d  , then  ur =  f ( r ) − f ( r + d ) . We can
r =m r =m
use Method of Difference (listing down sufficient terms and cancelling some terms to simplify).

Limit

n
The limit of a sequence un or a series  ur is the single value which it tends to as n tends to infinity. If such a
r =m
limit exists then it is said to be convergent else it is said to be divergent.

Relationship between Sequence and Series

 S1 ,n =1
un =  +
 Sn − Sn −1 , n  , n  2
+
If u1 = S1 , then un = Sn − Sn −1 , n 

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 Module II – Sequences and Series

Arithmetic and Geometric Progression

Progression Arithmetic Geometric

First Term: a First Term: a
Notation
Common Difference: d Common Ratio: r

General Term un = a + ( n − 1) d un = ar n −1

Sum to n Term Sn =
n n
 2a + ( n − 1) d  = ( a + un ) Sn =
(
a 1− rn ) = a ( r − 1) , r  1
n

2 2 1− r r −1

Sum to Infinity - N.A. - a

S = , r 1
1− r

Proving un − un −1 is a constant for all n un

is a constant for all n
un −1

Given a sequence …, x , y , z , … such Given a sequence …, x , y , z , … such

that x , y , z are three consecutive terms that x , y , z are three consecutive terms
in an arithmetic sequence, then in a geometric sequence, then
Mean y − x = z − y (= d ) y z
= (= r )
1 x y
y= (x + z)
2 y 2 = xz

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 Module III – Vectors

Vectors

Properties

 x
 
Vectors in 3-D If r =  y  , then r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
z
 

A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1.

Unit Vectors a
The unit vector in the direction of a is given by aˆ = .
a
5

Parallel Vectors Two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a = kb for some k  .

Collinear Vectors
Three points A, B and C are collinear if and only if AB = k AC for some k  .

a + b A  P  B
Ratio Theorem If P divides AB in the ratio : , then OP = . 
+

O
 a1   b1 
Evaluation of    
a  b =  a2    b2  = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
Scalar Product a  b 
 3  3

The angle,  between 2 vectors a and b can be found using:


 ab 
 = cos −1 
 a b 
Angle  
Remark: If cos  is negative,  will be obtuse. The acute angle between the two
vectors will then be π −  .
Note: a ⊥ b  a  b = 0
5
R

Length of
Length of projection of a on b = PQ = a  b
Projection
Q

 a1   b1   a2 b3 − a3b2 
      b
a  b =  a2    b2  =  a3b1 − a1b3 
a  b   a b − a b 
Vector Product  3  3  1 2 2 1 

Notes: (i) Vector product of a and b will give a vector which is ⊥ to both a and b
(ii) If a  b = 0  a // b

Area of Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB  AD

Parallelogram/
1
Triangle Area of triangle ABD = AB  AD
2
Equations of Lines and Planes
[In MF26]
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 Module III – Vectors

Lines Planes

P l

A
A


O
 Vector Equation of a Straight Line l  Parametric Form
r = a +  m,    contains the point A with position vector a and
is parallel to u and v , where u is not // to v
a : position vector of a point on l
m : direction vector of line l r = a +  u +  v,  ,  
 is a parameter
 Parametric Equations of a Line
 Scalar Product Form
 a1   m1  To convert parametric form into scalar product
   
r =  a2  +   m2  form, n = u  v
a  m  r  n = an = d
 3  3
then the parametric equations of l are:
x = a1 +  m1  Cartesian Form
y = a2 +  m2  x  n1 
   
z = a3 +  m3 r =  y  and n =  n2  , then
z n 
 Cartesian Equation of a Line    3

x − a1 y − a2 z − a3
= = (=  ) n1 x + n2 y + n3 z = d
m1 m2 m3

Angles

2 Lines Line and Plane 2 Planes

Given 2 non-parallel lines, l : r = a +  m,   Given equations of two non-
l1 : r = a1 +  m1 ,    : r n = d parallel planes as
l2 : r = a 2 +  m 2 ,   1 : r  n1 = d1
n
2 : r  n2 = d2
l1 m
l
 
l2


First, obtain the angle between the  

 m m 
 = cos  1 2
−1
 normal and the line, i.e.
 m1 m 2   mn 
 = cos −1    between the normal, i.e.
m n   n n 
 If  obtained is acute
 = cos −1  1 2 
 n1 n 2 
π
 = −  If  obtained is acute
2
 =
 If  obtained is obtuse
π  If  obtained is obtuse
 = −
2  = π −

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 Module III – Vectors

Relationship

2 Lines Line and Plane 2 Planes

Given 2 lines Given a line Two non-parallel planes intersect
l1 : r = a1 + m1 ,   l :r = a + m,   at a line.
and and a plane
Given equations of two planes as
l2 :r = a2 + m 2 ,    :r  n = d
 1 :r  n1 = d1
Case : Case :  2 :r  n2 = d2
Lines are parallel. Line intersects the plane at one
point. Method : Using G.C.
m1 = km2 Rewrite the equations of both
planes in Cartesian form:
Case : a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = d1
Lines intersect at a point.
b1 x + b2 y + b3 z = d 2
m1  km2 for any k, Use the G.C. application
PlySmlt2 to solve the above
the 2 lines are not parallel.
equations for two variables in
a1 + m1 = a2 + m2 Let P be the point of intersection. terms of the third. This will give
Unique solution for  and  . the equation of line of intersection
Since P lies on l , OP = a +  m in parametric form
Case : for a  value.
Lines are skew lines. Method : A point P with
Since P also lies on  , position vector p that is
m1  km2 for any k, common to both planes is
OP  n = d
the 2 lines are not parallel. known.
a1 + m1 = a2 + m2 ( a + m )  n = d
No solution for  and  . a  n + m  n = d Line of intersection is
d − a n l :r = p + m,   ,
=
m n  a1   b1 
 d − a n     
where m =  a2    b2 
Hence OP = a +  m
 m n  a  b 
 3  3

Case :
Line does not intersect the
plane.

m  n = 0 and a  n  d .

