Module 2

Analysis of Lamina
Course Outcome: [ CO-2 ]

Learner will be able to relate stresses and strains through the elastic constants for a
given lamina.

Introduction:

In composite materials, a lamina refers to a single layer or ply within the composite
structure. Each lamina typically consists of reinforcement fibres or particles embedded within
a matrix material. A laminate is constructed by stacking a number of such lamina in the
direction of the lamina thickness as shown in figure.

Figure: Typical laminate made of three laminae

Mechanical structures made of these laminates, such as a leaf spring suspension

system in an automobile, are subjected to various loads, such as bending and twisting. The
design and analysis of such laminated structures demands knowledge of the stresses and
strains in the laminate. Also, design tools, such as failure theories, stiffness models, and
optimization algorithms, need the values of these laminate stresses and strains.

However, the building blocks of a laminate are single lamina, so understanding the
mechanical analysis of a lamina precedes understanding that of a laminate. An analysis of a
lamina in a composite material involves several aspects:

1. Material Constituents:

• Reinforcement Fibres/Particles: Determine the type, orientation,

arrangement, and properties of the fibres or particles within the lamina.
 Common reinforcement materials include carbon fibres, fibreglass, aramid
fibres (such as Kevlar), or natural fibres like bamboo or hemp.

• Matrix Material: Identify the matrix material (polymer, metal, ceramic, etc.)
that binds the reinforcement material together. Analyse its properties such as
stiffness, strength, thermal conductivity, and toughness.

2. Lamina Properties:

• Mechanical Properties: Assess properties like tensile strength, compressive

strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity, and fracture toughness of the
lamina.

• Thermal Properties: Analyse thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal

expansion, and specific heat capacity of the lamina.

• Physical Properties: Consider density, porosity, and moisture absorption

characteristics.

3. Failure Analysis:

• Failure Modes: Evaluate potential failure modes such as delamination, fibre

breakage, matrix cracking, or interface debonding.

• Stress Analysis: Use methods like finite element analysis (FEA) or analytical
methods to simulate and predict stress distributions within the lamina under
various loading conditions.

• Failure Criteria: Apply failure criteria (such as Tsai-Hill, Tsai-Wu, Hashin, etc.)
to predict failure based on stresses and material properties.

4. Testing and Characterization:

• Experimental Testing: Conduct tests like tensile testing, compression testing,

impact testing, and fatigue testing to validate theoretical predictions and
determine actual material behaviour.

• Microstructural Analysis: Employ microscopy techniques (optical, scanning

electron microscopy, etc.) to study the microstructure and bonding between
constituents.
 5. Design Considerations:

• Optimization: Optimize the lamina design by adjusting parameters like fibre

orientation, stacking sequence, or matrix-reinforcement ratio to achieve
desired performance characteristics.

• Composite Layup: Consider the arrangement and stacking sequence of

multiple laminas to create a composite structure with tailored properties.

6. Environmental Considerations:

• Durability: Assess the material's durability and resistance to environmental

factors like moisture, temperature variations, and chemical exposure.

7. Simulation and Modelling:

• Computational Modelling: Use computational tools and software to simulate

the behaviour of the lamina under different loading conditions and validate
these models against experimental results.

Stress:

A structure experiences external forces, which act upon a body as surface forces (like
when you bend a stick) and forces acting within the body (such as the weight of a standing
pole on itself). These forces create internal forces inside the structure. Understanding these
internal forces everywhere in the structure matters because they must not exceed the
material's strength. Stress, which measures the force per area, helps determine if the material
can withstand these internal forces.

Imagine a body in equilibrium under various loads. If the body is cut at a cross-section,
forces will need to be applied on the cross-sectional area so that it maintains equilibrium as in
the original body. At any cross- section, a force ΔP is acting on an area of ΔA.

Figure: body cut by Arbitrary plane Figure: Stresses on an infinitesimal area on an

arbitrary plane
 This force vector has a component normal to the surface, ΔPn, and one parallel to the
surface, ΔPs. The definition of stress then gives,

The component of the stress normal to the surface, σn, is called the normal stress and
the stress parallel to the surface, τs, is called the shear stress. If one takes a different cross-
section through the same point, the stress remains unchanged but the two components of
stress, normal stress, σn, and shear stress, τs, will change.

