Chapter 5

Cellular Networks
▪ A cellular network is a wireless communication
network that uses distributed base stations to
provide mobile connectivity for devices.
▪ It allows devices like mobile phones, tablets,
and IoT devices to access the internet, make
calls, send messages, and use other networked
services.

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 ….
❑ key components of a cellular network:
1.Base Station (Cell Tower):
1. Consists of antennas and 4. Core Network:
1. Handles data and voice traffic, routing, and
transmitters/receivers.
switching.
2. Divides geographic areas into cells to provide 2. Includes Home Location Register (HLR), Serving
seamless coverage. Gateway (SGW), and Packet Data Network
2.Mobile Device (User Equipment): Gateway (PGW).
1. Smartphones, tablets, or IoT devices that 5. Backhaul Network:
connect to the network. 1. Connects the base stations to the core network,
3.Radio Access Network (RAN): often through fiber optics or microwave links.
1. The interface between the mobile device and 6 Spectrum:
the core network. 1. The frequency bands allocated for
2. Uses technologies like GSM, UMTS, LTE, or 5G communication, e.g., 2G (900/1800 MHz), 3G
(2100 MHz), 4G LTE (various bands), and 5G
NR.
(low, mid, and high bands).

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 Principles of Cellular Networks
Cellular Network Basics

▪ A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land through cells, each with a base station.
▪ These cells provide coverage over larger areas, enabling communication even when devices are
moving.
▪ Popular cellular technologies include: the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), general packet radio
service (GPRS) and code division multiple access CDMA).
▪ Radio fundamentals for cellular networks: Cellular networks enable devices such as smartphones and Internet
of things (IoT) devices to communicate wirelessly.
▪ Cellular technologies have advanced from first-generation (1G) analog technologies to advanced high-
performance fourth-generation (4G) and fifth-generation (5G) systems in just about four decades.
Key Advantages
▪ Cellular networks offer increased capacity, reduced battery power usage, wider geographical
coverage, and reduced interference compared to alternative solutions.

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 …
▪ A typical cellular network consists of : a radio access network (RAN), a core network (CN) and a services network.
▪ The RAN contains base stations (BS) that communicate with the wireless devices using radio frequency (RF)
signals, and it is this interface between the base station and the devices.
▪ The RAN allocates radio resources to the devices to make wireless communications a reality.
▪ The CN performs functions such as user authentication, service authorization, security activation, IP address
allocation and setup of suitable links to facilitate the transfer of user traffic such as voice and video.
▪ The services network includes operator-specific servers and IP multimedia subsystem (IMS) to offer a variety of
services to the wireless subscriber, including voice calls, text messages (SMS) and video calls.

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 …
❑ Transmitters
▪ The first common principle of cellular networks is the use of much lower power (100 W or less), smaller
transmitters with narrower coverage areas instead of a single, powerful transmitter with a wider coverage area.
▪ These transmitters are housed on base stations, better known as cellular towers.
▪ Base stations also house receivers and additional control units.
❑ Cells
• Coverage areas are divided into cells, each served by its own antenna (transmitter).
• A frequency band is allocated to the transmitter/receiver depending on the network carrier.
• Cells are arranged so that antennas in a coverage area are in a hexagonal pattern. Compared to a triangle or
square – hexagon covers a wider area with fewer base stations.
• Another advantage of a hexagonal cellular system is that frequency reuse is possible using this shape.
❑ Frequency Reuse
▪ Frequency reuse is the process of using the same radio frequencies on base stations and other radio transmitter
sites within a geographic area.
▪ These sites are separated by a sufficient distance to cause minimal interference with each other.
▪ By using geographically small, low-power cells, frequencies can be reused by non-adjacent cells.
▪ The reason for frequency reuse is the limited number of carriers allocated frequencies set by the regulator
bodies.

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 …
❑Cell Splitting
▪ Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells such that each smaller cell has its own base station.
▪ These smaller cells feature antennas with reduced height and
transmitter power.
▪ The two smaller cells increase the capacity of a cellular network
since the number of times channels are reused increases.
▪ In a popular cellular network configuration, one base station
controls three geographic regions called sectors (or cells), where
each sector covers 120° region.
▪ Three sectors together provide 3× 120° = 360° coverage around the
base station.

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 …
❑Cellular Handover
▪ As a mobile device moves around in a given area, it crosses cell boundaries.
▪ Handover is a process where the dedicated radio connection between the
device and the radio access network is switched from one cell to another.
▪ Cellular handover ensures that the device has a dedicated radio connection
with the best possible communications link.
▪ In addition, handover may be used to balance the load among serving base
stations and among carrier frequencies available in a cell or sector.
▪ The handover takes place when the system perceives the current cell signal
strength system to be weaker than a cell the user is approaching.
▪ Cell handover is under the central control of a mobile telephone switching
office (MTSO), which is also known as a mobile switching office (MSO) or the
mobile switching center (MSC).
▪ When the call is handed off to the second cell, the user should not be aware
of the handoff and hear nothing.