Case :
Line lies on the plane.

m  n = 0 and a  n = d .

Page | 13
 Module III – Vectors

Relationship between a Point and a Line/Plane

Line Plane
To check whether a point P lies on a line To check whether a point P lies in a plane
l :r = a + m,   , equate the x, y and z  :r  n = d , substitute the position vector
Is point components of P and the equation of the line, of P into the equation of the plane.
lying on …? and solve for . There will be a unique value of If L.H.S. = R.H.S., P lies on the plane.
 if P lies on the line.
Given a line l :r = a + m,   Given a point, P with position vector p
P P
and a plane,  :r  n = d
Step : Since F lies on l ,
OF = a +  m for a  value. m Let F be the foot of ⊥
from the point P to the
Foot of ⊥ Step : Find PF . F l F

plane.
from a Step : Since PF ⊥ l  PF ⊥ m
point to The vector equation of the line that is
 PF  m = 0 perpendicular to the plane and passing
Solve for  . through P is lPF :r = p + n,   .
Step : Substitute the value of  into
F is the point of intersection between the
OF = a +  m . line and the plane.
Given a line, l :r = a + m,   and a point Given a plane  :r  n = d and a point P
P that is not a the line, that does not lie on  .
Method : Using Cross Product
P Method : Finding Foot
h = AP  m Find the foot of the perpendicular from
h P to  , F . Then the perpendicular

A
distance from P to  is h = PF .
m
Method : Finding Foot of Perpendicular Method : Using Length of Projection
Find the foot of the P
If we know a point A
perpendicular F from P h n
…⊥ with position vector a
distance to l . Then h = PF . m
that lies on  . 
between F
Then h is the length of projection of PA
point and This method is used when we already have the
… foot of the perpendicular. on n . h = PA n .
Method : Finding Length of Projection
Step : P
Find length of
h
projection of AP A
on m , d = AP m . d m

Step :
Using Pythagoras Theorem,
2 2
h = AP 2 − d 2 = AP − AP m .

Find OF first and then use the following result Find OF first and then use the following
P P
Image by to find OP ' . result to find OP ' .
reflection of F

( ) ( )
1 1 F
point in … OF = OP + OP ' l OF = OP + OP ' 
2 = 2 P
P

(
Page | 14
+
 Module IV – Complex Numbers

Complex Numbers

−1 = i

Complex Roots of Polynomials

If a polynomial with real coefficients has complex roots, they occur in conjugate pairs. Hence, there is always an
even number of complex roots, and the rest are real roots.

Forms of a Complex Number

Modulus-Argument/ Trigonometric/
Forms Algebraic Exponential
Polar

z = x + iy z = r ( cos  + i sin  ) z = re i
Im
Im
where  is in radians
y r

r sin
Note:
Re  ei = cos  + i sin 
Re
x
r cos 
(Euler’s Formula)
Expression
z = r = x2 + y 2 (applicable
for 1st
y
arg ( z ) =  = tan −1 quadrant
x only)
Note:
• Principal argument of z is
−π    π .
•  is measured in an anti-clockwise
sense from Re-axis.
z * = r (cos  − i sin  )

Conjugate z * = x − iy or z * = r e − i
z * = r cos ( − ) + i sin ( − ) 

Modulus and Argument of a Complex Number

1st Quadrant 2nd Quadrant 3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

P(−x, y)
P(x, y)
r
r
 


r
r
P(x, −y)
P(−x, −y)

r= x2 + y2 r= x2 + y2 r= x2 + y2 r= x2 + y2

 y  y   y   y
 = tan −1    = π − tan −1    = −  π − tan −1     = − tan −1  
 
x x   x    
x

Page | 15
 Module IV – Complex Numbers

Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

Let z1 = r1ei and z2 = r2 ei .

Consider z1 z2 . We have z1 z2 = r1ei  r2 ei = r1r2 e (
i  + )
.

Thus, | z1 z2 |= r1r2 =| z1 || z2 |

and arg ( z1 z2 ) =  +  = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z2 ) [ 2kπ , where k is an integer, if necessary]

z1 z r e i   r  i  −
Similarly, consider . We have 1 = 1 i =  1  e ( )
z2 z2 r2 e  r2 
z1 r |z |
Thus, = 1 = 1
z2 r2 | z2 |

z 
and arg  1  =  −  = arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z2 ) [ 2kπ , where k is an integer, if necessary]
 z2 

( ) = r12 2 e (
i 2 )
2
Now consider z12 . We have z12 = r1ei .