For defining a stress at a point completely, any three mutually orthogonal coordinate
systems, such as a Cartesian coordinate system is needed. Take a cross-section parallel to the
yz-plane in the body as shown in Figure below:

Figure: Forces on an infinitesimal area on the y–z plane

The force vector ΔP acts on an area ΔA. The component ΔPx is normal to the surface.
The force vector ΔPs is parallel to the surface and can be further resolved into components
along the y and z axes: ΔPy and ΔPz. The various stresses can be defined as:

Similarly, stresses can be defined for cross-sections parallel to the xy and xz planes.

There is total six independent stresses. The stresses σx, σy, and σz are normal to the
surfaces of the cuboid and the stresses τyz, τzx, and τxy are along the surfaces of the cuboid. A
tensile normal stress is positive, and a compressive normal stress is negative. A shear stress is
positive, if its direction and the direction of the normal to the face on which it is acting are
both in positive or negative direction; otherwise, the shear stress is negative.
Strain:

Similar to the need for knowledge of forces inside a body, knowing the deformations
because of the external forces is also important. For example, a piston in an internal
combustion engine may not develop larger stresses than the failure strengths, but its excessive
deformation may seize the engine.

The knowledge of deformations is specified in terms of strains - that is, the relative
change in the size and shape of the body. The strain at a point is also defined generally on an
infinitesimal cuboid in a right-hand coordinate system. Under loads, the lengths of the sides
of the infinitesimal cuboid change. The faces of the cube also get distorted. The change in
length corresponds to a normal strain and the distortion corresponds to the shearing strain.

Figure: Normal and shearing strains on an infinitesimal area in the x–y plane

Figure shows the strains on one of the faces, ABCD, of the cuboid. Consider the two
perpendicular lines, AB and AD. When the body is loaded, these two lines become A ′ B ′ and
A ′ D ′. Displacement of a point (x,y,z) can be defined as:

u = u(x,y,z) = displacement in x -direction at point ( x,y,z )

v = v(x,y,z) = displacement in y -direction at point ( x,y,z )

w = w(x,y,z) = displacement in z -direction at point ( x,y,z )

The normal strain in the x-direction, εx, is defined as the change of length of line AB per unit
length of AB as,
After simplification, we get,

The normal strain in the y-direction, εy is defined as the change in the length of line AD
per unit length of AD as,

After simplification, we get,

A normal strain is positive if the corresponding length increases; a normal strain is

negative if the corresponding length decreases.

The shearing strain in the x–y plane, γxy is defined as the change in the angle between
sides AB and AD from 90°. This angular change takes place by the inclining of sides AB and
AD. The shearing strain is thus defined as,

After simplification, we get,

The shearing strain is positive when the angle between the sides AD and AB
decreases; otherwise, the shearing strain is negative.

The definitions of the remaining normal and shearing strains can be found by noting
the change in size and shape of the other sides of the infinitesimal cuboid,
Compliance matrix and stiffness matrix

In the realm of composite materials, both the compliance matrix and stiffness matrix
play pivotal roles in characterizing the material's mechanical behaviour. These matrices are
fundamental in understanding how composite materials respond to mechanical loads and
deformations.

Stiffness Matrix:

The stiffness matrix, denoted as [C], relates stresses to strains in a material. For
anisotropic materials like composites, it's a 6 x 6 matrix (in 3D) since it accounts for 6
independent stress components (normal stresses σx, σy, σz & shear stresses τxy, τyz, τzx) and their
corresponding strains.

The relationship between stress and strain can be expressed as:

σx 𝜀𝑥
σy 𝜀𝑦
σz 𝜀𝑧
τxy = [𝐶] . 𝛾𝑥𝑦
τyz 𝛾𝑦𝑧
[τzx ] [ 𝛾𝑧𝑥 ]

Stiffness Matrix [C] is determined based on the material's elastic constants. For
orthotropic materials, it contains 9 independent elastic constants (e.g., Young's moduli,
Poisson's ratios, shear moduli) which can be determined experimentally or through
theoretical analysis.

