UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET OF THINGS:

IoT stands for Internet of Things. It refers to the interconnectedness of

physical devices, such as appliances and vehicles that are embedded with
software, sensors, and connectivity which enables these objects to connect and
exchange data. This technology allows for the collection and sharing of data from a
vast network of devices, creating opportunities for more efficient and automated
systems.
Internet of Things (IoT) is the networking of physical objects that contain
electronics embedded within their architecture in order to communicate and sense
interactions amongst each other or with respect to the external environment.
In the upcoming years, IoT-based technology will offer advanced levels of
services and practically change the way people lead their daily lives.
Advancements in medicine, power, gene therapies, agriculture, smart cities, and
smart homes are just a few of the categorical examples where IoT is strongly
established.
IOT is a system of interrelated things, computing devices, mechanical and
digital machines, objects, animals, or people that are provided with unique
identifiers. the ability to transfer the data over a network requiring human-to-
human or human-to-computer interaction.
History of IOT
Here you will get to know about how IOT is involved and also from the
explanation of each will let you know how IOT plays a role in this innovations.
 1982 – Vending machine: The first glimpse of IoT emerged as a vending
machine at Carnegie Mellon University was connected to the internet to report
its inventory and status, paving the way for remote monitoring.
 1990 – Toaster: Early IoT innovation saw a toaster connected to the
internet, allowing users to control it remotely, foreshadowing the convenience
of smart home devices.
 1999 – IoT Coined (Kevin Ashton): Kevin Ashton coined the term ―Internet of
Things‖ to describe the interconnected network of devices communicating and
sharing data, laying the foundation for a new era of connectivity.
 2000 – LG Smart Fridge: The LG Smart Fridge marked a breakthrough,
enabling users to check and manage refrigerator contents remotely,
showcasing the potential of IoT in daily life.
 2004 – Smart Watch: The advent of smart watches introduced IoT to the

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 wearable tech realm, offering fitness tracking and notifications on-the-go.
 2007 – Smart iPhone: Apple‘s iPhone became a game-changer, integrating
IoT capabilities with apps that connected users to a myriad of services and
devices, transforming smartphones into hubs.
 2009 – Car Testing: IoT entered the automotive industry, enhancing
vehicles with sensors for real-time diagnostics, performance monitoring, and
remote testing.

 2011 – Smart TV: The introduction of Smart TVs brought IoT to the living
room, enabling internet connectivity for streaming, app usage, and interactive
content.
 2013 – Google Lens: Google Lens showcased IoT‘s potential in image
recognition, allowing smartphones to provide information about objects in the
physical world.
 2014 – Echo: Amazon‘s Echo, equipped with the virtual assistant Alexa,
demonstrated the power of voice-activated IoT, making smart homes more
intuitive and responsive.
 2015 – Tesla Autopilot: Tesla‘s Autopilot system exemplified IoT in
automobiles, introducing semi-autonomous driving capabilities through
interconnected sensors and software.

DEFINITION OF INTERNET OF THINGS

A dynamic global network infrastructure with self configuring capabilities

based on standard and interoperable communication protocols where physical and
virtual ―things‖ have identities, physical attributes and virtual personalities and
use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated into information network,
often communicate data associated with users and their environments.
The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a network of interconnected devices
that can exchange data among themselves and with an Internet-based system
called the cloud.
Devices ranging from everyday objects to industrial machinery leverage
technology such as sensors, processors, and communication hardware to collect
and send data to, from, and within their environments.
IoT enables people to monitor the state of their business or organization,
even if their assets are far away. This seamless, automated data transfer fosters
efficiency across various industries and endeavors. Among the many sectors that
benefit from IoT are:
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  Manufacturing. Industrial IoT (IIoT) devices monitor machine performance,
detect equipment failures, and optimize production processes, enhancing
efficiency and reducing downtime. IIoT is integral to smart manufacturing,
connecting assets for preventive maintenance and improving digital supply
chains.
 Healthcare. IoT devices facilitate remote patient monitoring, collectin
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 ]’[poiujyrsqg real-time vital sign data for early detection of health issues. IoT
also aids in tracking medical equipment, managing inventory, and ensuring
medication compliance, contributing to improved patient care.
 Retail. In the retail sector, IoT devices help track customer behavior,
optimize inventory management, and enhance store layouts. Sensors analyze
foot traffic, allowing retailers to optimize product placement and create a
personalized customer experience.

 Agriculture. IoT devices monitor soil conditions, weather patterns, and crop
growth, enabling precision agriculture. Sensors measure moisture content for
optimal irrigation, while livestock health and supply chains can be managed
efficiently with IoT.

APPLICATION AREAS OF IOT

IoT has made our life easier with its applications. You won‘t believe all the
cool stuff IoT can do! Imagine having a home where the lights turn on by
themselves, the TV knows your favorite shows, and even the fridge tells you
when you‘re running out of ice cream! Yum!

In big factories, IoT helps machines work together smoothly, like a team of
robots! They can even fix themselves when something is not right. Super smart!
And guess what? In hospitals, doctors can use IoT to check on patients from
far away. It‘s like having a superhero doctor with special powers!
All these can be achieved through top IoT applications. So let‘s see all these
top applications of IoT in different facets and industries of the world.
1. Smart Agriculture
Food is an integral part of life without which we cannot survive. However, it
is an unfortunate fact that a lot of food is wasted in developed countries like
America while people starve in poorer countries like Chad, Sudan, etc. One way to
feed everyone is through better agricultural practices which can be enhanced
using IoT applications.
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 This can be done by first collecting data for a farm such as soil quality,
sunlight levels, seed type, and rainfall density from various sources like farm
sensors, satellites, local weather stations, etc. and then using this data with
Machine Learning and IoT to create custom recommendations for each farm that
will optimize the planting procedure, irrigation levels required, fertilizer amount,
etc.
All this will result in better yield or crops with a focus on reducing world
hunger in the future. This is done very efficiently by SunCulture, a top IoT
application, which is an initiative by Microsoft AI for Earth.
2. Smart Vehicles
Smart vehicles or self-driving cars are IoT applications as they can be called
are pretty dependent on IoT. These cars have a lot of features that are integrated
with each other and need to communicate such as the sensors that handle
navigation, various antennas, controls for speeding or slowing down, etc. Here the
Internet of Things technology is critical, especially in the sense that self-driving
cars need to be extremely accurate and all the parts need to communicate with
each other in milliseconds on the road.
Tesla Cars are quite popular and working on their self-driving cars. Tesla
Motors‘ cars use the latest advancements in Artificial Intelligence and the
Internet of Things. And they are quite popular as well!!! Tesla Model 3 was the
most sold plug-in electric car in the U.S. in 2018 with a total yearly sales of
around 140,000 cars. This top IoT application has gained a lot of advancement in
recent years
3. Smart Home
Maybe one of the most famous applications of IoT is in Smart Homes. After
all, who hasn‘t heard about connecting all the home applications like lighting, air
conditioners, locks, thermostat, etc. into a single system that can be controlled
from your smartphone? These IoT devices are applications of IoT and becoming
more and more popular these days because they allow you complete freedom to
personalize your home as you want.
In fact, these IoT devices are so popular that every second there are 127 new
devices connected to the internet. Some popular ones that you might have heard
have, or even have in your home, include Google Home, Amazon Echo Plus, Philips
Hue Lighting System, etc. There are also all sorts of other inventions that you can
install in your home including Nest Smoke Alarm and Thermostat, Foobot Air
Quality Monitor, August Smart Lock, etc. These applications of IoT are getting
famous nowadays.
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4. Smart Pollution Control
Pollution is one of the biggest problems in most of the cities in the world.
Sometimes it‘s not clear if we are inhaling oxygen or smog! In such a situation,
IoT applications can be a big help in controlling pollution levels to more breathable
standards. This can be done by collecting data related to city pollution like
emissions from vehicles, pollen levels, airflow direction, weather, traffic levels, etc
using various sensors in combination with IoT.
Using this data, Machine Learning algorithms can calculate pollution
forecasts in different areas of the city that inform city officials beforehand where
the problems are going to occur. Then they can try to control the pollution levels
till it‘s much safer. An example of this is the Green Horizons project created by
IBM‘s China Research Lab.
5. Smart Healthcare
There are many applications of IoT in the Healthcare Industry where doctors
can monitor patients remotely through a web of interconnected devices and
machines without needing to be in direct contact with them. This is very useful if
the patients don‘t have any serious problems or if they have any infectious
diseases like COVID-19 these days. One of the most common uses of IoT
applications in healthcare is using robots.
These include surgical robots that can help doctors in performing surgeries
more efficiently with higher precision and control. There are also disinfectant
robots that can clean surfaces quickly and thoroughly using high-intensity
ultraviolet light (which is pretty useful these days!) Other types of robots also
include nursing robots that can handle the monotonous tasks that nurses have
to perform for many patients day in and day out where there is little risk to the
patients.

6. Smart Cities
Cities can be made more efficient so that they require fewer resources and
are more energy- efficient. This can be done with a combination of sensors in
different capacities all over the city that can be used for various tasks ranging
from managing the traffic, controlling handling waste management, creating smart
buildings, optimizing streetlights, etc.
There are many cities in the world that are working on incorporating IoT
applications and becoming smarter such as Singapore, Geneva, Zurich, Oslo, etc.
One example of creating smart cities is the Smart Nation Sensor Platform used by
Singapore which is believed to be the smartest city in the world. This platform
integrates various facets of transportation, streetlights, public safety, urban
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planning, etc. using sensors in conjugation with IoT.
7. Smart Retail
There is a way to make shopping even more exciting for customers and
that‘s to use the latest tech like IoT of course! Retail stores can make use of IoT
applications in a wide range of operations to make shopping a much smoother
experience for customers and also easier for employees. IoT can be used to handle
inventory, improve store operations, reduce shoplifting and theft, and prevent long
queues at the cashiers.
A prime example of this application of IoT is the Amazon Go stores which
provide an IoT- enabled shopping experience. These stores monitor all their
products using IoT so that customers can pick up any products and just walk out
of the store without stopping at the cashier‘s queue. The total bill amount is
automatically deducted from the card associated with the customer‘s Amazon
account after they leave the store.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IOT

The Internet of Things (IoT) is characterized by the following key features

that are mentioned below.

1. Connectivity
Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT infrastructure. Things of
IoT should be connected to the IoT infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can
connect, this should be guaranteed at all times.

For example, the connection between people through Internet devices like
mobile phones, and other gadgets, also a connection between Internet devices
such as routers, gateways, sensors, etc.

2. Intelligence and Identity

The extraction of knowledge from the generated data is very important. For
example, a sensor generates data, but that data will only be useful if it is
interpreted properly. Each IoT device has a unique identity. This identification is
helpful in tracking the equipment and at times for querying its status.

3. Scalability
The number of elements connected to the IoT zone is increasing day by day.
Hence, an IoT setup should be capable of handling the massive expansion. The
data generated as an outcome is enormous, and it should be handled
appropriately.
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4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity)
IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to changing contexts and
scenarios. Assume a camera meant for surveillance. It should be adaptable to
work in different conditions and different light situations (morning, afternoon,
and night).