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 Evolution of Cellular Networks
1G: Analog Era 1
First-generation networks, introduced in the 1980s, used
analog technology for voice communication only. They were
limited in capacity and security. 2 2G: Digital Revolution
Second-generation networks, launched in the late 1980s,
introduced digital transmission, offering improved security,
3G: Mobile Internet 3 capacity, and data services like SMS.
Third-generation networks, introduced in the early 2000s,
enabled faster data speeds and mobile internet access, paving
the way for smartphones and mobile apps. 4 4G: High-Speed Data
Fourth-generation networks, launched in the late 2000s,
provided significantly faster data speeds, enabling streaming
5G: The Future of Connectivity 5 video, online gaming, and other data-intensive applications.
Fifth-generation networks, introduced in the 2010s, offer even
faster speeds, lower latency, and increased capacity,
supporting the Internet of Things (IoT) and other emerging
technologies.

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 First Generation (1G) Cellular
Networks
Analog Technology Frequency Division Multiple
1G networks used analog
Multiple Access (FDMA)
technology for voice 1G networks used FDMA, where
communication only, offering each channel occupies a specific
limited capacity and security. frequency band, limiting the
number of users that can be
supported.

Early Examples
Examples of 1G networks include AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone
Service) and NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone).

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 Second Generation (2G) Cellular Networks

Digital Transmission Time Division Multiple Access Global System for Mobile
(TDMA) Communications (GSM)
2G networks introduced digital
transmission, offering improved 2G networks used TDMA, where each GSM became the dominant 2G standard,
security, capacity, and data services like channel is divided into time slots, enabling international roaming and
SMS. allowing multiple users to share the same paving the way for future mobile
frequency band. technologies.
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 Security Issues with 1G
Eavesdropping
Analog cellular phones were vulnerable to eavesdropping, as anyone with a radio
1
receiver could listen in on conversations.

Airtime Theft
2 Thieves could record subscriber information and reprogram stolen
phones, leading to airtime theft and unauthorized use.

Security Concerns
3 The lack of encryption and security measures in 1G networks
raised significant concerns about privacy and data protection.

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 Paging Networks: A Legacy Technology
One-Way Communication
1 Paging networks supported one-way and two-way alphanumeric messages between callers and pagers
(beepers).

Limited Functionality
2 Paging networks were primarily used for call-back, dispatching, and service
messaging, with limited data transfer capabilities.

Integration with PDAs

Paging networks were integrated with PDAs, expanding their
3
functionality and providing a platform for basic messaging.

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 Characteristics of Paging Networks:
▪ Common applications are personal numeric messaging for call-back, alphanumeric messaging
(dispatching and service), and two-way messaging (call dispatching with confirmation).
▪ Capacity and speed include 1200 bps for older and 6400 bps for newer systems.
▪ The paging networks are slower but have different design criteria for delivering the message within
specific time periods.
▪ Frequency bands used include 800 MHz for older paging networks and 901-941 MHz, with gaps, for
newer networks.
▪ Components of a paging network are a personal paging device, a paging computer/server at the
paging operator’s site, and a paging transmitter.
▪ These networks may also use satellites for national coverage.
▪ Coverage is 95% of the US, thanks to many local, regional and national paging network providers.
▪ Communications protocols supported include FLEX and ReFLEX developed by Motorola for two-
way paging.
▪ Security is low and has not been considered a high priority.

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 Advantages and Disadvantage of Paging Network
▪ The advantages:
▪ Very inexpensive
▪ Easy to operate for sender (from any telephone) and receiver
▪ Many options for users (numeric, alphanumeric, two-way, message storage)
▪ Wide coverage at local, regional, national, and international levels
▪ Good building penetration
▪ The limitations:
▪ Slow data transfer rate (1200 bps)
▪ No acknowledgment (two-way paging costs extra)
▪ Some of the available paging networks are overloaded, causing delays.

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 The Future of Cellular Networks

6G IoT AI
Next Generation Internet of Things Artificial Intelligence
The development of 6G is underway, Cellular networks will play a crucial role AI will be integrated into cellular
promising even faster speeds, lower in connecting billions of IoT devices, networks, optimizing performance,
latency, and enhanced capabilities for enabling smart cities, autonomous enhancing security, and providing
emerging technologies. vehicles, and other innovations. personalized user experiences.
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 Advantages and Disadvantage of 2G

Advantages

• Reduced power emissions

• Digital data services (SMS, email)
• Greatly reduced fraud
• Enhanced privacy

Disadvantages
• Weaker signal in less populous areas
• Digital dropouts in poor conditions
• Lossy compression reduces sound quality

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 GSM: The Dominant 2G
Standard
1 Global Reach 2 Data Services
Over 200 million users in Enables data services like
over 100 countries. email, fax, and internet
browsing.