Compliance Matrix:

The compliance matrix, denoted as [S], is the inverse of the stiffness matrix ([C] −1). It
describes the material's ability to deform under stress, providing the relationship between
strains and stresses:

𝜀𝑥 σx
𝜀𝑦 σy
𝜀𝑧 σz
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = [𝑆] . τxy
𝛾𝑦𝑧 τyz
[ 𝛾𝑧𝑥 ] [τzx ]
 These matrices are essential in predicting the behavior of composite materials under
different loading conditions and orientations. They help engineers and scientists design
composite structures by predicting their response to external forces, optimizing for specific
mechanical properties.

Determining the stiffness and compliance matrices typically involves experimental

testing, numerical simulations, or theoretical modeling, considering the material's properties
and its reinforcement's orientation.

Types of Materials:

1. Isotropic Material:
An isotropic material exhibits uniform properties in all directions. This means
that its mechanical, thermal, and electromagnetic properties are the same regardless
of the direction you measure or apply force.

It responds uniformly to external stimuli regardless of the direction of the

applied force or temperature gradient.

Examples of isotropic materials include certain metals like cast iron and some
plastics in their amorphous state.

2. Anisotropic Material:

An anisotropic material has different properties when measured along

different axes or directions. Its behaviour changes significantly based on the direction
of applied forces or other external factors.

Many naturally occurring materials, such as wood, crystals, composites, and

some fibre-reinforced materials like carbon fibre composites, exhibit anisotropic
properties. Their properties are often dependent on the orientation of their
microstructure or the arrangement of their reinforcing elements.

3. Orthotropic Material:

Orthotropic materials are a subset of anisotropic materials with three mutually

perpendicular planes of symmetry. These materials have different properties in three
mutually perpendicular directions but are uniform within those planes. An example
is wood, where its properties can differ significantly between radial, tangential, and
longitudinal directions.
 4. Monoclinic Material:

Monoclinic refers to the crystal system of a material. In the monoclinic system,

the crystal lattice has three unequal axes, two of which intersect at an oblique angle
(not 90 degrees), and the third is perpendicular to the plane defined by the other two.

Materials that exhibit a monoclinic crystal structure have unique physical and
chemical properties based on their atomic arrangement. Some examples of materials
with a monoclinic crystal structure include Gypsum, Zircon, Feldspar etc.

Hooke’s law for Isotropic Material:

Hooke's Law is a fundamental principle in solid mechanics that describes the linear
relationship between stress and strain for elastic materials within their proportional limit. For
isotropic materials, which have uniform properties in all directions, Hooke's Law can be
expressed in a simplified form.

For a one-dimensional case (considering only one direction), Hooke's Law can be
written as:

σ=E⋅ε

Where:
• σ is the normal stress applied to the material.
• ε is the resulting strain caused by the stress.
• E is Young's Modulus or the modulus of elasticity, representing the stiffness of the
material. In isotropic materials, this modulus is the same in all directions.
 In three dimensions, for isotropic materials, Hooke's Law can be expanded to handle
stresses and strains in multiple directions using matrix notation:

𝜀1 𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14 𝑆15 𝑆16 𝜎1

𝜀2 𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 𝑆24 𝑆25 𝑆26 𝜎2
𝜀3 𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33 𝑆34 𝑆35 𝑆36 𝜎
𝛾23 = . 3
𝑆41 𝑆42 𝑆43 𝑆44 𝑆45 𝑆46 𝜏23
𝛾31 𝑆51 𝑆52 𝑆53 𝑆54 𝑆55 𝑆56 𝜏31
[𝛾12 ] [𝑆61 𝑆62 𝑆63 𝑆64 𝑆65 𝑆66 ] [𝜏12 ]
Where,

• σ1, σ2, σ3 are the normal stresses in the x, y, and z directions respectively.

• τ12, τ23, τ31 are the shear stress in xy, yz & zx planes respectively.

• ε1, ε2, ε3 are the corresponding strains in the x, y, and z directions.

• γ12, γ23, γ31 are the shear strains in xy, yz & zx planes respectively.

1
𝑆11 = 𝑆22 = 𝑆33 =
𝐸
−𝜈
𝑆12 = 𝑆13 = 𝑆21 = 𝑆23 = 𝑆31 = 𝑆32 =
𝐸

1
𝑆44 = 𝑆55 = 𝑆66 =
𝐺

And Si j, other than in the preceding, are “zero”.

• E is Young's Modulus.

• ν is Poisson's ratio, defining the relationship between lateral and axial strains.

• G is the shear modulus.