5. Architecture
IoT Architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It should be hybrid,
supporting different manufacturers ‗products to function in the IoT network. IoT is
not owned by anyone engineering branch. IoT is a reality when multiple domains
come together.
6. Safety
There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users getting
compromised when all his/her devices are connected to the internet. This can
cause a loss to the user. Hence, data security is the major challenge. Besides, the
equipment involved is huge. IoT networks may also be at risk. Therefore,
equipment safety is also critical.

7. Self Configuring
This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT devices are able
to upgrade their software in accordance with requirements with a minimum of
user participation. Additionally, they can set up the network, allowing for the
addition of new devices to an already-existing network.

8. Interoperability
IoT devices use standardized protocols and technologies to ensure they can
communicate with each other and other systems. Interoperability is one of the key
characteristics of the Internet of Things (IoT). It refers to the ability of different IoT
devices and systems to communicate and exchange data with each other,
regardless of the underlying technology or manufacturer.

Interoperability is critical for the success of IoT, as it enables different

devices and systems to work together seamlessly and provides a seamless user
experience. Without interoperability, IoT systems would be limited to individual
silos of data and devices, making it difficult to share information and create new
services and applications.

To achieve interoperability, IoT devices, and systems use standardized

communication protocols and data formats. These standards allow different
devices to understand and process data in a consistent and reliable manner,

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enabling data to be exchanged between devices and systems regardless of the
technology used.

9. Embedded Sensors and Actuators

Embedded sensors and actuators are critical components of the Internet
of Things (IoT).
They allow IoT devices to interact with their environment and collect and transmit
data.

Sensors are devices that can detect changes in the environment, such as
temperature, light, sound, or movement. In IoT systems, sensors are embedded
into devices, allowing them to collect data about the environment.

Actuators are devices that can interact with the environment, such as
turning on lights, opening or closing doors, or controlling the speed of a motor. In
IoT systems, actuators are embedded into devices, allowing them to perform
actions based on data collected by sensors.
Together, sensors and actuators allow IoT devices to collect data about the
environment, process that data, and take action based on the results. This makes
it possible to automate a wide range of processes and tasks, such as home
automation, energy management, and predictive maintenance.

In order to ensure that sensors and actuators can communicate with each
other and with other devices and systems, they use standardized communication
protocols, such as Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Zigbee, or Wi-Fi.

10. Autonomous operation

Autonomous operation refers to the ability of IoT devices and systems to
operate independently and make decisions without human intervention. This is a
crucial characteristic of the Internet of Things (IoT) and enables a wide range of
new applications and services.

In IoT systems, devices and systems are equipped with sensors, actuators,
and processing power, allowing them to collect and process data about the
environment, make decisions based on that data, and take action accordingly.
11. Data-driven
Data-driven is a key characteristic of the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT devices
and systems collect vast amounts of data from sensors and other sources, which
can be analyzed and used to make data-driven decisions.

In IoT systems, data is collected from embedded sensors, actuators, and

other sources, such as cloud services, databases, and mobile devices. This data is

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used to gain insights into the environment, improve operational efficiency, and
make informed decisions.

Security
Security is a critical concern for the Internet of Things (IoT), as IoT devices
and systems handle sensitive data and are connected to critical infrastructure.
The increasing number of connected devices and the amount of data being
transmitted over the Internet make IoT systems a prime target for cyber attacks.

To secure IoT systems, multiple layers of security are necessary, including

physical security, network security, and data security.
Physical security involves protecting the physical devices from unauthorized
access or tampering. This can be achieved through measures such as secure
enclosures, access controls, and tamper-proofing.

Network security involves protecting the communication networks that

connect IoT devices, including Wi-Fi networks, cellular networks, and wired
networks. This can be achieved through encryption, secure authentication, and
firewalls.
Data security involves protecting the data collected and transmitted by IoT
devices and systems. This can be achieved through encryption, secure storage,
and access controls.
In addition to these technical measures, it is also important to have robust
policies and procedures in place to ensure the security of IoT systems, such as
incident response plans and regular security audits.

THINGS IN IOT

Nowadays, Internet of Things (IoT) has become one of the most powerful
technologies of modern era having the internet as its backbone. Internet of
Things or IoT is something that is used to communicate with physical objects. In
easy words, we can say that ―Internet of Things is a technology which is used to
communicate between human and machine or a machine to machine with the
help of internet‖.
Here the word ‗Things‘ refers to these machines or physical objects so it
becomes important to understand what kind of objects can be connected via
Internet. We can categories these objects into categories –

1. Objects with intelligence or Smart Objects.

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2. Objects without intelligence or Non-Smart Objects.

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Smart Objects:
As the name suggests smart objects are objects having some intelligence.
Now the world has changed enough to alter our everyday objects into smart
objects which can communicate, react, and identify other objects according to the
environment.
The key concept of IoT is to reduce human interaction in any framework and
smart objects fulfill this requirement to a great extent. That is why Smart Objects
are called building blocks of Internet of Things. Smart objects and IoT are like two
wheels of a vehicle which move together to speed up the vehicle of our modern
infrastructure.
Definition of Smart Object:
―Smart objects are those physical and digital objects which can be identified,
have sensing/actuating capabilities, processing and calculating powers, also
storing, and networking capabilities.‖
Features of Smart Object:
Smart objects have some specific features which are necessary for calling a
physical object as smart object. We will discuss these features below –
1. Physical Shape :
As the word object refers to something which has some physical shape or
size, so any Smart Object should have these physical features so that it can be
deployed somewhere in the infrastructure.
2. Unique Identifier:
Smart Objects should have a unique identity so they can be easily identified in
the infrastructure. It is something that differs a specific object from other
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 objects. This type of physical identity is used by humans for reasoning
purposes.

3. Communication Capabilities:
It must have communication capabilities so that it can send or receive data
over internet or other networking technologies.
4. Unique Name and Address:
Here the words, name, and address refer to networking address of the object
such as IP address which is used for communication purposes. The address
should be unique in the whole internet infrastructure. While the name is used
by humans for reasoning purposes.
5. Processing Powers:
Smart Objects have some basic computational and processing abilities to
take decisions accordingly the environment.
6. Sensing Capabilities:
It should have some sensing capabilities to know about the surroundings
(Pressure, toxic gasses, temp. etc).

Examples:
We are surrounded by smart objects in our daily life. For example, we all
have our smartphones in our pockets. Smart fridge, Smart TV, Alexa voice
assistant are some modern examples of smart objects which we use in our daily
life. Micro-controllers like Arduino can be easily seen.
Non-Smart Objects:
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 Non-smart objects are generally those objects which do not have intelligence
and processing capabilities. Sensors and actuators are non-smart devices.

1. Sensors:

Sensors are those electronic devices which are made of sensitive cells and
have capabilities to measure or sense some physical or scientific quantity like
temperature, pressure, the measure of any toxic gas, etc.
2. Actuators:
Actuators are those electronic devices which performs a specific task by
collecting the information by sensors or like sensors over the internet. We can
divide actuator into two parts –
a. Mechanic Actuators –
These are those actuators which perform a task over themselves or any
other object.
b. Actions –
Actions are performed by an object. Like sending e-mails, vibrations.
By this analysis, we can easily classify the objects in the Internet of Things. Now,
we can see that smart objects and the Internet of Things together can make
complex applications because with their help we can communicate without
human interaction. This becomes more important in those applications where
human presence is not available all the time.

IOT STACK

We explore here the IoT stack, its composition and explain how the layers
work together with the aid of a useful, easy-to-follow stack diagram.

The ―Internet of Things‖ (IoT) is a term for the network of physical objects
connected to the internet. These objects can include anything from home
appliances, wearables, factory equipment and vehicles. The IoT can radically
improve how we live, work and play.

What is the IoT technology stack?

The IoT technology stack refers to the multiple layers of hardware, software
and communication technologies that connect objects over the internet to monitor
or control them. The following layers make up the IoT technology stack:

Layer 1: Device Hardware

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  The first layer of the IoT stack is the device hardware that acts as the
interface between the physical object and the server (cloud or on-premise).
 Collecting of the data from individual or multiple sensors requires the
appropriate type of processor and suitably rated electrical interfaces. This
can be as simple as a microcontroller or as complex as an industrial
computer.

 The device hardware runs the device software and may also include
additional sensors, actuators and other input/output (I/O) components.
 Sensors measure physical parameters, such as temperature, humidity,
pressure or vibration. Actuators can be used to control devices, such as
motors, pumps, heaters or lights.
 Other I/O components may include buttons, displays or speakers.

Layer 2: Device software

 The second layer of the IoT stack is the device software. This code runs on
the device‘s processor and controls its functionality.
 Device software typically consists of an operating system (OS) and application
software.
 The OS configures and manages the device‘s hardware to provide a platform
for the application software to run on.
 Application software uses the OS‘s interfaces to give the device its specific
functionality. For example, an application might be used to control a motor,
read sensor data and transmit live or periodic status reports over a wired or
wireless connection.
 In the IoT world the use of open source software offers immense flexibility
and adaptability as business needs and technologies evolve.

Layer 3: Communications

 The third layer of the IoT stack is communications. This is how devices
connect to the internet and transfer data.
 There are a variety of different technologies that can be used for IoT
communications:

 Wired Network
 Wi-Fi
 Bluetooth
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  Zigbee/Thread
 2G/3G/4G/5G cellular networks
 LTE-M/NB-IoT cellular licensed LPWANs (Low Power Wide Area Networks)
 LoRaWAN, Sigfox (unlicensed LPWANs)
 When there is a requirement for devices to communicate with each other,
they need to be able to speak the same language. This is where
communication protocols come in and come in many different standards
published for reference when implementing a new product or service.

Layer 4: Cloud Platform

 The fourth layer of the IoT stack is the cloud platform. This is the hardware
and software services located in internet-based data centers. It is where the
data from IoT devices is recorded, captured, processed, analyzed and stored.
 Cloud computing in IoT offers a centralized service containing computing
resources and databases that can be accessed whenever from wherever.
 Cloud platforms usually provide tools and services that make it easier to
develop and deploy IoT applications.
 With IoT services it is advised to compare the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)
when it comes to hosting and running the IoT services in the cloud:
o Bare Metal Servers
o Amazon Web Services (AWS)
o Microsoft Azure
o Google Cloud Platform (GCP)
Layer 5: Cloud Applications
 The fifth and final layer of the IoT stack is cloud applications. These
applications run on top of the cloud platform and provide the end-user with
a way to interact with the IoT system.
 Cloud applications include the user interfaces of dashboards, reporting
suites, analytical and artificial intelligence modules. They can be used to
view data from sensors and control actuators embedded in static or mobile
machinery, plant or fleets of vehicles.