Thus, | z12 |= r12 =| z1 |2

and arg ( z12 ) = 2 = 2 arg ( z1 ) [ 2kπ , where k is an integer, if necessary]

In general, for all real values of n,

| z n |=| z |n

and arg ( z n ) = n arg ( z ) [ 2kπ , where k is an integer, if necessary]

Page | 16
 Module V – Calculus

Techniques of Differentiation

The First Principles

f ( x +  x) − f ( x)
The differentiation of a function f ( x) with respect to x is defined as f ' ( x ) = lim
 x →0 x

Strictly Increasing/Decreasing Functions and Concavity

Let y = f ( x) be a function that can be differentiated in the interval I .

(i) If f ' ( x )  0 , then f is strictly increasing in the given interval I .
(ii) If f ' ( x )  0 , then f is strictly decreasing in the given interval I .
(iii) If f '' ( x )  0 , then the graph of y = f ( x) is concave upwards in the given interval I .
(iv) If f '' ( x )  0 , then the graph of y = f ( x) is concave downwards in the given interval I .

Sketching y = f ' ( x ) from y = f ( x )

Step : Analyse the asymptotes on y = f ( x )

y = f ( x) To y = f '( x )
Vertical Asymptote: x=a Vertical Asymptote: x=a
Horizontal Asymptote: y = a Horizontal Asymptote: = 0
y
Oblique Asymptote: y = ax + b Horizontal Asymptote: y = a

Step : Analyse the stationary points on y = f ( x )

y = f ( x) To y = f '( x )
Maximum Point: (a, b) x-intercept:
+ve
x
(a, 0) −ve

Minimum Point: x-intercept:

+ve
x
−ve (a, 0)
(a, b)

Stationary Point of Inflexion: Minimum/Maximum Point:

(a, 0)
x
(a, b)

(a, b) x
(a, 0)

Step : Analyse the portions of the graph where…

y = f ( x) To y = f '( x )
Gradient is negative Graph is below x -axis
Gradient is positive Graph is above x -axis

Step : Using the information obtained from steps  – , sketch the graph of y = f ' ( x ) .

Page | 17
 Module V – Calculus

Rules of Differentiation

du dv
Product Rule
d dv
(uv) = u + v
du
Quotient Rule d  u  v dx − u dx
dx dx dx  =
dx  v  v2
dy dy du
Chain Rule = 
dx du dx
This method is used for differentiating
Logarithmic
• expression of the form uv, where u, v are functions of x, e.g. xx
Differentiation
• complicated products and quotients
g( y ) =  d g( y) 
Implicit d dy
Differentiation dx  dy  dx

Formulae

Basic General
n −1 df ( x )
Powers of x
d n
dx
( )
x = nx n −1 d
dx
f ( x ) = n f ( x )  
n
dx
d d df ( x )
sin x = cos x sin f ( x ) = cos f ( x ) 
dx dx dx
d
cos x = − sin x d df ( x)
dx cos f ( x ) = −sin f ( x ) 
dx dx
df ( x )
d
tan x = sec2 x d
dx tan f ( x ) = sec 2 f ( x ) 
Trigonometric dx dx
d
Functions sec x = sec x tan x d df ( x )
dx sec f ( x ) = sec f ( x ) tan f ( x ) 
dx dx
d
cosec x = −cosec x cot x d df ( x )
dx cosec f ( x ) = −cosec f ( x ) cot f ( x ) 
d dx dx
cot x = −cosec 2 x
d df ( )
x
dx cot f ( x ) = −cosec 2 f ( x ) 
dx dx
d 1 df ( x )
sin −1 x = d
sin −1 f ( x ) =
1

dx 1 − x2 dx 1− f ( x)
2 dx
d 1
Inverse cos −1 x = − d 1 df ( x )
Trigonometric dx 1 − x2 cos −1 f ( x ) = − 
dx 1− f ( x) dx
2
Functions d 1
tan −1 x =
dx 1 + x2 d 1 df ( x )
tan −1 f ( x ) = 
1+ f ( x)
2
dx dx
d 1 d 1 df ( x )
ln x = lnf ( x ) = 
dx x dx f ( x ) dx
Logarithmic
d d  ln x  1
Functions log a x = = d  ln f ( x )  df ( x )
dx  ln a  x ln a
d 1
dx log a f ( x ) =  = 
dx dx  ln a  f ( x ) ln a dx
d x d f ( x) f x df ( x )
e = ex e =e ( )
Exponential dx dx dx
Functions d x
a = a x ln a d f ( x) df ( x )
= a ( ) ln a 
f x
dx a
dx dx

[In MF26]

Page | 18
 Module V – Calculus

Applications of Differentiation

Equations of Tangents and Normals

To find equation of tangent to the curve at P, we need:

The equation of tangent at P ( x1 , y1 ) is
• the coordinates of point P ( x1 , y1 ) ,
y − y1 = f  ( x1 )( x − x1 )
or f  ( x1 ) .
dy
• the gradient of the tangent at P, i.e.
dx x = x1

The equation of normal at P ( x1 , y1 ) is

To find equation of normal to the curve at P, we need:
1
y − y1 = − ( x − x1 )
• the coordinates of point P ( x1 , y1 ) , f  ( x1 )
dy 1 1
• the gradient of the normal at P, i.e. − or − .
dx x = x1 dy f  ( x1 )
dx x = x1

To Determine the Nature of the Stationary Points

First Derivative Test

x a– a a+ a– a a+ a– a a+
+ ve 0 + ve
dy or
>0 0 <0 <0 0 >0
dx
− ve 0 − ve

Tangent to curve or

Nature of
Maximum Point Minimum Point Point of Inflexion
Stationary points

Second Derivative Test

d2 y
Sign of at x = a <0 >0 0
dx 2
Inconclusive. Use first
Nature of Stationary Points Maximum Point Minimum Point
derivative test.