𝐸
𝐺=
2 (1 + 𝜈)
 Hooke’s Law for Isotropic material can be written in terms of Stiffness Matrix as:

Hooke’s law for Anisotropic Material:

For an anisotropic material, which has varying mechanical properties in different

directions, Hooke's Law becomes more complex compared to isotropic materials due to the
material's directional dependence.

In anisotropic materials, the relationship between stress and strain is described using
the stiffness matrix or compliance matrix, as mentioned earlier. Hooke's Law for anisotropic
materials can be expressed in matrix form as:

𝜎1 𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 𝐶14 𝐶15 𝐶16 𝜀1

𝜎2 𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 𝐶24 𝐶25 𝐶26 𝜀2
𝜎3 𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33 𝐶34 𝐶35 𝐶36 𝜀
𝜏23 = . 3
𝐶41 𝐶42 𝐶43 𝐶44 𝐶45 𝐶46 𝛾23
𝜏31 𝐶51 𝐶52 𝐶53 𝐶54 𝐶55 𝐶56 𝛾31
[𝜏12 ] [𝐶61 𝐶62 𝐶63 𝐶64 𝐶65 𝐶66 ] [𝛾12 ]

Where:

• σ1, σ2, σ3 are the normal stresses in the principal material directions.

• ε1, ε2, ε3 are the corresponding strains in the principal material directions.

• τ i j represents the shear stresses.

• γ i j represents the corresponding shear strains in the respective planes.

The components of the C matrix (C i j) represent the stiffness coefficients associated

with the material's response to strains in different directions, capturing the anisotropic
behaviour. Unlike isotropic materials where there are only two independent material
constants (Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio), anisotropic materials may have a higher
number of independent elastic constants due to their directional dependence. Deriving the
values of the stiffness tensor C usually involves experimental testing or computational
methods tailored to characterize the material's anisotropic properties.

Hooke’s law for Orthotropic Material:

These materials have uniform properties within the same plane but different
properties in three mutually perpendicular directions. In general scenario it behaves like
anisotropic material where, extensional loads (Tensile or Compressive) cause extensional
strains as well as shear strains and shear strains cause extensional strains as well as shear
strains.

In special cases it behaves like isotropic material where, Extensional loads applied to
a specific plane causes only extensional strains and shear loads applied to a specific plane
causes only shear strains.

In three dimensions, for an orthotropic material, stress (σ) and strain (ε) can be related
using a stiffness matrix [C] and a strain matrix [ε]:

𝜎11 𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 0 0 0 𝜀11

𝜎22 𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 0 0 0 𝜀22
𝜎33 𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33 0 0 0 𝜀
𝜎23 = . 𝜀33
0 0 0 𝐶44 0 0 23
𝜎31 0 0 0 0 𝐶55 0 𝜀31
[𝜎12 ] [ 0 0 0 0 0 𝐶66 ] [𝜀12 ]

Here, Cij are the elements of the stiffness matrix representing the material's response
to strain in different directions. The subscripts 11, 22, and 33 typically correspond to the
material's principal directions, which are perpendicular to each other.

strain (ε) and stress (σ) can be related using a compliance matrix [S] and a stress matrix
[σ]:

𝜀11 𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 0 0 0 𝜎11

𝜀22 𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 0 0 0 𝜎22
𝜀33 𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33 0 0 0 𝜎
𝜀23 = 0 . 𝜎33
0 0 𝑆44 0 0 23
𝜀31 0 0 0 0 𝑆55 0 𝜎 31
[𝜀12 ] [0 0 0 0 0 𝑆66 ] [ 𝜎12 ]

Consider a cubic element (as shown in above figure) taken out of the orthotropic
material, where 1, 2, and 3 are the principal directions or 1–2, 2–3, and 3–1 are the three
mutually orthogonal planes of symmetry. Apply a normal stress, σ3, to the element.
 Figure: Cubic element made of Orthotropic material

Then, using the Hooke’s law Equation and the compliance matrix for the orthotropic
material, one gets;

ε1 = S13σ3 ; ε2 = S23σ3 ; ε3 = S33σ3 ; γ23 = 0 ; γ31 = 0 ; γ12 = 0

The cube will deform in all directions as determined by the normal strain equations.
However, the shear strains in all three planes (1–2, 2–3, and 3–1) are zero, showing that the
element will not change shape in these planes.