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
IoT (internet of things) enabling technologies are
1. Wireless Sensor Network
2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
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5. Embedded System
1. Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) :
A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor
the environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists of
end nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes have several sensors attached to
them where the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of routers.
The coordinator also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the internet.
Example –
 Weather monitoring system
 Indoor air quality monitoring system
 Soil moisture monitoring system
 Surveillance system
 Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing:
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities
over the internet.
Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like
databases, web servers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics –
1. Broad network access
2. On demand self-services
3. Rapid scalability
4. Measured service
5. Pay-per-use
Provides different services, such as –
 IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)
Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical
machines, virtual machines, servers, networking, and storage and data center
space on a pay per use basis. Major IaaS providers are Google Compute
Engine, Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure etc. Ex: Web Hosting,
Virtual Machine etc.
 PaaS (Platform as a service)
Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support
the complete life cycle of building and delivering West web based (cloud)
applications – without the cost and complexity of buying and managing
underlying hardware, software provisioning and hosting. Computing platforms
such as hardware, operating systems and libraries etc.
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 Basically, it provides a platform to develop applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine
 SaaS (Software as a service)
 It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of
installing and maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet,
freeing yourself from complex software and hardware management.
 SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand
software or hosted software.
 SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider‘s service and they manage
security availability and performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.
3. Big Data Analytics:
It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data.
Collection of data whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and
tough to store, control, process and examine the data using traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos,
digital images, sensors and sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data –
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
4. Visualizati
on Examples –
 Bank transactions
 Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
 E-commerce and in Big-Basket
 Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands
5. Communications Protocols:
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and
linking to applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data
over the network. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single
communication.
They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes
6. Embedded Systems:
 It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.

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 It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units
(Ethernet Wi-Fi adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and
storage devices (flash memory).
 It collects the data and sends it to
the internet. Embedded systems used
in Examples –
1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.
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IOT CHALLENGES

1. Lack of encryption
 Although encryption is a great way to prevent hackers from accessing data,
it is also one of the leading IoT security challenges.
 These drives like the storage and processing capabilities that
would be found on a traditional computer.
 The result is an increase in attacks where hackers can easily manipulate
the algorithms that were designed for protection.
2. Insufficient testing and updating
 With the increase in the number of IoT(internet of things) devices, IoT
manufacturers are more eager to produce and deliver their device as fast as
they can without giving security too much of although.
 Most of these devices and IoT products do not get enough testing and
updates and are prone to hackers and other security issues.
3. Brute forcing and the risk of default passwords
 Weak credentials and login details leave nearly all IoT devices vulnerable to
password hacking and brute force.
 Any company that uses factory default credentials on their devices is placing
both their business and its assets and the customer and their valuable
information at risk of being susceptible to a brute force attack.
4. IoT Malware and ransom ware
 Increases with increase in devices.
 Ransomware uses encryption to effectively lock out users from

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 various devices and platforms and still use a user‘s valuable data
and info.
5. IoT botnet aiming at cryptocurrency
 IoT botnet workers can manipulate data privacy, which could be massive
risks for an open Crypto market. The exact value and creation of
cryptocurrencies code face danger from mal-intentioned hackers. The
Blockchain companies are trying to boost security. Blockchain technology
itself is not particularly vulnerable, but the app development process is.
6. Inadequate device security :
 Inadequate device security refers to the lack of proper measures to protect
electronic devices such as computers, smartphones, and IoT devices from
cyber attacks, hacking, data theft, and unauthorized access.

 This can happen due to outdated software, weak passwords,

unpatched vulnerabilities, lack of encryption, and other security risks. It is
important to regularly update the software and implement strong security
measures to ensure the security and privacy of sensitive information stored
on these devices. Many IoT devices have weak security features and can be easily
hacked.
7. Lack of standardization:
 Lack of standardization refers to the absence of agreed-upon
specifications or protocols in a particular field or industry. This can
result in different systems, products, or processes being incompatible
with each other, leading to confusion, inefficiency, and decreased
interoperability.
 For example, in the context of technology, a lack of standardization can
cause difficulties in communication and data exchange between different
devices and systems. Establishing standards and protocols can help
overcome this and ensure uniformity and compatibility. There is a lack of
standardization in IoT devices, making it difficult to secure them
consistently.
8. Vulnerability to network attacks:
 Vulnerability to network attacks refers to the susceptibility of a network,
system or device to being compromised or exploited by cyber criminals.
This can happen due to weaknesses in the network infrastructure,
unpatched software, poor password management, or a lack of
appropriate security measures.
 Network attacks can result in data theft, loss of privacy, disruption of
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 services, and financial loss. To reduce vulnerability to network attacks,
it‘s important to implement strong security measures such as firewalls,
encryption, and regular software updates, as well as educate users on
safe internet practices. IoT devices rely on networks, making them
vulnerable to attacks like denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
9. Unsecured data transmission:
 Unsecured data transmission refers to the transfer of data over a network or
the internet without adequate protection. This can leave the data
vulnerable to interception, tampering, or theft by malicious actors.
 Unsecured data transmission can occur when data is transmitted over an
unencrypted network connection or when insecure protocols are used. To
protect sensitive data during transmission, it is important to use secure
protocols such as SSL/TLS or VPN, and to encrypt the data before sending
it.
 This can help to ensure the confidentiality and integrity of the data, even if it
is intercepted during transmission. IoT devices often transmit sensitive data,
which may be vulnerable to eavesdropping or tampering if not properly
secured.
10. Privacy concerns:
 Privacy concerns refer to issues related to the collection, storage, use,
and sharing of personal information. This can include concerns about
who has access to personal information, how it is being used, and whether it
is being protected from unauthorized access or misuse.
 In the digital age, privacy concerns have become increasingly important as
personal information is being collected and stored on an unprecedented
scale. To address privacy concerns, individuals and organizations need to
implement appropriate security measures to protect personal information,
be transparent about how it is being used, and respect individuals‘ rights to
control their own information.
11. Software vulnerabilities:
 Software vulnerabilities are weaknesses or flaws in software code that
can be exploited by attackers to gain unauthorized access, steal sensitive
information, or carry out malicious activities. Software vulnerabilities can
arise from errors or mistakes made during the development process, or
from the use of outdated or unsupported software.
 Attackers can exploit these vulnerabilities to gain control over a system,
install malware, or steal sensitive information. To reduce the risk of

20
 software vulnerabilities, it is important for software developers to follow
secure coding practices and for users to keep their software up-to-date
and properly configured.
12. Insider threats:
 Insider threats refer to security risks that come from within an
organization, rather than from external sources such as hackers or cyber
criminals. These threats can take many forms, such as employees who
intentionally or unintentionally cause harm to the organization, contractors
who misuse their access privileges, or insiders who are coerced into
compromising the security of the organization.
 Insider threats can result in data breaches, theft of intellectual property,
and damage to the reputation of the organization. To mitigate the risk of
insider threats, organizations should implement strict access controls,
monitor employee activity, and provide regular training on security and
privacy policies.

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 UNIT II

Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device
or material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable
form like changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance,
impedance, etc.

Sensors characteristics :
1. Static
2. Dynamic
1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change
after steady state condition.
 Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a
result close to the true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It
is measured by absolute and relative errors. Express the correctness of the
output compared to a higher prior system. Absolute error = Measured value –
True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value
 Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within
which the sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense
or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
 Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors.
The higher the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to,
it is called the threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
 Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same
reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same
prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true
22
 value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
 Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the
response of the system with respect to incremental change in input
parameters. It can be found from the slope of the output characteristics
curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of difference in quantity that will
change the instrument‘s reading.
 Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly
straight line. Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static
calibration curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude
under static conditions.
A curve‘s slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.
 Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific
reading when kept at that value for a long period of time.
 Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under
the same conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short
enough time duration so as not to allow significant long-term drift.

Dynamic Characteristics :
 Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no
delay. It does not include energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
 First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
 Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the
sensor oscillates before steady state.

Sensor Classification :
 Passive & Active
 Analog & digital
 Scalar & vector
1. Passive Sensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil
moisture, water level and temperature sensors.
2. Active Sensor –
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser
altimeter sensors.
3. Analog Sensor –
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of
its input parameter. Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure
sensor and analog hall effect.
4. Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of
analog sensors. Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra
electronics for bit conversion. Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor
and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).
5. Scalar sensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer
for the sensor is a function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not

23
 affected by the direction of input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
6. Vector sensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction
and orientation of input parameter. Example – Accelerometer,
gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector sensors.

What is a sensor interface?

Chances are you're reading this on a device with a USB port. A USB is perhaps the
most ubiquitous example of a sensor interface in daily life - it plugs in to so many
devices and unifies communications in ways that wouldn't otherwise be possible
with proprietary interfaces.

Broadly, in the internet of things, a sensor interface is a bridge between a device

and any attached sensor. The interface takes data collected by the sensor and
outputs it to the attached device, for example, a water level sensor passing data to a
radio transmitter.

Different interface options vary in complexity. An analogue interface might use

current regulation to carry data, whereas SDI-12 relies on microprocessors to
streamline information. Here we will cover a few different types of sensor interface
common in IoT.

I²C
 A highly ubiquitous and common interface, I²C is popular for its relative
simplicity and ease of integration, able to connect many individual devices to
one board.
 Standing for Inter-Integrated Circuit, I²C is a serial communications interface.
Commonly written as ―I2C‖, which is not correct, it should actually be called
―I-squared-C‖. Naturally though the I2C misnomer has arisen from how rare a
² is. Anything you see referring to I2C will be talking about I²C.
 It consists of a standard 2 wires offering bi-directional communication. These
are the Serial Data Line (SDA), which carries data, and Serial Clock Line
(SCL), which synchronises data speeds.

I²C can carry up to 128 devices off one mainboard without suffering congestion
when using 7 bit addressing and up to 1024 devices with 10 bit addressing. Signals
follow an acknowledge/not-acknowledged pattern, with every byte of data (8 bits)

24
complemented by a 1 bit acknowledgment signal, which is much more efficient than
older protocols.

I²C typically transfers data between 100Kpbs and 400Kbps, although higher speeds
exist. As any device may be designated master or receiver, I²C offers a highly
versatile approach to interfacing with small and large end-devices.

Why pick an I²C interface?

Advantages

 Only 2 wires between devices – mirrors the simplicity of UART (see below)
 Supports multiple masters and receivers on the same circuit
 Data packets can be as long as necessary – no arbitrary limits on the number
of data frames
 Efficient collision-resolution mechanism improves capacity
 Wide choice of sensors and devices

Disadvantages

 Short range
 Slower than some interfaces
 Only optimised for communications within devices

SDI-12

The Serial Data Interface at 1200 baud, or SDI-12, is common amongst agricultural
and environmental sensing equipment for its intrinsic trait of preserving data in its
rawest form.

SDI-12 enabled sensors achieve high data accuracy through included

microprocessors that perform device-side computations. This allows individual
sensors to perform corrections and averaging calculations before sending the data
on.

Low power, low data rate systems may use SDI-12 for a couple of reasons. The
1200 baud refers to its speed of 1200 bits per second, meaning transmissions are
quite tiny on an individual level. The central master module acts as a logger,

25
indexing data from up to 62 devices at once by intelligently requesting specific
sensors for their data.

The SDI-12 bus is comprised of a serial data line for carrying signals, along with a
ground line and 12v line for power delivery. The simple nature of SDI-12 allows for
numerous connections off one master device with the added benefit of
microprocessor data management.

For some more information on where you might find SDI-12, have a look at Delta-
T’s page where it forms the backbone of their soil moisture sensors.

Why pick an SDI-12 interface?