Recommended Approach to Solve Questions Involving Rate of Change

Step : Denote each changing quantity by a variable.

Step : Find equations relating the variables.
Step : Use chain rule to link up the derivatives.
Step : Write down the values of the variables and the given rates of change.
Step : Solve for the unknown rate.

Recommended Approach to Solve Maximization and Minimization Problems

Step : Identifying variables (if necessary, draw a diagram).

Step : Forming the equations involving these variables
Step : Expressing the dependent variable (whose max. and min. are to be determined) in terms of a single
variable by using all the information given.
Step : Differentiating to find the stationary values.
Step : Test the nature of the stationary value using either first or second derivative test and answer the
question.

Page | 19
 Module V – Calculus

Maclaurin’s Series

Binomial Expansion

 n  n −1  n  n − 2 2  n  n −3 3
( a + b )n = a n +  a b + a b + a b + + bn
1  2  3

n n!
where n is a positive integer and   = .
 
r ( n − r ) !r !

Maclaurin’s Expansion

x2 xn
f ( x ) = f ( 0 ) + xf ' ( 0 ) +f '' ( 0 ) + ... + f ( n ) ( 0 ) + ...
2! n!

(1 + x ) = 1 + nx +
n n ( n − 1) 2
x + ... +
n ( n − 1) ... ( n − r + 1) r
x + ...
( x  1)
2! r!

e x
= 1 + x +
x 2 x3
+ + ... +
xr
+ ... ( all x )
 2! 3! r!
( −1) x 2 r +1
r

sin x = x −
x3 x5
+ − ... + + ... ( all x ) x is in radians.
 3! 5! ( 2r + 1)!
x2 x4 ( −1) x 2 r
r
( all x )
cos x = 1 − + − ... + + ...
2! 4! ( 2r )!
x 2 x3 ( −1) x r
r +1 ( −1  x  1)
ln (1 + x ) = x − + − ... + + ...
2 3 r

If x (in radians) is sufficiently small for x3 and higher powers of x to be neglected, then we have

 sin x  x
x2
cos x  1 −
 2!
tan x  x

[In MF26]

Page | 20
 Module V – Calculus

Techniques of Integration

Formulae

Integration Basic General

n +1
 x n dx = x + C , n  −1  f ( x )  n +1
  ( )  ( )
  = + C , n  −1
n
form xn f ' x f x dx
 n +1  n +1

 1 dx = ln x + C  f '( x)
form x−1   dx = ln f ( x ) + C
x  f ( x)

 f '( x) e
f ( x) f ( x)
e dx = e x + C dx = e +C
x

Exponential
ax a()
f x
Functions
a dx = +C  f '( x) a
f ( x)
dx = +C
x

ln a ln a

 cos x dx = sin x + C  f ' ( x ) cos f ( x ) dx = sin f ( x ) + C

 sin x dx = − cos x + C  f ' ( x ) sin f ( x ) dx = − cos f ( x ) + C
 sec x dx = tan x + C  f ' ( x ) sec f ( x ) dx = tan f ( x ) + C
2
2
Trigonometric
Functions
 cosec x dx = − cot x + C  f ' ( x ) cosec f ( x ) dx = − cot f ( x ) + C
2
2

 sec x tan x dx = sec x + C  f ' ( x ) sec f ( x ) tan f ( x ) dx = sec f ( x ) + C
 cosec x cot x dx = −cosec x + C  f ' ( x ) cosec f ( x ) cot f ( x ) dx = −cosec f ( x ) + C
 tan x dx = ln sec x + C
Other
 cot x dx = ln sin x + C
Trigonometric
Functions  cosec x dx = − ln cosec x + cot x + C
 sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + C
 f '( x) 1  f ( x) 
 1 1 x  dx = tan −1  +C
 f ( x )  + a
 2 dx = tan −1   + C 2 2
a  a 
 x + a2 a a
 f '( x)  f ( x) 
 1 x  dx = sin −1  +C
 dx = sin −1   + C 
a 2 − f ( x )   a 
2
 a −x
2 2
a 
Others
 1 1 x−a  f '( x) 1  f ( x) − a 
 2 dx = ln +C  dx = ln  +C
 x −a 2
2a x + a  f x  − a 2
 ( ) 
2
2 a 
 f ( x ) + a 
a+x f '( x)
 1  1  a + f ( x) 
1
 2 dx = ln +C
 a − x2 2a a − x  dx = ln  +C
 a 2 − f x  2 2a  a − f ( x ) 
  ( )

[In MF26]

Page | 21
 Module V – Calculus

Techniques of Integration

Integration Explanation
• Powers of x
• Logarithmic functions
By Standard Form • Exponential functions
• Trigonometric functions
• Inverse trigonometric functions
Integral of the Form:

 sin  cos
n n
(I) x dx ; x dx where n is even
Using
Trigonometric Apply Double Angle Formula

 sin px cos qx dx ;  sin px sin qx dx ;  cos px cos qx dx

Formulae (II)