For orthotropic materials, stiffness coefficients are different for different directions due
to the material's anisotropy. They can be determined experimentally or calculated using
material properties and assumptions about the material's behaviour in different directions.

Hooke's law for orthotropic materials thus accounts for the anisotropic nature of these
materials by considering directional dependencies in stress-strain relationships.

Hooke’s law for Monoclinic Material:

If, in one plane of material symmetry (Material symmetry implies that the material
and its mirror image about the plane of symmetry are identical) as shown in figure below,

Figure: Transformation of coordinate axes for 1–2 plane of symmetry for a monoclinic material.
 for example, direction 3 is normal to the plane of material symmetry, then the stiffness
matrix reduces to,

𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 0 0 𝐶16

𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 0 0 𝐶26
𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33 0 0 𝐶36
[𝐶] =
0 0 0 𝐶44 𝐶45 0
0 0 0 𝐶45 𝐶55 0
𝐶
[ 16 𝐶26 𝐶36 0 0 𝐶66 ]

C14 = 0; C15 = 0; C24 = 0; C25 = 0; C34 = 0; C35 = 0; C46 = 0; C56 = 0.

The direction perpendicular to the plane of symmetry is called the principal direction.
There are 13 independent elastic constants in case of monoclinic material. The compliance
matrix correspondingly reduces to,

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 0 0 𝑆16

𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 0 0 𝑆26
𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33 0 0 𝑆36
[𝑆] =
0 0 0 𝑆44 𝑆45 0
0 0 0 𝑆45 𝑆55 0
[𝑆16 𝑆26 𝑆36 0 0 𝑆66 ]

Consider a cubic element as shown in figure below, taken out of a monoclinic material,
in which 3 is the direction perpendicular to the 1–2 plane of symmetry. Apply a normal stress,
σ3, to the element.

Figure: Cubic element made of monoclinic material.

Using the Hooke’s law Equation and the compliance matrix for the monoclinic
material, one gets,

ε1 = S13σ3 ; ε2 = S23σ3 ; ε3 = S33σ3 ; γ23 = 0 ; γ31 = 0 ; γ12 = S36σ3

The cube will deform in all directions as determined by the normal strain equations.
The shear strains in the 2–3 and 3–1 plane is zero, showing that the element will not change
shape in those planes.
 Reference Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fhxJBXOhksk

Plane Stress Assumption:

The plane stress assumption is a simplification used in the analysis of structures and
materials to model a state of stress where the stresses in one direction (out-of-plane direction)
are assumed to be negligible compared to the stresses in the other two directions (in-plane
directions). This assumption is particularly relevant for thin structures, such as plates or
shells, where the thickness is much smaller than the other dimensions.

The plane stress assumption is commonly applied in linear elasticity and structural
analysis. Hooke's Law, which relates stress and strain in linear elastic materials, can be
expressed in terms of a two-dimensional plane stress state. The governing equations consider
only the stresses and strains in the plane of interest, and any out-of-plane effects are neglected.

Figure: Plane stress conditions for a thin plate

A thin plate is a prismatic member having a small thickness, and it is the case for a
typical lamina. If a plate is thin and there are no out-of-plane loads, it can be considered to be
under plane stress.

If the upper and lower surfaces of the plate are free from external loads, then σ3 = 0, τ31

= 0, and τ23 = 0. Because the plate is thin, these three stresses within the plate are assumed to

vary little from the magnitude of stresses at the top and the bottom surfaces. Thus, they can
be assumed to be zero within the plate also.
 A lamina is thin and, if no out-of-plane loads are applied, one can assume that it is
under plane stress. This assumption then reduces the three-dimensional stress–strain
equations to two-dimensional stress–strain equations.

Reduction of Hooke’s Law in Three Dimensions to Two Dimensions:

A unidirectional lamina falls under the orthotropic material category. If the lamina
is thin and does not carry any out-of-plane loads, one can assume plane stress conditions for
the lamina. For Orthotropic materials,
𝜀1 𝜎1
𝜀2 𝜎2
𝜀3 𝜎3
𝛾23 = [𝑆] . 𝜏23
𝛾31 𝜏31
[𝛾12 ] [𝜏12 ]

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 0 0 0

𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 0 0 0
𝑆 𝑆32 𝑆33 0 0 0
and [𝑆] = 31
0 0 0 𝑆44 0 0
0 0 0 0 𝑆55 0
[0 0 0 0 0 𝑆66 ]
assuming σ3 = 0, τ23 = 0, and τ31 = 0

Then, ε3 = S13σ1 + S23σ2 and

γ23 = γ31 = 0
As, the normal strain, ε3 is a function of the other two normal strains, ε1 and ε2, it can

be omitted from the stress–strain relationship.