Advantages

 Capable of communications over 100s of metres

 Intelligent per-sensor indexing
 Sensor-side data processing with conversions
 Wiring is reasonably simple considering the background processing
 Wired signal accuracy is maintained no matter the distance
 Sensors can be swapped out of the system without reconfiguring the master
logger

Disadvantages

 Slow data rate

 Managing a large SDI-12 system is not as hands-off as other interface options
 Requires particular know-how on setup and maintenance, more so than other
interfaces

UART
The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter, or UART, is a serial integrated
circuit. UARTs take parallel data transmitted from one device to another and convert
26
it to serial in order to make the transfer, converting it back to parallel once the data
has been sent across.

The most common forms of UART are RS232, RS422 and RS485. Plenty of interfaces
using the RS specification resemble VGA connectors (although it should be noted
that VGA actually used analogue video with I²C for control messages).

There are only two wires in a UART interface, each linking the Tx pin to the Rx pin of
another UART. What makes UART asynchronous is how it sends data. There is no
internal clock, such as in I²C, which normally synchronises transfers between
devices, so UART relies on similar baud rates and its start and stop bits.

The start bit precedes a data frame of 5 – 9 bits, a parity bit, and finally 1 – 2 stop
bits. The main chunk of the packet is the data frame which is identified for the
receiver by a parity bit that essentially error checks the bits. If the number of ―1‖
bits in the data frame add up to an even number, the parity should be 0, and if the
number of 1s are odd, it should be odd. Anything else indicates an error.

Instead of an internal clock, UARTs use a baud rate and the start and stop bits to
dictate how data is sent. Most digital systems require complete synchronisation
between devices through the clock, but UARTs can still function with slightly
mismatched baud rates between them.

Some protocols such as RS485 use twisted pairs of balanced signals and can
achieve very long communications distances even with a high level of external noise
or interference. They are also suitable for multi-drop busses where a number of
devices want to share the same physical medium.

27
Why pick a UART interface?

Advantages

 Simplicity – only two wires between devices

 Very popular interface for a lot of devices still in use today
 No clock signal required
 Variety of data rates to suit application and distance
 Some versions e.g. RS485 are capable of achieving long distance
communications

Disadvantages

 Exchange done at byte-level and needs a higher protocol to define the meaning
of the data
 Asynchronous communications can lead to mismatched baud rates

Analogue
Analogue sensor interfaces still make up the majority of connections in the world,
in part due to how long they have been in use.

Whilst older than things such as SDI-12 and I²C, analogue offers tried and tested
and easy to work with solutions. Whilst not as specialised for certain tasks like more
modern standards, analogue signals are easy to integrate quickly into any system as
most controllers will recognise them.

The main difference between analogue and others is how data is sent. Digital
systems maintain a more consistent current than analogue, although they certainly
experience power spikes whilst transmitting. Analogue systems use electrical signals
to carry data directly between devices so the power usage can vary more
significantly.

Two of the most common forms of analogue signals are analogue voltage or anlogue
current.

28
 Analogue voltage

Possibly the most standard interfacing method, analogue voltage systems are widely
recognised and thus widely supported on nearly any device, ensuring the easiest
sensor integration.

Because of this, voltage based interfacing is best employed when there are a wide
variety of devices being used that all need to run on the same physical network. A
fairly standard configuration for an analogue voltage integrated circuit is 0-10v.

Analogue current

Slightly more advanced than voltage interfaces, current based signalling is more
robust against electrical interference. Whilst specified currents can vary, Wyld use
an interface that runs between 4mA and 20mA.

An upside to current regulated circuits is how the current acts as a natural

indicator of potential component failure. As the lowest operational current is 4mA, a
line dropping to 0 immediately indicates there‘s a problem. A voltage regulated
interface can‘t provide this level of insight as its zero position is the same as if no
charge is moving across it at all. Current interfaces are not quite as widespread as
voltage based ones but they are still popular due to providing a finer tuned analogue
package.

Why pick an analogue interface?

Advantages

 No complicated software to manage – simple physical connections

 Wider range of data transfer speeds
 Easy to implement and very common

Disadvantages

 Prone to electrical interference from nearby components

 Digital signals must be converted to analogue prior to transmission
 Versatile, but not optimised for very specific use cases

Types of sensors –

 Electrical sensor :
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component
complete an electrical circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of
either induction for detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as
well.
 Light sensor:
29
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.
 Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch
sensor.
It‘s name suggests that detection of something.
They are classified into two types:
1. Resistive type
2. Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
 Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the
sensing position, although they can also be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range
sensing, between a few millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out
using electrical capacitance, inductance and magnetic technique.
Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various
types eg radio waves, sound waves and lasers.
 Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a
certain amount of force is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common
to use micro-switches.
 Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These
cannot be used where light components may be blown away.
 Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light
beam which falls onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are
examples of non contact sensors. Care must be exercised with the lighting
environment of these sensors for example optical sensors can be blinded by
flashes from arc welding processes, airborne dust and smoke clouds may
impede light transmission etc.
 Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion
is known as speed sensor .For example – Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer
,UDAR ,Ground Speed Radar .
 Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature‘s
measurement as an electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These
electrical signals will be in the form of voltage and is directly proportional to the
temperature measurement .
 PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used

30
for the tracking and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in
its field of view and is also known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for
detecting human motion and movement detection .
 Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR
or RADAR in which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to
evaluate the attributes of a target by generating the high frequency sound
waves .

Controlling sensors through Webpage

Introduction

This article will discuss how we can wirelessly send data of various IoT
sensors from a microcontroller to a web application. Also, we will store that data
in a MongoDB database to process it according to our needs and requirements.

Sending the sensor data from the Microcontroller to a Web Application Server is
not a much more difficult task. We have to follow the below four steps simply:

1. Making Hardware Connections

2. Compiling the Arduino code
3. Making a Web App
4. Run the server

What are IoT & Microcontrollers

IoT stands for Internet of Things. These are the physical entities like embedded
devices and sensors that can connect through a network and exchange data over
the internet.

31
Features of IoT

IoT made it possible for physical objects to connect and interact, transforming it

from a physical to a digital world. It makes companies and organizations simplify

their daily tasks by automating them. Below are some basic features of IoT

devices.

Source – https://www.interviewbit.com/blog/features-of-iot/

What are Microcontrollers?

These devices automatically control various products and sensors like remote controls,

toys, machines, etc. They include a Microprocessor, RAM, ROM, and I/O Pins fabricated

on a single chip using VLSI technology.

The majority of these microcontrollers are programmed using C and C++ programming

languages. They use natural operating systems and demand very high speed and

efficiency that only C and C++ can provide.

32
One of the most popular microcontrollers used in IoT is Arduino UNO. It is developed on

a Microchip ATmega328P microcontroller. Its user-friendly design, low cost, and compact

size have made it the most commonly used Microcontroller.

It consists of 14 Digital I/O Pins and 6 Analog Pins. Also, it has 32Kb of Flash Memory

and works at a clock rate of 16MHz.

Arduino UNO

One of the main drawbacks of Arduino UNO is that it doesn‘t contain any built -in

Bluetooth or Wi-Fi connectivity. We must use a separate Bluetooth or Wi-Fi module to

connect it wirelessly.

We have another microcontroller, NodeMCU (ESP8266), which can overcome the above

issues. It has almost all the features similar to Arduino, but it also has a built -in Wi-Fi

module, which enables it to connect to other applications using Wi-Fi.

\
NodeMCU

In this article, we will use NodeMCU to send data of Ultrasonic Sensors to a Web
Application.

IoT Home Automation using ESP8266 Web Page(Server)

33
Home Automation using ESP8266 Web Server Server
In this project, we learn how to make IoT Based Home Automation using
ESP8266 Web Server. By Home Automation we mean controlling lighting and
appliances without any manual switch but using a system that is connected to the
Internet. When connected to the Internet, home devices are an important
constituent of the Internet of Things (―IoT‖).

In this project, we will be using a Local Web Server. A web server is a device that
runs websites. It‘s a program or a bunch of code that distributes web pages as they
are requisitioned. The basic objective of the Web Server is to store, process, and
deliver web pages to the users. This intercommunication is done using Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

In this Home Automation System, we will control 4 home appliances connected to

the Relay using a Local Web Server Server. The Wifi Module NodeMCU
ESP8266 will Receive commands from the Web Page.

Before moving forward with this project, you can check our previous project:
1. Home Automation using NodeMCU & Alexa
2. Wifi & Voice Controlled Home Automation Using NodeMCU & Android
3. IoT Home Automation using Blynk & NodeMCU ESP8266
4. Home Automation using Google Firebase & NodeMCU ESP8266
5. Home Automation with Arduino IoT Cloud & ESP32
6. Industrial Automation using ESP8266 & AWS IoT Core

Bill of Materials
The following are the components required for making this project. All the
components can be easily purchased from Amazon. The component purchase link is
given below.

S.N. Components Name Quantity

1 NodeMCU ESP8266 1
2 Relay 5V 4
3 7805 Voltage Regulator IC 1
4 Female DC Power Jack DCJ0202 1
5 Diode 1N4007 4
34
 S.N. Components Name Quantity
6 Resistor 330-ohm 5
7 NPN Transistor BC547 4
8 Terminal Block 4
9 LED 5mm Any Color 1
10 Female Header 2 Set

Circuit Diagram & Connection

The circuit diagram for Web Server Server Controlled Home Automation using
ESP8266 is given below. Using this circuit diagram you can assemble the circuit on
the Breadboard using 4 4-channel Relay and NodeMCU Board.

Home Automation PCB & Gerber File

If you don‘t want to assemble the circuit on a breadboard and you want a PCB for
the project, then here is the PCB for you. The PCB Board for the Home Automation
Project is designed using the EasyEDA online Circuit Schematics & PCB designing
tool. The front side and back side of the PCB are given below.

Home Automation PCB Front View

35
 Home Automation PCB Back View
The Gerber File for the PCB Board is given below. You can simply download the
Gerber File for this project.

Download Gerber File: Home Automation PCB

Source Code/Program
Copy the code from below and upload it to the NodeMCU Board.

1 const char* ssid = "MySmartHome"; //wifi name

2 const char* password = "hngzhowxiantan"; //wifi password
But before uploading change the WiFi SSID & Password.

Controlling Home Appliances through Web Page

Once the code is uploaded, the NodeMCU Board will try connecting to the Network
using the given SSID & Password.

Once connected to the network, the Serial Monitor will display the Local IP Address.

Now you can copy the IP Address and paste it to the web Browser. The Web
Browser will display a beautiful webpage.

36
Now you can send 1 or 0 to turn ON & OFF the home appliances. The ON
command is assigned to a certain GPIO PIN as 1 & OFF command as0.

Apart from all this, if your NodeMCU ESP8266 Board is connected to your PC, the
Serial Monitor will display the following message.

37
Well, that‘s all from IoT Based Home Automation using ESP8266 Web
Server Server. If you have any doubts, please comment below.

What are microcontrollers?

Most IoT devices have to be small and work based on relatively low energy
consumption. This is particularly true for resource-constrained devices, which
might operate far from a central system and use low-powered batteries to
function.