Apply Factor Formulae

Involving Partial p( x)
Used for rational functions, , with denominator that can be factorised.
Fractions q( x)

For integrals containing “improper rational functions” such as  3x dx and

Involving Long  1− x
2
Division 

2x
dx .
 x+4
f '( x)
For integrals that are unable to be expressed in the form 
Involving ‘Splitting
 f x dx directly.
the Numerator’  ( )
Used to introduce a suitable substitution so that the original integral can be
transformed to one that fits into one of the standard formulae.
Step : Differentiate the given substitution.
By Substitution
Step : Ensure all the terms in x have been substituted with the new variable, say .
Step : Integrate the expression with respect to the .
Step : Remember to express the final answer in terms of the original variable, x.
Useful for integrals that contain inverse functions, logarithmic functions and
mixed functions.

 u dv dx = uv −  v du dx
 
 dx  dx
By Parts

Choice of function u: (term to differentiate)

Logarithmic, Inverse trigonometry, Algebraic, Trigonometry, Exponential
(LIATE)

Page | 22
 Module V – Calculus

Definite Integrals

Area

… x-axis … y-axis
Area of region bounded by the curve y = f ( x ) , the Area of region bounded by the curve x = g ( y ) , the
vertical lines x = a and x = b and the x −axis: horizontal lines y = c and y = d and the y −axis:

y = f ( x)
y y

d x = g( y)

c
x
a b
x
b
A= a y dx A=
d
 c x dy

Specific Cases

Area of region bounded between the curves y = f ( x ) Area of region bounded between the curves x = f ( y )
and y = g ( x ) and the vertical lines x = a and x = b and x = g ( y ) and the horizontal lines y = c and
: y=d: y

y = f(x)
d x = f ( y)
x = g( y )
a b
x

y = g( x) c

b d
A=  a
f ( x ) − g ( x )  dx A= c f ( y ) − g ( y )  dy

If the area is bounded as shown below. If the area is bounded as shown below.
y
c

b
x
a b c a

b c b c
A=  a g ( x ) dx +  b f ( x ) dx A=  a g ( y ) dy +  b f ( y ) dy

Page | 23
 Module V – Calculus

Volume

… x-axis … y-axis
Volume of solid formed by rotating the region Volume of solid formed by rotating the region
bounded by the curve y = f ( x ) , the vertical lines bounded by the curve x = g ( y ) , the horizontal lines
y

x = a and x = b and the x −axis, about the x −axis y = c and y = d and the y −axis, about the y −axis
through 360 : through 360 :
y

d
x
a b

x = g( y )
c

b x
V =π a y 2 dx
d
V =π c x 2 dy

Specific Cases

Volume of solid formed by rotating the region Volume of solid formed by rotating the region
bounded by y = f ( x ) , y = g ( x ) and the vertical bounded by x = f ( y ) , x = g ( y ) and the horizontal
lines x = a and x = b , about the x −axis through lines y = c and y = d , about the y −axis through
360 : 360 : y
y

a x
b
c
x

b d
 a f ( x ) − g ( x )  dx c f ( y )  − g ( y )  dy
2 2 2 2
V =π V =π

If vol is generated by shaded area rotated about x-axis. If vol is generated by shaded area rotated about y-axis.
y
c

b
x
a b c a
x
b c
 a  g ( x )  b f ( x )
2 2
V =π dx + π dx c b
 a  g ( y )  a f ( y )
2 2
V =π dy − π dy
Page | 24
 Module V – Calculus

Parametric Equations

Parametric Equation Cartesian Equation

It is any set of equations that It is any equation that describes the

describes the curve using a real Elimination of variable curve using the x- and y-
variable, t, called the parameter. coordinates in the plane.

Use of G.C.

(i)

Ensure that G.C. is in

parametric (PAR) mode

(ii)
*Use this range for
sketching of parametric
Tmin = −2
graphs, unless
specified in question*
Tmax = 2

Parametric Differentiation

dy
dy
= dt
dx dx
dt

Area under a Curve Defined Parametrically

Area under a curve defined parametrically by Area under a curve defined parametrically by
x = f ( t ) and y = g ( t ) and the x-axis is given by x = f ( t ) and y = g ( t ) and the y-axis is given by

a y dx =  c g ( t ) f ' ( t ) dt
b d
a x dy = c f ( t ) g ' ( t ) dt
b d

where x = a when t = c where y = a when t = c

and x = b when t = d and y = b when t = d

Page | 25
 Module V – Calculus

Differential Equations

Differential Equations
The order of a D.E. is the highest derivative present in the equation.

Solve using

Direct Integration Method of Separation of Method of Substitution

dy Variables
Equation of the form = f ( x)
dx Step :
dy
dy = g( y)
= f ( x) dx Differentiate the given
dx substitution with respect to x.
Integrating with respect to x, 1 dy
Rewriting, =1
g ( y ) dx Step :
 d y d x = f ( x ) dx
 dx  dy
Integrating with respect to x,
1 dy =  f ( x ) dx
Replace the term in the
dx


1 dy
dx =  1 dx differential equation by the
y =  f ( x ) dx  y ) dx
g ( expression obtained in Step
 and the terms in y are also
d2 y 

1
dy =  1 dx
replaced accordingly by the
Equation of the form = f ( x)  ( y)
g new variable.
dx 2
Step :
2
d y
= f ( x) The new simplified
dx 2 differential equation can be
Integrating with respect to x, solved by direct integration

2 or method of separation of
 2 dx =  f ( x ) dx
d y
 dx variables.