𝜀1 𝑆11 𝑆12 0 𝜎1
Hence, 𝜀
[ 2 ] = [𝑆12 𝑆22 0 ] 𝜎
[ 2] ...… (eq. A)
𝛾12 0 0 𝑆66 𝜏12

Where, Sij are the elements of the compliance matrix.

Inverting above equation gives the stress–strain relationship as,

𝜎1 𝑄11 𝑄12 0 𝜀1
[ 𝜎2 ] = [𝑄12 𝑄22 0 ] [ 𝜀2 ] ...… (eq. B)
𝜏12 0 0 𝑄66 𝛾12

Where, Qij are the reduced stiffness coefficients, that are related to the compliance
coefficients as follows:

𝑆22
𝑄11 =
𝑆11 𝑆22 − 𝑆 212
 𝑆12
𝑄12 =
𝑆11 𝑆22 − 𝑆 212

𝑆11
𝑄22 =
𝑆11 𝑆22 − 𝑆 212

1
𝑄66 =
𝑆66

Note that the elements of the reduced stiffness matrix, Qij, are not the same as the
elements of the stiffness matrix, Cij.

Relationship of Compliance and Stiffness Matrix to Engineering Elastic Constants

of a Lamina:

Equation A and Equation B shows the relationship of stress and strain through the
compliance [S] and reduced stiffness [Q] matrices. However, stresses and strains are generally
related through engineering elastic constants. For a unidirectional lamina, these engineering
elastics constants are as follows:

E1 = Longitudinal Young’s modulus (in direction 1)

E2 = Transverse Young’s modulus (in direction 2)

ν12 = Major Poisson’s ratio, where the general Poisson’s ratio, νij is defined as the ratio of the

negative of the normal strain in direction j to the normal strain in direction i, when the
only normal load is applied in direction i.

G12 = In-plane shear modulus (in plane 1–2)

Case 1: Applying pure tensile load in direction 1 (i.e. σ1 ≠ 0, σ2 = 0, τ12 = 0)

Figure: Application of pure tensile stresses in direction 1

From equation A,

ε1 = S11σ1 ; ε2 = S12σ1 ; γ12 = 0

As the only non-zero stress is σ1, By definition,

𝜎1 1
𝐸1 = =
𝜀1 𝑆11

𝟏
∴ 𝑺𝟏𝟏 =
𝑬𝟏

𝜀2 𝑆12
ν12 = − = −
𝜀1 𝑆11

𝛎𝟏𝟐
∴ 𝐒𝟏𝟐 = −
𝑬𝟏

Case 2: Applying pure tensile load in direction 2 (i.e. σ1 = 0, σ2 ≠ 0, τ12 = 0)

Figure: Application of pure tensile stresses in direction 2

From equation A,

ε1 = S12σ2 ; ε2 = S22σ2 ; γ12 = 0

As the only non-zero stress is σ2, By definition,

𝜎2 1
𝐸2 = =
𝜀2 𝑆22

𝟏
∴ 𝑺𝟐𝟐 =
𝑬𝟐

𝜀1 𝑆12
ν21 = − = −
𝜀2 𝑆22

ν21 is called minor Poisson’s ratio. From equation of E1, E2, ν12 and ν21, we can write

ν12 ν21
=
𝐸1 𝐸2

Case 3: Applying pure shear stress in plane 1-2 (i.e. σ1 = 0, σ2 = 0, τ12 ≠ 0)

 Figure: Application of pure shear stresses in plane 1-2

From equation A,

ε1 = 0 ; ε2 = 0 ; γ12 = S66τ12

As the only non-zero stress is τ12, By definition,

𝜏12 1
𝐺12 = =
𝛾12 𝑆66

𝟏
∴ 𝑺𝟔𝟔 =
𝑮𝟏𝟐
Stiffness coefficients Qij are related to the engineering constants and can be written as,

Hooke’s Law for a Two-Dimensional Angle Lamina:

Typically, laminates are not composed solely of unidirectional layers due to their
limited stiffness and strength in the transverse direction. As a result, in the majority of
laminates, layers are oriented at various angles. It is thus necessary to develop the stress–
strain relationship for an angle lamina.