Such IoT devices need something less heavy duty than the type of processor
found in a typical personal computer. For this, they use microcontrollers.

When trying to understand the place microcontrollers occupy in IoT, we‘re going
to look at an IoT technology stack for an embedded device and how the MCU
interacts within it.

For example, a simplified IoT stack for a smart camera device might look
something like this:

1. Communication protocol layer

2. Hardware abstraction layer (HAL)
3. RTOS/OS layer
The MCU operates at the hardware abstraction layer, acting as a bridge to allow
the other two layers to interact, and runs the chosen RTOS/OS that operates the
device.

Microcontroller vs. microprocessor

One common question regarding microcontrollers that‘s often heard concerns the
difference between MCUs and microprocessors.
38
A microprocessor is a single integrated chip that contains a device‘s CPU.
However, it doesn‘t contain any RAM or ROM memory, or any other peripherals a
device may have. The chip instead relies on inputs/outputs (I/Os) to connect to
memory and peripherals.

On the other hand, a microcontroller has the CPU, RAM and ROM, as well as
peripherals all embedded onto a single chip, effectively making it a computer
itself.

Now, this heavily embedded chip, of course, has lower performance capabilities
than a microprocessor-powered computer, but when it comes to typical IoT
devices, such as smart industrial machines, microcontrollers are a much better
choice. They can provide sufficient computing power while keeping costs,
complexity, and energy usage low.

Microcontroller features
With hundreds of MCUs on the market, it‘s important to understand their
common features before deciding on the best MCU for an IoT project.

Bits
For this primary distinction between MCUs, there are 5 different options
currently available:

4-8 bit
These are used in remote controls, and other constrained and inexpensive
applications. Generally, they are not fit for use in IoT applications, since they
lack the computing and memory needed for handling internet.

8 bit
Mostly used in cost-constrained but more elaborate applications than the 4-8
bit. With the correct setup, these can be used in IoT applications, sometimes
running an RTOS, but mostly with a simple control loop. The well-known
Arduino project is an example of an 8-bit design. Even though 8-bit systems can
handle Internet, they normally lack the compute power and memory
requirements to do it properly with encryption and strong authentication
protocols.

16 bit
While these are of course an option, the 16-bit architecture is not incredibly
common in IoT. Implementations will typically switch between an 8-bit or 32-bit
MCU.

32 bit
This is the normal entry point for IoT applications, unless the application can fit
8-bit architecture and has cost constraints. The price difference between 8 and
32-bit architectures is small enough, however, that developers should think
twice before choosing 8 bit.

39
Whether the MCUs run an RTOS or OS mostly depends on the compute power of
the MCU, and/or the presence of a memory management unit (MMU).

Do note, in these systems, clock frequency is an important design factor as well.

Clocks above 100MHz (especially GHz designs) usually require extra thought on
PCB design, since the PCB traces can begin to interfere with others. Raspberry Pi
is a well known 32-bit design.

64 bit
These are reserved for high-end systems, usually Linux or another OS. You
typically need a specific (compute intensity) reason to jump from a 32-bit to a 64-
bit system.

Architecture
The majority of MCUs use one of the following architectures: ARM, MIPS, or X86,
though now there‘s the new RISC-V architecture we‘ll also consider.

We‘re going to take a look at these different specifications and their primary
features. As will be seen, ARM, MIPS, and RISC-V are similar in many ways,
while X86 possesses significant differences from the others.

1. Different instruction set architectures (ISAs). The ISA of microcontroller

architecture dictates the format of instructions managed by the CPU.
ARM, MIPS, and RISC-V all have reduced instruction set computer
(RISC) ISAs, while X86 uses complex instruction set computers (CISC),
which supports more complex and flexible instructions. RISC requires a
set length for instructions, specifically 16 (ARM) and 32 (MIPS) registers.
2. Different processing power. Overall, X86 has more processing power and
high performance. In contrast, ARM, RISC-V, and MIPS don‘t require as
much processing power due to simpler, set-length instructions dictated
by RISC architecture, lending themselves to applications that don‘t
require high performance.
3. Different energy consumption. X86 uses more energy to function and
support higher processing power. MIPS uses less power and ARM has
even greater efficiency.
4. Proprietary vs. open source. RISC-V is open source, while ARM, MIPS,
and X86 are all proprietary. While using RISC-V for a microcontroller
design means you won‘t have to pay royalties, system support lacks and
documentation is limited.
Different processors in each of these categories will also have different RAM,
number of GPIO pins, and connectivity options.

RAM
This varies greatly, from around 16B at the lowest end on the 8-bit MCUs, to
about 4.5MB on 32 and 64-bit MCUs. To many, the more RAM the better, but
this will increase costs substantially.

40
GPIO
General-purpose input/output are the pins that allow connectivity of various
hardware, such as sensors to the CPU. Like RAM, the number of GPIOs range
substantially to accommodate all types of device stacks.

Connectivity
Different CPUs come with different connectivity options, including Wi-Fi
protocols, Bluetooth, and wired ethernet ports.

RTOS/OS for microcontrollers

There are a few operating system options for MCUs. Here‘s what you‘ll find on
the market:

RTOS
Short for ―real-time operating system,‖ this software component can execute only
one program at a time, but rapidly switches between programming tasks in order
to accomplish multiple tasks simultaneously.

RTOS delivers what‘s known as deterministic, hard, real-time responses to

external events. In practice, this means it can provide highly responsive
processing for limited predetermined tasks far quicker than a traditional OS,
which can be an advantage when it comes to an IoT device.

You can read more here on how to choose the best RTOS for IoT.

OS
This is a ―traditional‖ operating system, such as Linux. Unlike its ―real time‖
counterpart, an OS provides non-deterministic, soft, real-time responses,
meaning it‘s more effective at processing large quantities of different tasks than
an RTOS, but requires a lot more processing power.

Because of this, OS software is usually only found on 32 and 64-bit MCUs that
have MMU units. You can read more on the advantages and disadvantages of OS
versus RTOS here.

Bare metal
Some CPUs have no operating system software at all. Instead, the firmware is
written directly onto the hardware—the result is bare metal programming. This is
very common with older generation embedded devices and MCUs for IoT.

However, as MCU processing power has advanced, and come down in cost, fewer
devices are operated bare metal. Having said that, it is still used when an MCU
has low memory, or when direct control over every piece of hardware is needed to
meet very strict timing requirements.

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Best microcontroller for IoT
As mentioned, many microcontrollers are used in IoT projects. A substantial list
of common commercial MCUs will be provided in this blog‘s follow up, but for
now, we‘re going to explain how to choose the best microcontroller for IoT.

Memory
The amount of memory will, of course, have a fundamental impact on the overall
performance of the device. Therefore, memory requirements for a device‘s
programming tasks must be carefully calculated—both RAM and ROM.

Also, ensure the decision is future-proofed by arranging for enough spare

capacity to handle the demands placed on it by future updates.

Power
Power requirements is another major consideration when it comes to choosing
the best MCU.

For instance, an IoT smart medical device, like a hearing aid, can run on a low-
power battery. On the other hand, heavy smart industrial equipment will
consume lots of electricity, but you‘ll want the device to be as energy efficient as
possible.

Internet and other communication protocols

How will your IoT device connect to the application? What type of data will the
device be pushing, and where? Does it need to interact with other devices locally?

For example, a residential smart alarm system may need Wi-Fi protocols, while
an office IoT HVAC system may require wired ethernet. For local device
communication, Bluetooth or Thread network could be needed, and remote
devices outside Wi-Fi range require 4G data connectivity.

Connection ports
To work out how many GPIOs are needed on a microcontroller, first define the
data inputs the device requires. Also, bear in mind, there are both digital ports
and analog ports on a CPU, which process different types of data inputs and
outputs.

Architecture
Remember, most applications run off ARM, MIPS, or X86 architecture. Therefore,
make sure your choice can support the complexity of your device and system,
including the I/Os and data processing and how much power that requires.

Dev support and community

If your team or organization has no prior experience working with MCUs, dev
support offered by the manufacturer and the developer community is crucial.

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Check for comprehensive documentation from the manufacturer, and sites like
StackOverflow or Reddit for community support. You can also find plenty of
useful tutorials on our blog.

Cost
Always keep one eye on the future when considering microcontroller costs. There
is no point building a prototype with a board that can become prohibitively
expensive to scale and take to market. Also, be aware, some MCUs come with
licensing fees for individual device drivers.

Security
Security is a significant consideration for all IoT projects and needs to be
engineered across the stack. Standard security features on commercial boards
include cryptographic bootloaders and hardware accelerators, shield layers, and
memory protection units.

Final word on microcontrollers for IoT

Choosing the best option for an MCU can be complex and frustrating. Hopefully
you can now go into the process a bit more informed and a lot more certain
about exactly what to look for in your IoT microcontrollers.

We‘re going to follow this up with a supplemental post, examining the top
microcontroller options as well as their specifications, so then, you‘ll have
everything you need to get started.

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 UNIT III
PROTOCOLS FOR IOT:

INTRODUCTION

What Are IoT Protocols?

Think of them as the language of IoT — IoT protocols enable the different hardware
in the system to communicate properly. It may seem there‘s a sprinkle of fairy dust
keeping an IoT system working effectively, though we know that‘s not actually the
case. The real magic is produced by IoT protocols, which are an integral part of any
IoT ecosystem. The hardware would actually be useless without IoT protocols, as
they enable hardware to exchange data, providing value to the end-user.
Communication between the components of an IoT system wouldn‘t be possible
without the right framework, and that‘s where IoT protocols come in.

Why IoT Protocols Matter

IoT communication protocols are essential to creating an effective IoT system. They
are the glue that holds everything together and keeps communication working
properly between the various components in the system. Here are some of the values
they provide:

 Allow interoperability — Without IoT standards and protocols, there is no

interoperability between the hardware.
 Reduce IoT fragmentation — Fragmentation is inherent due to the nature of
IoT, but protocols create the ability to communicate between the hardware in
the system.
 Minimize security risks — Enabling devices to connect to each other and the
internet can potentially open them to vulnerabilities. Securing the IoT
ecosystem and communication is essential.
 Improve ability to troubleshoot issues — When all of the components speak
the same language and follow the same protocol(s), it‘s easier to troubleshoot
issues that arise.

IoT protocols enable this new wave of computing, along with the internet, providing
new use cases for devices and solutions beyond those initially intended. For
example, many cars today can tell you when they are due for an oil change or other
maintenance. They can also contact help in an emergency and perform other value-
add tasks to help drivers. Today, your connected car can also communicate with
your house. So, when you‘re within a certain distance, it can automatically open
your garage door and turn on the lights in your house. Interoperability matters, but
this is even bigger than simple interoperability.

IoT Data Protocols

There are two types of IoT data protocols: data protocols and network protocols.
Data protocols provide communication between hardware without the need for an
internet connection. Here are the most common IoT data protocols used today.