3 Roaming Capabilities
Allows users to roam between North America and Europe.

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 2G CDMA: An Alternative
Approach
CDMA Advantage IS-95 Structure
Supports up to 10 times more Forward link includes traffic
users than TDMA. channels, pilot,
synchronization, and paging
channels.

Reverse Links
Supports access channels and traffic channels for mobile unit-specific
features.

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 3G: The Rise of Mobile Internet

Global Standards Higher Data Rates

IMT-2000 specifications for advanced 144kbps to 384kbps for wide
multimedia wireless coverage, 2Mbps for local coverage.
communications.

Packet Switching
Enables connectionless data
communication, increasing data
rates and efficiency.
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 UMTS: A 3G Standard for Global
Roaming
1 Consistent Service
Provides a consistent service environment even when roaming.

2 Virtual Home Environment

Users experience a consistent set of services regardless of
location.

3 Higher Data Rates

Offers data rates of 144 Kbps to 384 Kbps for high-mobility and
high coverage, and 2 Mbps for low-mobility and low coverage
applications.

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 Advantages and Disadvantage
Advantages of 3G:
▪ Overcrowding is relieved in existing systems with radio spectrum
▪ Bandwidth, security and reliability are more
▪ Provides interoperability among service providers
▪ Availability of fixed and variable rates
▪ Support to devices with backward compatibility with existing networks
▪ Always online devices – 3G uses IP connectivity which is packet based
▪ Rich multimedia services are available
• Disadvantages of 3G:
▪ The cost of cellular infrastructure, and upgrading base stations is very high.
▪ Needs different handsets.
▪ Roaming and data/voice work together has not yet been implemented.
▪ Power consumption is high.
▪ Requires closer base stations and are expensive.
▪ Spectrum-license costs, network deployment costs and handset subsidies subscribers are
tremendous.
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 4G: The Integration Era
IMT-Advanced
ITU-R specified requirements for 4G standards, setting peak speed
requirements for 4G service at 100 Mbit/sec for high mobility
communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 Gbit/sec for
low mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary
users).

Open Wireless Architecture

Supports multiple wireless air interfaces in an open architecture
platform.

All-IP Based Network

Provides a comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile
broadband solution.

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 …
▪ In 2008, ITU- R specified the IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced)
requirements for 4G systems.
▪ IMT-Advanced compliant versions of LTE and WiMAX are under development and called "LTE Advanced"
and "Wireless MAN-Advanced" respectively.
▪ ITU has decided that LTE Advanced and Wireless MAN-Advanced should be accorded the official
designation of IMT-Advanced.
▪ On December 6, 2010, ITU recognized that current versions of LTE, WiMax and other evolved 3G
technologies that do not fulfill "IMT- Advanced" requirements could nevertheless be considered "4G",
provided they represent forerunners to IMT- Advanced and "a substantial level of improvement in
performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed."
▪ The 4G technology should integrate different current existing and future wireless network technologies
(e.g. OFDM, MC-CDMA, LAS-CDMA and Network-LMDS) to ensure freedom of movement and seamless
roaming from one technology to another.
▪ These will provide multimedia applications to mobile users by accessing different technologies in a
continuous and always best connection possible.

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 Advantages of 4G

1 2
Speed Security
High speed, capacity, and Tight network security.
bandwidth.

3 4
Usability Integration
Anytime, anywhere, and any Seamless network of multiple
device. protocols and air interfaces.

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 …
Disadvantages of a 4G network:
▪ The battery uses are more.
▪ Hard to implement.
▪ Need complicated hardware.
▪ It needed to avail services of 4G technology.
▪ The equipment required for a next- generation network is still very expensive.
▪ The network has more problem has security issues.
▪ Not many areas of 4G services yet.
▪ Network protocol and standardization have not to be defined.
▪ High data prize for consumers.
▪ Need different handsets.
▪ Power consumption is high.
▪ Roaming and data or voice work together has not yet been implemented.
▪ Require closer base station and are expensive

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 Looking Ahead: The Future of
Cellular Networks
• The evolution of cellular networks continues, with 5G and beyond
promising even faster speeds, greater capacity, and enhanced
connectivity.
• As technology advances, we can expect to see even more
innovative applications and services emerge, transforming the way
we live, work, and interact with the world around us.