The coordinate system used for showing an angle lamina is as given in figure below.
The axes in the 1–2 coordinate system are called the local axes or the material axes. The
direction 1 (also called the longitudinal direction, L) is parallel to the fibers and the direction
2 (also called the transverse direction, T) is perpendicular to the fibers. The axes in the x–y
coordinate system is called the global axes or the off-axes. The angle between the two axes is
denoted by an angle θ.

Figure: Local and global axes of an angle lamina

The global and local stresses in an angle lamina are related to each other through the angle
of the lamina, θ

𝜎𝑥 𝜎1
[ 𝜎𝑦 ] = [𝑇]−1 [ 𝜎2 ] ………. (eq. C)
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏12

where [T] is called the transformation matrix and is defined as,

𝑐2 𝑠2 −2𝑠𝑐
[𝑇]−1 = [𝑠 2 𝑐2 2𝑠𝑐 ]
𝑠𝑐 −𝑠𝑐 𝑐 − 𝑠2
2

and

𝑐2 𝑠2 2𝑠𝑐
[𝑇] = [ 𝑠 2 𝑐2 −2𝑠𝑐 ]
−𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑐 𝑐 2 − 𝑠2

c = Cos (θ)

s = Sin (θ)

Stress–strain relationship can be given by,

𝜎1 𝑄11 𝑄12 0 𝜀1
𝜎
[ 2 ] = [𝑄12 𝑄22 0 ] [ 𝜀2 ]
𝜏12 0 0 𝑄66 𝛾12

Therefore, equation C can be written as,

𝜎𝑥 𝜀1
𝜎
[ ]=
𝑦 [𝑇]−1 [𝑄] 𝜀
[ 2] ……… (eq. D)
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛾12
The global and local strains are also related through the transformation matrix:

𝜀1 𝜀𝑥
𝜀
[ 𝜀2 ] = [𝑇] [ 𝑦 ]
𝛾12 𝛾𝑥𝑦
⁄2 ⁄2

which can be rewritten as,

𝜀1 𝜀𝑥
−1 𝜀
[ 𝜀2 ] = [𝑅][𝑇][𝑅] [ 𝑦 ]
𝛾12 𝛾𝑥𝑦

where [R] is the Reuter matrix and is defined as,

1 0 0
[𝑅] = [0 1 0]
0 0 2

Substituting in equation D,

𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥
[ 𝜎𝑦 ] = [𝑇] [𝑄][𝑅][𝑇][𝑅] [ 𝜀𝑦 ]
−1 −1
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦

On carrying the multiplication of the first five matrices on R.H.S.,

𝑄̅11 𝑄̅12 𝑄̅16

[𝑇]−1 [𝑄][𝑅][𝑇][𝑅]−1 = [𝑄̅12 𝑄̅22 𝑄̅26 ]
𝑄̅16 𝑄̅26 𝑄̅66

𝜎𝑥 𝑄̅11 𝑄̅12 𝑄̅16 𝜀𝑥

∴ [ 𝜎𝑦 ] = [𝑄̅12 𝑄̅22 𝑄̅26 ] [ 𝜀𝑦 ] ……… (eq. E)
𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑄̅16 𝑄̅26 𝑄̅66 𝛾𝑥𝑦

where, 𝑄̅𝑖𝑗 are called the elements of the transformed reduced stiffness matrix [𝑄̅𝑖𝑗 ] and are
given by,
Inverting equation E, we get,

𝜀𝑥 𝑆11̅ 𝑆12 ̅ 𝑆16 ̅ 𝜎𝑥

𝜀
[ 𝑦 ] = [𝑆12 ̅ ̅
𝑆22 𝑆26 𝜎
̅ ][ 𝑦 ]
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝑆̅ 𝑆26̅ 𝑆̅ 𝜏𝑥𝑦
16 66

where, Sij are the elements of the transformed reduced compliance matrix and are given by,

For a unidirectional lamina loaded in the material axes directions, no coupling occurs
between the normal and shearing terms of strains and stresses. However, for an angle lamina,
coupling takes place between the normal and shearing terms of strains and stresses. If only
normal stresses are applied to an angle lamina, the shear strains are non-zero; if only shearing
stresses are applied to an angle lamina, the normal strains are non-zero.