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  Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) — The genesis
for all internet-based communications, TCP/IP allows devices to communicate
on a network like the internet. It essentially provides the foundation for the
internet, and it‘s a prevalent protocol used across industries.
 Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) — A lightweight data
protocol that allows for simple data flow between devices. It‘s designed to work
on top of a TCP/IP protocol, and it‘s basic and lightweight. It‘s now the
standard for most IoT applications.
 Data Distribution Service (DDS) — A scalable IoT protocol that can be
deployed in settings from the cloud to small devices. It‘s the first open
international middleware IoT standard and is used in some industrial
internet of things (IIoT) applications like autonomous vehicles, robotics, and
others.
 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) — Beneficial for moving large amounts
of data, HTTP is used by some manufacturing companies, and it‘s the
foundation of data communication for the world wide web (WWW).
 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAp) — An application layer protocol
designed to address the needs of HTTP-based systems. CoAp addresses the
heaviness and power consumption of HTTP by translating it for usage in IoT
environments with low overhead and easy employment.
 Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) — An open standard
publish/subscribe protocol used for transactional messages between servers.
Its use is fairly limited due to its heaviness, undesirable for sensors with
limited memory. However, it‘s useful for applications requiring robust
communications and guaranteed complete transactions.
 WebSocket — This protocol was developed as part of the HTML5 initiative
using a single TCP connection to transmit continuous messages. It‘s helpful
for simplifying the management of bi-directional communication over the
internet and is used in runtime environments and libraries.
 Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) — An XML-language-
based message-oriented middleware communication protocol. It‘s good for
consumer-oriented IoT deployments due to its scalability.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is about the network of sensor devices to the web in real-
time. IoT devices communicate with each other over the network, so certain
standards and rules need to be set to determine how data is exchanged. These rules
are called IoT Network Protocols. Today, a wide variety of IoT devices are available,
and therefore different protocols have been designed.

Depending on the IoT application‘s functionality, its workflow or architecture varies.

Basic architecture involves four layers, i.e., the Sensing layer, Network layer, Data
processing layer, and Application layer.

The Sensing layer contains all the hardware, like sensors, actuators, chips, etc., that
collect information. This layer is connected to the successive layer, which is the
network layer, through protocols. The Network layer allows communications among
devices using network protocols like cellular, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc. The data
collected by IoT devices is processed in the Data processing layer using technologies

45
like data analytics and machine learning algorithms. This processed data can be
displayed to the user through web portals, apps, or interfaces provided by the
application layer. Users can directly interact and visualize the data obtained from
IoT devices through these interfaces.

As IoT devices have very few components-little batteries and sensors, there is a
small amount of power available. Hence, it is tough to design protocols for IoT. Also,
we need to perform everything (construct topological structures, do address
assignments, etc.) on wireless.

IoT Protocols Should also Satisfy These Requirements

 Allow communication among various devices simultaneously.
 IoT is being used in critical areas like health, industries, home surveillance,
etc. hence communication security needs to be ensured.
 Transport data efficiently.
 IoT devices can be added or removed from the IoT network. Hence protocols
must provide scalability.

There are many such protocols developed for IoT, then how to choose one??

One way to decide which protocol to use is to consider the environment for which
these protocols are designed. Some are designed for small ranges; some are for wide
ranges, high data rates, low data rates, etc. They vary based on power consumption,
range, cost, data rate, etc.

Short Range Communication, Low Data Rate, Low Power

Bluetooth

Bluetooth works in a frequency range of 2.4GHz. It covers a range of 10m to 100m,

and its data rate goes up to 1MBPS. It supports two network topologies – point-to-
point and mesh. It is suitable to send a small amount of data to personal devices
like speakers, earphones, smart watches, smart shoes, etc. This protocol can also be
used for Smart Homes, including Alarms, HVAC, lighting, etc.

Zigbee

This is based on the IEEE802.15.4 standard. Its frequency range is the same as that
of Bluetooth, which is 2.4GHz. Its range is up to 100 meters, and the data rate is a
maximum of 250KBPS. Zigbee protocol can transmit small amounts of data within a
short range. This can be used in systems that require high authentication and
robustness. It supports star topology, mesh topology, and cluster tree topology.
Major applications observed are sensing device health in industries, smart homes,
etc.,

6LoWPAN

PAN stands for Personal Area Network, and 6LoWPAN refers to IPV6 Low Power PAN.
It works in a frequency ranging from 900 to 2400MHz. The data rate is 250KBPS,
supporting two network topologies - star and mesh.
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Short Range Communication, High Data Rate

WirelessLAN - Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi has high bandwidth and allows a data rate of 54MBPS and goes up to
600MBPS. Covers a range of 50m in the local area where providing private antennas
goes to 30 km. IoT devices can be easily connected using Wi-Fi and share a large
amount of data. This protocol is used in smart homes, smart cities, offices, etc

Long Range Communication, High Data Rate, Low power

LoRaWAN

This stands for Long Range Wide Area Network. Its range is approximately 2.5km
and can go up to 15km. The data rate is very low, which is 03, and KBPS and goes
up to a maximum of 50KBPS. It can support many connected devices and is used in
applications like Smart City, Supply Chain Management, etc.

LTE-M

LTE-M stands for Long Term Evolution for Machines. This is a type of LPWAN – Low
Power Wide Area Network. This is used along with cellular networks to provide
security. LTE-M works in a frequency range of 1.4MHz-5MHz, and the data rate can
go up to 4MBPS.

Long Range, Low Data Rate, Low Power Consumption

Sigfox

Sigfox is used when wide area coverage is required with minimum power
consumption. It aims at connecting billions of IoT devices. This protocol‘s frequency
range is 900MHZ, covering a range of 3km to 50km. The maximum data rate is very
low, which is 1KBPS.

Long Range, Low Data Rate, High Power Consumption

Cellular

This is also known as a mobile network. Cellular networks are 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G.
It Has frequency ranges – 900MHz, 1.8/1.9/2.1 GHz. The range is approximately
35km and goes up to 200km. The average data rate is 35KBPS – 170KBPS. Cellular
networks consume high power. This protocol is not used for most IoT devices due to
frequency and security issues. It can be used with IoT applications like connected
cars.

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 MESSAGING PROTOCOLS

What is an IoT Messaging Protocol?

Internet of Things (IoT) messaging protocols are used to transmit telemetry (aka
messages) from IoT devices to an IoT Messaging Hub. These protocols can operate
over TCP, or even a higher level abstraction such as HTTPS.
Connecting IoT devices to a network, the Internet, or even each other may use one of
a number of methods. IoT devices may be connected over Wifi, Cellular, Bluetooth,
ZigBee, LoRaWAN, or some other connectivity method. Once the components of an
IoT solution are connected to each other, there will be a messaging protocol used to
transmit device telemetry (aka messages) to and from devices.
The below list includes several of the most popular IoT Messaging Protocols used by
devices:
1) MQTT (Message Queue Telemetry Transport)
The MQTT, or Message Queue Telemetry Transport, protocol is a lightweight,
publish/subscribe network protocol for transporting telemetry messages between
IoT devices. This protocol typically runs over TCP/IP, however, it can operate on top
of other networking protocols so long as they provide ordered, lossless, bi-directional
connections.
MQTT is designed to be lightweight, and is ideal for connection scenarios where IoT
devices may have limited bandwidth or other constraints requiring remote devices
with small code footprints.
Feature Highlights
 Lightweight protocol (great for constrained networks)
 Supports Publish / Subscribe messaging
 Low power usage
 Minimized data packet size
 OASIS standard protocol

2) AMQP (Advanced Message Queue Protocol)

AMQP, or Advanced Message Queue Protocol, is an open standard application layer
protocol. It‘s a binary protocol designed to support a wide array of messaging
applications and communications patterns. It‘s not specifically built for Internet of
Things (IoT) solutions, but it works very well for message communications which
include many IoT scenarios.
Feature Highlights
 Binary application layer protocol
 Can be used for Point-to-Point and Publish / Subscribe messaging
 Broad compatibility with messaging scenarios
 Supports end-to-end encryption of messaging
3) DDS (Data Distributed Service)
DDS, or Data Distributed Service, protocol is designed to be used with real-time
systems, and is an Object Management Group (OMG) machine-to-machine standard.
The goals of DDS are to enable dependable, high-performance, interoperable, real-
time, scalable data exchanges using a Publish / Subscribe messaging pattern.
The DDS protocol is designed to address the unique needs of application scenarios
such as aerospace, defense, air-traffic control, autonomous vehicles, medical
devices, robotics, power generation, transportation systems, and other real-time

48
 data exchange systems.
Feature Highlights
 Designed for Real-Time systems
 Provides Publish / Subscribe messaging
 Connects devices directly to each other
 Low overhead

4) XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol)

XMPP, or Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol, is a communications protocol
based on XML (Extensible Markup Language). It‘s designed to provide near real-time
exchange of structured XML data between two or more devices. The XMPP protocol
was originally known as Jabber and was developed for near real-time messaging
(IM), presence information, and contact list maintenance. More recently XMPP has
been used for Publish / Subscribe messaging, VoIP (Voice over IP), Internet of
Things (IoT), gaming, and other systems.
Feature Highlights
 Designed to be extensible
 Open Standard
 Client / Server architecture
5) CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)
The CoAP, or Constrained Application Protocol, is a specialized application protocol
designed for constrained devices. It‘s designed to require low power, work across
lossy networks, and can be used to connect devices to each other or other general
nodes on the Internet. CoAP is not just used for IoT scenarios, but is also in use on
other systems such as SMS on mobile communication networks.
Feature Highlights
 Low Power usage
 Used on constrained devices

Which IoT messaging protocol is best?

There is no ―best‖ messaging protocol that is suitable for all IoT use cases. The best
IoT messaging protocol for a particular application will depend on the specific
requirements and constraints of the system. Some factors to consider when selecting
an Internet of Things messaging protocol include:
1. Performance: The protocol should be able to handle the required volume and rate
of messages, and it should have low overhead and latency.
2. Reliability: The protocol should support delivery guarantees and error handling
mechanisms to ensure that messages are delivered reliably.
3. Security: The protocol should support security features such as encryption and
authentication to protect against unauthorized access and tampering.
4. Compatibility: The protocol should be compatible with the devices and
infrastructure that are being used in the system.
5. Ease of implementation: The protocol should be easy to implement and integrate
with the rest of the system.
Some popular messaging protocols that are commonly used in IoT applications
include MQTT, CoAP, AMQP, XMPP, and DDS. Each of these protocols has its own
strengths and weaknesses, and the best one for a particular application will depend
on the specific requirements and constraints of the system.

49
 IOT TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS
Transport layer protocols define how data gets packaged, sent, and received. In IoT,
the best protocol for your device depends on what needs to be sent and which
quality is more important for your use case: speed or reliability.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a transport protocol that prioritizes speed over
reliability, using a connectionless process to send data packets to a destination. Due
to its low latency, UDP is ideal for time-sensitive use cases like video streaming,
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), video gaming, and Domain Name System (DNS)
lookups.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) sets the parameters for data exchanges
between software applications, confirms what is being sent, where it‘s coming from,
where it‘s going, and whether or not it arrived correctly. TCP prioritizes accuracy
over speed, ensuring that data arrives in order, with minimal errors, and without
duplication. If data gets lost in transmission, TCP requests the data packets be
resent.

Network layer IoT protocols

The network layer packages transmissions and routes data packets from one
network entity (such as a router, server, node, application, or device) to another,
determining the path they will take to get there.