= g ( x ) + A where g ' ( x ) = f ( x )
dy
Step :
dx
Replace the new variable
Integrating with respect to x,
with y in the general solution.
 dy dx = ( g ( x ) + A) dx
 dx 
y = h ( x ) + Ax + B

where h ' ( x ) = g ( x ) and A and B are

arbitrary constants.

Page | 26
Permutations and Combinations

Suppose that an event E can be divided into m distinct and non-overlapping cases,
with n1 ways for the event to occur in the first case and n2 ways in the second case,
Addition Principle
up to nm ways in the last case, then the total number of possible ways for E to occur
is n1 + n2 + ... + nm .

Suppose that an event E can be spilt into m stages, where there are n1 ways for the
Multiplication first stage to occur and n2 ways for the second stage to occur, up to nm ways for the
Principle last stage to occur, then the total number of possible ways for E to occur is
n1  n2  ...  nm .

Combination of To select r objects out of n

n
distinct groups Cr

Combination of
When there are r groups of the same size and the groups are not distinct, we need to
non-distinct
divide by r ! .
groups

( n − ( r − 1) ) =
n!
Permutation of n
Pr = n ( n − 1)( n − 2 ) = n Cr  r !
distinct Objects ( n − r )!

In general, the number of ways to arrange n objects where p of them are non-distinct,
Permutation of q of them are non-distinct etc is
non-distinct
n!
Objects
p! q!

Permutations with
Stage : Combine the objects
Objects
Stage : Permutate the combined objects
Combined

Permutations with
Insert into “spaces”.
Objects Separated

Permutations in a
Circle with non- The number of permutations of n distinct objects in a circle is ( n − 1) !
distinct labels
Permutations in a
Circle with The number of permutations of n distinct objects in a labelled circle is (n − 1)!  n
distinct labels

Page | 27
 Module VI – Statistics

Probability

If the finite sample space, S, consists of equally likely outcomes, then probability of an
event E, written as P(E) is defined as
Probability
n( E )
P(E) =
n( S )

Let E denotes some event.

• 0  P(E) 1
• P ( E ') = 1 − P ( E )
• P ( E ') = 1 − P ( E )
Results
Let A, B denotes some events.
• P ( A  B ) = P ( B  A)
• P ( A  B ) = P ( B  A)
• P ( A  B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) − P ( A  B )

Events A and B are said to be mutually exclusive if they cannot occur simultaneously.

P ( A  B) = 0
Mutually
Exclusive To show whether two events A and B are mutually exclusive, we just need to determine
Events either
• P ( A  B ) = 0 or
• P ( A  B ) = P ( A) + P ( B )

Given that A and B are events such that P( A)  0 and P( B)  0 , the probability of A

Conditional occurring given that B has already occurred is written as P ( A B ) .

Probability P ( A  B)
P ( A | B) =
P ( B)

Two processes are independent if knowing the outcome of one provides no useful
information about the outcome of the other.

If events A and B are independent then P ( A | B ) = P ( A ) and P ( B | A ) = P ( B ) .

We also know that if events A and B are independent then P ( A  B ) = P ( A )  P ( B )

Independent
Events
To show whether two events A and B are independent, we just need to show either
• P ( A | B ) = P ( A ) or
• P ( B | A ) = P ( B ) or
• P ( A  B ) = P ( A)  P ( B )

• Table of Outcomes
Tools • Venn Diagram
• Permutation and Combination
• Tree Diagram

Page | 28
 Module VI – Statistics

Discrete Random Variables

A random variable is a function that associates a real number with each element in the sample space.

Definition A random variable is called a discrete random variable if its set of possible outcomes is
countable.

The probability function, probability mass function, or probability distribution of the

discrete random variable X , for each possible outcome of x , is a function f ( x) such that
Probability • P ( X = x) = f ( x)
Distribution
Function • 0  f ( x)  1
•  f ( x) = 1
all x

Mode P ( X = x ) is the largest.

Medium, m P ( X  m )  0.5 and P ( X  m )  0.5

 = E ( X ) =   x f ( x ) 
all x

Mean If X is discrete, the expected value of the random variable Y = g ( X ) is

E (Y ) = E g ( X )  =  g ( x ) f ( x ) 
all x

 2 = Var ( X ) =  ( x −  ) f ( x ) 
2

all x
 
Variance
 2 = Var ( X ) = E ( X 2 ) −  E ( X ) 
2

Mean and Variance of Linear Combinations of Random Variables

E ( aX  b ) = a E ( X )  b
aX  b
Var ( aX  b ) = a 2 Var ( X ) where a and b are constants.

E ( X  Y ) = E ( X )  E (Y )
X Y
Var ( X  Y ) = Var ( X ) + Var (Y )

E ( X1 + X 2 + + X n ) = E ( X1 ) + E ( X 2 ) + E ( X 3 ) + + E( Xn ) = nE( X )
X1 , X 2 , , Xn
Var ( X 1 + X 2 + + X n ) = Var ( X 1 ) + Var ( X 2 ) + + Var ( X n ) = n Var ( X )

Page | 29
 Module VI – Statistics

Binomial Distribution

n
Definition P(X = x) =   p x (1 − p) n − x where x = 0, 1, 2,..., n
 x

• There is a fixed number of trials.