Engineering Constants of an Angle Lamina:

Similar to a unidirectional lamina, the engineering constants of an angle ply can be

related to its transformed stiffness and compliance matrices.

Case 1: Application of pure tensile stresses in direction ‘x’ (i.e. σx ≠ 0, σy = 0, τxy = 0)

Figure: Application of pure tensile stresses in direction ‘x’

 ̅𝟏𝟏 𝝈𝒙
𝜺𝒙 = 𝑺 ; ̅𝟏𝟐 𝝈𝒙
𝜺𝒚 = 𝑺 ; ̅𝟏𝟔 𝝈𝒙
𝜸𝒙𝒚 = 𝑺

The elastic moduli in direction x is defined as,

𝜎𝑥 1
𝐸𝑥 = =
𝜀𝑥 ̅
𝑆11

Poisson’s ratio, νxy, is defined as,

𝜀𝑦 ̅
𝑆12
ν𝑥𝑦 = − = −
𝜀𝑥 𝑆11̅

In an angle lamina, unlike in a unidirectional lamina, interaction also occurs between

the shear strain and the normal stresses. This is called shear coupling. The shear coupling
relates the normal stress in the x-direction to the shear strain is denoted by mx and is defined
as,

1 𝜎𝑥 1
= − = −
𝑚𝑥 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐸1 ̅ 𝐸1
𝑆16

Case 2: Application of pure tensile stresses in direction ‘y’ (i.e. σx = 0, σy ≠ 0, τxy = 0)

Figure: Application of pure tensile stresses in direction ‘y’

̅𝟏𝟐 𝝈𝒚
𝜺𝒙 = 𝑺 ; ̅𝟐𝟐 𝝈𝒚
𝜺𝒚 = 𝑺 ; ̅𝟐𝟔 𝝈𝒚
𝜸𝒙𝒚 = 𝑺

The elastic moduli in direction y is defined as,

𝜎𝑦 1
𝐸𝑦 = =
𝜀𝑦 ̅
𝑆22

Poisson’s ratio, νyx, is defined as,

𝜺𝒙 𝑆12̅
ν𝑦𝑥 = − =−
𝜺𝒚 ̅
𝑆22
The shear coupling, my is defined as,

1 𝜎𝑦 1
=− =−
𝑚𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐸1 ̅
𝑆26 𝐸1

The shear coupling term my relates the normal stress σy to the shear strain γxy.

The reciprocal relationship is given by,

ν𝑦𝑥 ν𝑥𝑦
=
𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑥

Case 3: Application of pure shear stresses in plane ‘x - y’ (i.e. σx = 0, σy = 0, τxy ≠ 0)

Figure: Application of pure shear stresses in plane ‘x - y’

𝜺𝒙 = ̅
𝑺𝟏𝟔 τ𝒙𝒚 ; 𝜺𝒚 = ̅
𝑺𝟐𝟔 τ𝒙𝒚 ; 𝜸𝒙𝒚 = ̅
𝑺𝟔𝟔 τ𝒙𝒚

1 1
=−
𝑚𝑥 ̅
𝑆16 𝐸1

1 1
=−
𝑚𝑦 ̅ 𝐸1
𝑆26

τ𝑥𝑦 1
𝐺𝑥𝑦 = =
𝜸𝒙𝒚 ̅
𝑆66

Thus, the strain–stress Equation of an angle lamina can also be written in terms of the
engineering constants of an angle lamina in matrix form as,

1 𝜈𝑥𝑦 𝑚𝑥
− −
𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑥 𝐸1
𝜀𝑥 𝜈𝑥𝑦 1 𝑚𝑦 𝜎𝑥
[ 𝜀𝑦 ] = − − 𝜎
[ 𝑦]
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 𝐸1 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑚𝑥 𝑚𝑦 1
− −
[ 𝐸1 𝐸1 𝐺𝑥𝑦 ]
 These engineering constants of an angle ply can also be written in terms of the
engineering constants of a unidirectional ply as follows:

1
̅
= 𝑆11
𝐸𝑥