IP (Internet Protocol)
Internet Protocol is basically the key to the Internet. It gives network entities an IP
address, which allows other network entities to send them data packets even if they
are not on the same network.

ADDRESSING AND IDENTIFICATION:

INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 4

What is IPv4?
Last Updated : 01 Jul, 2024





IP stands for Internet Protocol version v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4), is the
most widely used system for identifying devices on a network. It uses a set of four
numbers, separated by periods (like 192.168.0.1), to give each device a unique
address. This address helps data find its way from one device to another over the
internet.
IPv4 was the primary version brought into action for production within the
ARPANET in 1983. IP version four addresses are 32-bit integers which will be
expressed in decimal notation. Example- 192.0.2.126 could be an IPv4 address.
Parts of IPv4
IPv4 addresses consist of three parts:
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 Network Part: The network part indicates the distinctive variety that‘s appointed
to the network. The network part conjointly identifies the category of the network
that‘s assigned.
 Host Part: The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your network. This
part of the IPv4 address is assigned to every host.
For each host on the network, the network part is the same, however, the host
half must vary.
 Subnet Number: This is the nonobligatory part of IPv4. Local networks that have
massive numbers of hosts are divided into subnets and subnet numbers are
appointed to that.
Characteristics of IPv4
 IPv4 could be a 32-bit IP Address.
 IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.
 The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header field is twenty.
 It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast-style addresses.
 IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).
 IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.
 RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.
 Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.
 Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causes host.
Advantages of IPv4
 IPv4 security permits encryption to keep up privacy and security.
 IPV4 network allocation is significant and presently has quite 85000 practical
routers.
 It becomes easy to attach multiple devices across an outsized network while not
NAT.
 This is a model of communication so provides quality service also as economical
knowledge transfer.
 IPV4 addresses are redefined and permit flawless encoding.
 Routing is scalable and economical as a result of addressing its collective more
effectively.
 Data communication across the network becomes a lot of specific in multicast
organizations.
o Limits net growth for existing users and hinders the use of the net for
brand-new users.
o Internet Routing is inefficient in IPv4.
o IPv4 has high System Management prices and it‘s labor-intensive,
complex, slow & prone to errors.
o Security features are nonobligatory.
o Difficulty to feature support for future desires as a result of adding it on
is extremely high overhead since it hinders the flexibility to attach
everything over IP.
Limitations of IPv4
 IP relies on network layer addresses to identify end-points on the network, and
each network has a unique IP address.
 The world‘s supply of unique IP addresses is dwindling, and they might eventually
run out theoretically.
 If there are multiple hosts, we need the IP addresses of the next class.

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 Complex host and routing configuration, non-hierarchical addressing, difficult to
re-numbering addresses, large routing tables, non-trivial implementations in
providing security, QoS (Quality of Service), mobility, and multi-homing,
multicasting, etc. are the big limitations of IPv4 so that‘s why IPv6 came into the
picture.
Conclusion
In conclusion, IPv4 is a widely used system for identifying devices on a network with
unique addresses made up of four numbers. It plays a crucial role in enabling
devices to communicate over the internet by directing data to the correct
destinations. Despite its limitations, IPv4 has been fundamental to the growth and
operation of the internet.

IPv4 - Overview

This era is said to be the era of computers. Computers have significantly changed
the way we live. A computing device when connected to other computing device(s)
enables us to share data and information at lightning fast speed.

What is Network?

A Network in the world of computers is said to be a collection of interconnected

hosts, via some shared media which can be wired or wireless. A computer network
enables its hosts to share and exchange data and information over the media.
Network can be a Local Area Network spanned across an office or Metro Area
Network spanned across a city or Wide Area Network which can be spanned across
cities and provinces.

A computer network can be as simple as two PCs connected together via a single
copper cable or it can be grown up to the complexity where every computer in this
world is connected to every other, called the Internet. A network then includes more
and more components to reach its ultimate goal of data exchange. Below is a brief
description of the components involved in computer network −

 Hosts − Hosts are said to be situated at ultimate end of the network, i.e. a
host is a source of information and another host will be the destination.
Information flows end to end between hosts. A host can be a user‘s PC, an
internet Server, a database server etc.
 Media − If wired, then it can be copper cable, fiber optic cable, and coaxial
cable. If wireless, it can be free-to-air radio frequency or some special wireless
band. Wireless frequencies can be used to interconnect remote sites too.
 Hub − A hub is a multiport repeater and it is used to connect hosts in a LAN
segment. Because of low throughputs hubs are now rarely used. Hub works
on Layer-1 (Physical Layer) of OSI Model.
 Switch − A Switch is a multiport bridge and is used to connect hosts in a LAN
segment. Switches are much faster than Hubs and operate on wire speed.
Switch works on Layer-2 (Data Link Layer), but Layer-3 (Network Layer)
switches are also available.

52
  Router − A router is Layer-3 (Network Layer) device which makes routing
decisions for the data/information sent for some remote destination. Routers
make the core of any interconnected network and the Internet.
 Gateways − A software or combination of software and hardware put together,
works for exchanging data among networks which are using different
protocols for sharing data.
 Firewall − Software or combination of software and hardware, used to protect
users data from unintended recipients on the network/internet.
All components in a network ultimately serve the hosts.

Host Addressing

Communication between hosts can happen only if they can identify each other on
the network. In a single collision domain (where every packet sent on the segment by
one host is heard by every other host) hosts can communicate directly via MAC
address.

MAC address is a factory coded 48-bits hardware address which can also uniquely
identify a host. But if a host wants to communicate with a remote host, i.e. not in
the same segment or logically not connected, then some means of addressing is
required to identify the remote host uniquely. A logical address is given to all hosts
connected to Internet and this logical address is called Internet Protocol Address.

IPv4 - OSI Model

The International Standard Organization has a well-defined model for

Communication Systems known as Open System Interconnection, or the OSI Model.
This layered model is a conceptualized view of how one system should communicate
with the other, using various protocols defined in each layer. Further, each layer is
designated to a well-defined part of communication system. For example, the
Physical layer defines all the components of physical nature, i.e. wires, frequencies,
pulse codes, voltage transmission etc. of a communication system.

The OSI Model has the following seven layers −

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 Application Layer (Layer-7) − This is where the user application sits that
needs to transfer data between or among hosts. For example − HTTP, file
transfer application (FTP) and electronic mail etc.
 Presentation Layer (Layer-6) − This layer helps to understand data
representation in one form on a host to other host in their native
representation. Data from the sender is converted to on-the-wire data (general
standard format) and at the receiver‘s end it is converted to the native
representation of the receiver.
 Session Layer (Layer-5) − This layer provides session management
capabilities between hosts. For example, if some host needs a password
verification for access and if credentials are provided then for that session
password verification does not happen again. This layer can assist in
synchronization, dialog control and critical operation management (e.g., an
online bank transaction).
 Transport Layer (Layer-4) − This layer provides end to end data delivery
among hosts. This layer takes data from the above layer and breaks it into
smaller units called Segments and then gives it to the Network layer for
transmission.
 Network Layer (Layer-3) − This layer helps to uniquely identify hosts beyond
the subnets and defines the path which the packets will follow or be routed to
reach the destination.
 Data Link Layer (Layer-2) − This layer takes the raw transmission data
(signal, pulses etc.) from the Physical Layer and makes Data Frames, and
sends that to the upper layer and vice versa. This layer also checks any
transmission errors and sorts it out accordingly.
 Physical Layer (Layer-1) − This layer deals with hardware technology and
actual communication mechanism such as signaling, voltage, cable type and
length, etc.

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Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for carrying data from one host to another. It
provides means to allocate logical addresses to hosts, and identify them uniquely
using the same. Network layer takes data units from Transport Layer and cuts them
in to smaller unit called Data Packet.

Network layer defines the data path, the packets should follow to reach the
destination. Routers work on this layer and provides mechanism to route data to its
destination.

IPv4 - TCP/IP Model

A majority of the internet uses a protocol suite called the Internet Protocol Suite also
known as the TCP/IP protocol suite. This suite is a combination of protocols which
encompasses a number of different protocols for different purpose and need.
Because the two major protocols in this suites are TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol), this is commonly termed as TCP/IP Protocol
suite. This protocol suite has its own reference model which it follows over the
internet. In contrast with the OSI model, this model of protocols contains less layers.

Broadcast Addressing Mode

In this mode, the packet is addressed to all the hosts in a network segment. The
Destination Address field contains a special broadcast address,
i.e. 255.255.255.255. When a host sees this packet on the network, it is bound to
process it. Here the client sends a packet, which is entertained by all the Servers −

Multicast Addressing Mode

This mode is a mix of the previous two modes, i.e. the packet sent is neither
destined to a single host nor all the hosts on the segment. In this packet, the
Destination Address contains a special address which starts with 224.x.x.x and can
be entertained by more than one host.

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Here a server sends packets which are entertained by more than one servers. Every
network has one IP address reserved for the Network Number which represents the
network and one IP address reserved for the Broadcast Address, which represents
all the hosts in that network.

Hierarchical Addressing Scheme

IPv4 uses hierarchical addressing scheme. An IP address, which is 32-bits in length,

is divided into two or three parts as depicted −

A single IP address can contain information about the network and its sub-network
and ultimately the host. This scheme enables the IP Address to be hierarchical
where a network can have many sub-networks which in turn can have many hosts.

Subnet Mask

The 32-bit IP address contains information about the host and its network. It is very
necessary to distinguish both. For this, routers use Subnet Mask, which is as long
as the size of the network address in the IP address. Subnet Mask is also 32 bits
long. If the IP address in binary is ANDed with its Subnet Mask, the result yields the
Network address. For example, say the IP Address is 192.168.1.152 and the Subnet
Mask is 255.255.255.0 then −

This way the Subnet Mask helps extract the Network ID and the Host from an IP
Address. It can be identified now that 192.168.1.0 is the Network number and
192.168.1.152 is the host on that network.

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Figure − Comparative depiction of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

This model is indifferent to the actual hardware implementation, i.e. the physical
layer of OSI Model. This is why this model can be implemented on almost all
underlying technologies. Transport and Internet layers correspond to the same peer
layers. All three top layers of OSI Model are compressed together in single
Application layer of TCP/IP Model.

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)

Internet Protocol is one of the major protocols in the TCP/IP protocols suite. This
protocol works at the network layer of the OSI model and at the Internet layer of the
TCP/IP model. Thus this protocol has the responsibility of identifying hosts based
upon their logical addresses and to route data among them over the underlying
network.

IP provides a mechanism to uniquely identify hosts by an IP addressing scheme. IP

uses best effort delivery, i.e. it does not guarantee that packets would be delivered to
the destined host, but it will do its best to reach the destination. Internet Protocol
version 4 uses 32-bit logical address.

IPv4 - Packet Structure

Internet Protocol being a layer-3 protocol (OSI) takes data Segments from layer-4
(Transport) and divides it into packets. IP packet encapsulates data unit received
from above layer and add to its own header information.

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The encapsulated data is referred to as IP Payload. IP header contains all the
necessary information to deliver the packet at the other end.

IP header includes many relevant information including Version Number, which, in

this context, is 4. Other details are as follows −

 Version − Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).