• Each trial is independent of any other trial.
Conditions*
• Each trial has two mutually exclusive possible outcomes: a ‘success’ or a ‘failure’.
• The probability of a success, denoted by p, is constant in each trial.

Let X be the random variable denoting “no. of _____ out of _____”

Notation
X ~ B ( n, p )

Expectation ,  = np
Variance ,  2 = np(1 − p)
Standard
Deviation
 = np(1 − p)

* In examination questions, the fixed number of trials and two mutually exclusive possible outcomes are usually stated in the
question. As such, one should answer with regards to independence and constant probability of success.

Example : [2009/II/11(i)]
A fixed number, n , of cars is observed and the number of those cars that are red is denoted by R . State, in context, two
assumptions needed for R to be well modelled by a binomial distribution.
Solution:
1. The colour of each car is independent of each other.
2. The probability of a car being red is constant throughout the sample.

Example : [2011/II/7(i)]
When I try to contact (by telephone) any of my friends in the evening, I know that on average the probability that I succeed
is 0.7. On one evening I attempt to contact a fixed, n , of different friends. If I do not succeed with a particular friend, I do
not attempt to contact that friend again that evening. The number of friends whom I succeed in contacting is the random
variable R . State, in the context of this question, two assumptions needed to model R by a binomial distribution.
Solution:
1. The success of contacting a friend is independent of others.
2. The probability of successfully contacting a friend is a constant of 0.7.

Example : [2012/II/9(i)]
In an opinion poll before an election, a sample of 30 voters is obtained. The number of voters in the sample who support
Alliance Party is denoted by A . State, in context, what must be assumed for A to be well modelled by a binomial
distribution.
Solution:
1. The voters’ opinion is independent of each other.
2. The probability of a voter voting for Alliance party is a constant value.

Example : [2013/II/7(i)]
On average one in 20 packets of a breakfast cereal contains a free gift. Jack buys n packets from a supermarket. The
number of these packets containing a free gift is the random variable F . State, in context, two assumptions needed for F
to be well modelled by a binomial distribution.
Solution:
1. Whether a packet contains a free gift is independent of other packets.
1
2. The probability of getting a free gift in a cereal packet is a constant, .
20
[In MF26]

Page | 30
 Module VI – Statistics

Normal Distribution

Let X be the random variable denoting “________ of a _______”

Notation
X ~ N ( , 2 )


 

Properties • The normal distribution curve is bell shaped and symmetrical about the line
x=.
• The total area under a normal curve is 1.
• The area under a normal curve between x = a and x = b gives the value of the
probability P ( a  X  b ) .
• The shape and location of a normal curve are determined by the values of 
and  .

If  = 0 and  = 1 , then Z ~ N ( 0, 1) is called the standard normal distribution.

If  and  or both are unknown, there is a need to standardize X ~ N (  ,  2 )

Standardization before the probabilities can be computed.

X −
If X ~ N (  ,  2 ) and Z = , then Z ~ N ( 0, 1)


If X and Y are two independent normal variables such that

X ~ N (  X ,  X 2 ) and Y ~ N ( Y ,  Y 2 ) , then

X + Y ~ N (  X + Y ,  X 2 +  Y 2 )
Sum of Independent
Normal Variables X − Y ~ N (  X − Y ,  X 2 +  Y 2 )

aX + bY ~ N ( a  X + bY , a 2 X 2 + b 2 Y 2 )
aX − bY ~ N ( a  X − bY , a 2 X 2 + b 2 Y 2 )

If X ~ N (  ,  2 ) and that X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,..., X n are n independent random

observations of X , then X1 + X 2 + X 3 + ... + X n follows a normal distribution with

Sum of Independent
and Identically X 1 + X 2 + X 3 + ... + X n ~ N ( n , n 2 )
Distributed Normal
Variables If X ~ N (  ,  2 ) and given that nX is n times of one random observation of
X , then nX follows a normal distribution with

nX ~ N ( n , n 2 2 )

Page | 31
 Module VI – Statistics

Sampling Distribution

A population consists of the totality of the observations with which we are concerned.
A sample is a subset of a population.
Definition
A random sampling implies that any particular sample of a specified sample size has the
same chance of being selected as any other sample of the same size.

If 𝑿 is normally distributed, such that X ~ N  ,  2( )

Then
 2 
X ~ N  , 
 n 

If 𝑿 is not normally distributed, and given E ( X ) =  and Var( X ) =  2

Sampling Since n is sufficiently large,
Distributions
 2 
X ~ N  ,  approximately by C.L.T.
 n 
If 𝑿 is not normally distributed, and given E ( X ) =  and Var( X ) =  2
Since n is sufficiently large,
X 1 + X 2 + ... + X n ~ N ( n , n 2 ) approximately by C.L.T.

Population mean, ˆ = x =
x or
n

ˆ = x =
( x − a) + a
n

n  (x − x ) 
2

Population variance, s 2 =  
Estimation of n −1  n 
 
Population
1  (  x) 
2
Parameters
s =
2

n −1 
x − n
2 

 
1  (  ( x − a )) 
2

s = ( x − a) − 
2 2

n −1  n 
 
n
s2 = ( sample variance )
n −1

[In MF26]

Page | 32
 Module VI – Statistics

Hypothesis Testing

Procedure for Conducting a Hypothesis Test

Step : Define the random variable if it is not defined.