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 Understanding 5G: The Next Frontier
5G: A Vision for the Future The Promise of 5G

▪ 5G, or the fifth generation of mobile networks, represents the • 5G is designed to deliver a seamless and immersive mobile
next major leap in wireless communication technology. mobile experience, enabling applications like virtual reality,
▪ It promises significantly faster speeds, lower latency, and reality, augmented reality, and the Internet of Things (IoT) to
enhanced connectivity, paving the way for a new era of mobile (IoT) to flourish.
experiences.

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 Advantages of 5G Technology

1 Blazing Fast Speeds 2 Hyperconnectivity

5G promises to revolutionize 5G's enhanced bandwidth and low
download speeds, potentially reaching latency will facilitate a hyper-
reaching up to 10 Gbps, significantly connected environment, paving the
significantly faster than 4G's 200 way for smart cities, connected
Mbps. This will enable seamless homes, and the widespread adoption
streaming, lightning-fast downloads, of the Internet of Things (IoT).
downloads, and real-time
applications.

3 Process Optimization
5G's capabilities will revolutionize industries like healthcare, transportation, and
and construction. Imagine remote surgeries, autonomous vehicles, and optimized
optimized resource management.

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 Disadvantages of 5G Technology
Immediate Obsolescence Technological Exclusion
The transition to 5G will render current 4G devices obsolete, The cost of 5G-compatible devices and the initial infrastructure
obsolete, requiring users to upgrade their devices to experience the infrastructure investment may create a digital divide, excluding
experience the benefits of the new network. excluding those with limited financial resources from accessing the
accessing the benefits of 5G.

Insufficient Infrastructure Security and Data Handling Concerns

The widespread implementation of 5G requires significant The vast amount of data generated and transmitted over 5G
investment in infrastructure, including new towers and network 5G networks raises concerns about security and privacy. Robust
upgrades, which can be costly and time-consuming. Robust data management and security protocols are crucial to
to ensure the safe and responsible use of 5G.

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 The Future of 5G: A Look Ahead
Ubiquitous Connectivity
5G will connect everything, from our homes and cars to our cities and industries, creating a
1
truly interconnected world.

Enhanced User Experiences

2 Faster speeds, lower latency, and increased bandwidth will deliver immersive and
immersive and seamless mobile experiences.

Innovation and Growth

3 5G will fuel innovation across industries, driving economic growth and
growth and creating new opportunities.

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 Addressing the Challenges of 5G
5G

Infrastructure Investment Security and Privacy

Governments and private companies need to Strong security measures and data privacy
need to invest in building robust 5G privacy protocols are essential to protect user
infrastructure to ensure widespread coverage user data and ensure the responsible use of 5G.
coverage and reliable connectivity. of 5G.

Accessibility and Equity

Efforts are needed to make 5G accessible to all,
including those with limited financial resources,
to bridge the digital divide.

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 The Impact of 5G on Our Lives

Transformative Technologies
5G will enable the development and widespread adoption of transformative
technologies like virtual reality, augmented reality, and the Internet of
Things.

Enhanced Healthcare
5G will revolutionize healthcare, enabling remote surgeries, telemedicine,
and personalized medicine.

Smart Cities and Connected Homes

5G will power smart cities, connected homes, and intelligent transportation
systems, improving efficiency and quality of life.

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 Conclusion: Embracing the 5G
Revolution
▪ 5G represents a significant technological leap, promising to
transform our lives in countless ways.
▪ While challenges remain, the potential benefits of 5G are
undeniable.
▪ By embracing innovation, addressing concerns, and working
together, we can harness the power of 5G to create a more
connected, efficient, and prosperous future.

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 The Evolution of Cellular Networks [Summary]
Generation Definition Throughput/Speed Technology Time Period Features

1G Analog 14.4 Kbps (peak) AMPS, NMT, TACS 1970-1980 Voice-only communication.

2G Digital Narrowband Circuit Data 9.6/14.4 Kbps TDMA, CDMA 1990-2000 Introduced data capabilities
alongside voice.

2.5G Packet Data 171.2 Kbps (peak) GPRS 2001-2004 Increased data speeds and
multimedia services.

3G Digital Broadband Packet Data 3.1 Mbps (peak) CDMA 2000, UMTS, EDGE 2004-2005 Enhanced multimedia support
and universal access.

3.5G Packet Data 14.4 Mbps (peak) HSPA 2006-2010 Further increased throughput
and speeds.

4G Digital Broadband Packet 100-300 Mbps (peak) WiMax, LTE, Wi-Fi Present High-definition streaming and
global roaming.

5G Not Yet Defined Gigabits Not Yet Defined Expected 2020+ Ultra-high speeds and efficient
bandwidth utilization.

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