Step : State the hypotheses.

The null hypothesis H0 :  = 0
The alternative hypothesis H1 :   0 (Right-tailed test) OR
H1 :   0 (Left-tailed test) OR
H1 :   0 (Two-tailed test)
The alternative hypothesis must be decided from the question.

Step : Calculate the sample mean, x and unbiased estimate of the population variance, s 2 if
population variance is not given.

Step : State the distribution of X .

Case : If X is normally distributed,
 2 
X ~ N  0 , 
 n 
Case : If X is not normally distributed,
 2 
X ~ N  0 ,  approximately by CLT
 n 
OR
 s2 
X ~ N  0 ,  approximately by CLT
 n 

Step : Decide on doing p-value or critical value.

No unknowns: use either p-value or critical value method
Unknown 0 , x , n ,  2 or s 2 : use critical value method
Unknown  : use p-value method

p-value critical value

x − 0 x − 0
Press STAT ztest = or ztest =
 2
s2
n n

If H1 :   0
𝛼
100

𝑍
𝑍critical


Apply invNorm with area: ,  : 0 and  :1 to
100
find zcritical .

 To reject H 0 : ztest  zcritical

To reject H 0 : p-value 
100

Page | 33
 Module VI – Statistics

If H1 :   0
𝛼
100

𝑍
𝑍critical


Apply invNorm with area: 1 − ,  : 0 and  :1
100
to find zcritical .

To reject H 0 : ztest  zcritical

If H1 :   0

0.5𝛼
100

𝑍
−𝑍critical 𝑍critical
0.5
Apply invNorm with area: 1 − ,  : 0 and  :1
100
to find zcritical .

To reject H 0 : ztest  zcritical

Step : Conclusion

p-value Critical value

 Since <test statistics lies in rejection region> we
Since p-value  , we reject H 0 . There is
100 reject H 0 . and conclude that have sufficient
sufficient evidence at  % level of significance to evidence at  % level of significance to claim that <
conclude that < H1 in context of the question>. H1 in context of the question>.

OR OR

 Since <test statistics does not lies in rejection

Since p-value > , we do not reject H 0 . There is
100 region> we do not reject H 0 . There is insufficient
insufficient evidence at  % level of significance to evidence at  % level of significance to conclude
conclude that < H1 in context of the question>. that < H1 in context of the question>.

Page | 34
 Module VI – Statistics

Correlation and Linear Regression

Scatter Diagram

• A scatter diagram can be used to represent a set of bivariate data.

• A bivariate data is a set that consists of 2 variables (independent and dependent) in ordered pairs.
• Independent variable provides the basis for estimation. It can be manipulated or controlled by the
researcher.
• Dependent variable is to be estimated or predicted. It is observed for changes in order to assess the effect
of manipulating the independent variable.
• General pattern of a scatter diagram
Dependent variable

Relationship Description
Linear (1) Positive/ Negative
(2) Strong/ Weak Independent variable
Non-linear
No clear relationship

• Scatter diagrams gives a visual evidence of possible extreme data points known as outliers.
• The inclusion or exclusion of outliers affects the value of correlation coefficient.

Correlation Coefficient, r
• r is a numerical measure of the linear relationship between two variable, x and y .
• r can only take values between −1 and 1, i.e. −1  r  1

r Implications Remarks
Perfect negative linear correlation All data points lie on a straight line with a
−1 between y and x . negative gradient.
A negative linear relationship between
<0 y decreases as x increases.
y and x .
A positive linear relationship between
>0 y increases as x increases.
y and x .
No linear relationship between y and
0 No clear relationship or non-linear relationship.
x.
Perfect positive linear correlation All data points lie on a straight line with a
+1 between y and x . positive gradient.

• A strong linear correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply that one variable directly
causes the other.
• Correlation should not be used to explain that the independent variable affects the dependent variable, i.e.
there is no causal relationship between the two variables.

Page | 35
 Module VI – Statistics

Linear Regression

• Linear regression attempts to model the relationship between two variables by fitting a linear equation
to a set of observed data.
• One variable is considered to be under control and it is called the independent variable while the other is
considered to be a dependent variable.

Regression y on x x on y
line of …

y = a + bx x = c + dy

where x is the independent variable and where y is the independent variable

Equation y is the dependent variable and x is the dependent variable

y − y = b( x − x ) x − x = d(y − y)

Both regression line will pass through ( x , y ) .

a = y − bx c = x −d y
Regression
Sxy Sxy
coefficients b= d=
Sxx Syy

• Using appropriate regression lines

Cases Estimation to be made Appropriate regression line
x is taken to be the Estimate value of y for a given value of x . y on x
independent
Estimate value of x for a given value of y . y on x
variable
y is taken to be the Estimate value of y for a given value of x . x on y
independent
Estimate value of x for a given value of y . x on y
variable
Neither x nor y Estimate value of y for a given value of x . y on x
can be identified as
the independent Estimate value of x for a given value of y . x on y
variable

• Interpolation is making a prediction within the range of values of the predictor in the sample used to
generate the model. It is safe, provided that r is close to +-1.
• Extrapolation is making a prediction outside the range of values of the predictor in the sample used to
generate the model. It is not advisable.

Page | 36