 IHL − Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.
 DSCP − Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.
 ECN − Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries information about the
congestion seen in the route.
 Total Length − Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP
Payload).
 Identification − If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the
fragments contain same identification number. to identify original IP packet
they belong to.
 Flags − As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to
handle, these ‗flags‘ tells if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag,
the MSB is always set to ‗0‘.
 Fragment Offset − This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the
original IP Packet.
 Time to Live − To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with
some TTL value set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this
packet can cross. At each hop, its value is decremented by one and when the
value reaches zero, the packet is discarded.

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  Protocol − Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol
this packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol
number of ICMP is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
 Header Checksum − This field is used to keep checksum value of entire
header which is then used to check if the packet is received error-free.
 Source Address − 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
 Destination Address − 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the
packet.
 Options − This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater
than 5. These options may contain values for options such as Security, Record
Route, Time Stamp, etc.
IPv4 - Addressing

IPv4 supports three different types of addressing modes. −

Unicast Addressing Mode

In this mode, data is sent only to one destined host. The Destination Address field
contains 32- bit IP address of the destination host. Here the client sends data to the
targeted server −

INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 6

What is IPv6?
IPv6 is based on IPv4 and stands for Internet Protocol version 6. It was first
introduced in December 1995 by Internet Engineering Task Force. IP version 6 is
the new version of Internet Protocol, which is way better than IP version 4 in terms
of complexity and efficiency. IPv6 is written as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers
separated by colon (:). It can be written as 128 bits of 0s and 1s.
IPv6 Address Format
IPv6 Address Format is a 128-bit IP Address, which is written in a group of 8
hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:).

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 IPv6 Address Format
To switch from IPv4 to IPv6, there are several strategies:
 Dual Stacking: Devices can use both IPv4 and IPv6 at the same time. This way,
they can talk to networks and devices using either version.
 Tunneling: This method allows IPv6 users to send data through an IPv4
network to reach other IPv6 users. Think of it as creating a ―tunnel‖ for IPv6
traffic through the older IPv4 system.
 Network Address Translation (NAT): NAT helps devices using different versions
of IP addresses (IPv4 and IPv6) to communicate with each other by translating
the addresses so they understand each other.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IPV4 AND IPV6





The address through which any computer communicates with our computer is
simply called an Internet Protocol Address or IP address. For example, if we want to
load a web page or download something, we require the address to deliver that
particular file or webpage. That address is called an IP Address.
There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the older version, while IPv6 is
the newer one. Both have their own features and functions, but they differ in many
ways. Understanding these differences helps us see why we need IPv6 as the
internet grows and evolves.
What is IP?
An IP, or Internet Protocol address, is a unique set of numbers assigned to each
device connected to a network, like the Internet. It‘s like an address for your
computer, phone, or any other device, allowing them to communicate with each
other. When you visit a website, your device uses the IP address to find and connect
to the website‘s server.

IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length

It Supports Manual It supports Auto and renumbering address

and DHCP address configuration configuration

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IPv4 IPv6

In IPv4 end to end, connection In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is

integrity is Unachievable Achievable

It can generate 4.29×109 address The address space of IPv6 is quite large it
space can produce 3.4×1038 address space

The Security feature is dependent on IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the

the application IPv6 protocol

Address representation of IPv4 is in Address representation of IPv6 is in

decimal hexadecimal

Fragmentation performed by Sender In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by

and forwarding routers the sender

In IPv6 packet flow identification are

In IPv4 Packet flow identification is
Available and uses the flow label field in
not available
the header

In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available

It has a broadcast Message In IPv6 multicast and anycast message

Transmission Scheme transmission scheme is available

In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are

In IPv4 Encryption and
provided
Authentication facility not provided

IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed

IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes.

Benefits of IPv6 over IPv4

The recent Version of IP IPv6 has a greater advantage over IPv4. Here are some of
the mentioned benefits:
 Larger Address Space: IPv6 has a greater address space than IPv4, which is
required for expanding the IP Connected Devices. IPv6 has 128 bit IP Address
rather and IPv4 has a 32-bit Address.
 Improved Security: IPv6 has some improved security which is built in with it.
IPv6 offers security like Data Authentication, Data Encryption, etc. Here, an
Internet Connection is more Secure.
 Simplified Header Format: As compared to IPv4, IPv6 has a simpler and more
effective header Structure, which is more cost-effective and also increases the
speed of Internet Connection.
 Prioritize: IPv6 contains stronger and more reliable support for QoS features,
which helps in increasing traffic over websites and increases audio and video
quality on pages.
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  Improved Support for Mobile Devices: IPv6 has increased and better support
for Mobile Devices. It helps in making quick connections over other Mobile
Devices and in a safer way than IPv4.

LEGACY OF IPV4 DEVICES

From improved data gathering to actionable business insights, the case for
connected devices is increasingly clear to company managers. What‘s not so clear,
however, is exactly how these devices will integrate with existing technology. Let‘s
take a look at the five steps that IT managers should follow to get legacy systems
online with IoT.

#1) Analyze legacy infrastructure

For the first step, managers meshing IoT with legacy infrastructure should take a
look at their current system and take note of its purpose, the type of data that it
collects, and the way it communicates. This allows managers to plan out IoT
integration more efficiently. When analyzing current systems, make sure you focus
on these key aspects and ask the following questions:

 Automation – how is automation currently accomplished and what other aspects

should be automated?
 Efficiency – which aspects are routinely tedious or slow and could become more
efficient?
 Data – how is it collected, stored, and processed, and how could it be better used?
 Budget – analyze how much some processes cost, to help determine what aspects
could be done cheaper with IoT?
 Computing – how is data processed, whether it is cloud, edge, or hybrid?

#2) Plan the IoT integration

To integrate IoT into legacy systems requires strong planning, design, and
implementation phases.

The first part of this is to decide what IoT hardware is going to be needed, and then
set a budget taking software, hardware, and maintenance into account. Next, decide
on a communication protocol and develop software tools for interacting with the
system. Finally, decide on a security strategy and ensure the system is cybersafe.

Also, at this point, it is important to decide which type of IoT solution best fits your
needs. Common types include IoT data central or IoT autonomous. Centralized IoT
data solutions require the collection of device data into central databases, with
examples including AWS or Azure IoT. On the other hand, autonomous IoT solutions
(where data is collected and stored on the device itself) normally require a remote
access platform for clients to connect and visualize data and control configurations.

While this can be a daunting process if you don‘t know how IoT works, tutorials can
help guide you to develop with the right tools to make the IoT project easily
realizable.

#3) Implement IoT sensors into existing hardware

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The benefit of IoT is that it can automate, control, and make systems more efficient.
Interconnecting legacy systems to allow for communication is a great idea, but there
is a high probability that legacy systems may not be able to currently sense or
communicate data. However, adding IoT sensors can grant these capabilities.

IoT sensors are small devices that can detect when something changes. They
capture and send information to a main computer over the internet to be processed
or execute commands. These could measure things like temperature, humidity,
pressure, gyroscope, and accelerometers.

These sensors are cheap and easy to install, therefore, adding them to any existing
legacy systems can be the simplest and quickest way to get to communicate over the
internet. Set up which inputs the sensor should respond to and under what
conditions, and what it should do with the collected data.

#4) Connect existing PLCs to the internet

Devices already share data if you have an automated system managed by a PLC
(programmable logic controller). If that is the case, the next step is to get them
online. By making them access the internet, these systems can be controlled
remotely from anywhere in the world. Data can be accessed, modified, and analyzed
more easily. In addition, updates can be pushed globally at any time.

Some PLCs utilize proprietary protocols and have a weird way of making devices
communicate with each other. To address this, an IoT gateway is the best way to
take the PLC to the internet. An IoT gateway is a device that acts as a bridge
between IoT devices and the cloud and allows for communication between them.
This enables implementation of IoT onto a PLC without having to restructure it or
change it too much.

#5) Connect using an existing IO port

Legacy systems often have some kind of interface for data input/output. This may
have been implemented for debugging when the product was originally developed, or
to make it possible for service organizations to be able to interface with products in
the field and to help customers with setup and/or debug problems.

These data interface/debug ports are normally similar to serial ports such as an RS-
485, and RS-232, or they can be more raw interfaces like UART, SPI, or I2C. The
majority of the time the protocol on top of the serial connection is proprietary.

This kind of interface is useful, allowing a ―black box‖ to be created via a physical
interface matching the legacy system and firmware. This can translate ―internet‖
requests to the proprietary protocol of the legacy system. In addition, this new
system can be used as a design for newer internet-accessible versions of the system
simply by adopting the black box onto the internal legacy design.

Bridging the gap between old and new

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Overall, getting legacy systems to work in an IoT connected network is not as much
of a challenge as IT managers might initially think. As outlined above, following
some fairly simple strategies enables relatively quick setup. It‘s important though
not to forget the planning phase for your IoT strategy, in order to decide how it‘s
going to be implemented in your legacy system. This enables streamlining of the
process to really enable you to take full advantage of the benefits that IoT can bring
to your project.

SWITCHING OVER TO IPV6

Making The Switch

Step 1: Determine whether your Interent Service Provider (ISP) supports IPv6

The best way is to check your ISP‘s help pages, or do a quick search using your ISP‘s
name and "IPv6". Or as a last resort, you could even call customer support.

The road to IPv6 was a long one for me. My ISP was Windstream and I wanted to
experiment with IPv6. But Windstream didn‘t support it. Periodically, I‘d call
customer service and ask if they supported IPv6. But the Windstream customer
service usually didn‘t understand my question and couldn‘t provide an answer.

However, I recently switched to Time Warner as my ISP, prompted by a new

customer promotion. After switching, I noticed on Time Warner‘s website that ―TWC
has rolled out IPv6 to over 90% of its residential network‖. So, I set about getting an
IPv6 internet connection.

Step 2: Determine whether your modem and router support IPv6

ISPs that support IPv6 usually list supported devices. (Time Warner lists supported
devices here.) My modem is a Motorola SB6121 and is listed as "approved for use
with Time Warner Cable high-speed data services and supports IPv6." You can
access the SB6121 at 192.168.100.1, but the only available option is to reset it. I
didn‘t have to change anything on the cable modem to enable IPv6.

Since I‘m not using a Time Warner router, I was on my own figuring out if my router
supports IPv6. Fortunately, I recently reviewed the Linksys LRT224 router and
worked with one of their engineers, who assured me the LRT224 supports IPv6.

If you don‘t have a friend at your router‘s maker, dig into your router‘s admin pages
and look for IPv6 settings. The ones you want are usually found in the WAN
configuration section. Here‘s the relatively simple options provided on an
old Linksys E4200. I suspect they would not be much help in getting a working
IPv6 connection.

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Linksys E4200 IPv6 WAN connection options

Here are more comprehensive options on a D-Link DIR-615, which look like they
would provide a better shot at getting you connected.

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Step 4: Get an IPv6 address on your device

This should happen automatically for IPv6-enabled devices. But a quick way to force
it to happen on a Windows 7 or higher system is to type ipconfig /release and
then ipconfig /renew from the command prompt. Once complete, type ipconfig /all.
The output will look something like that below.

Notice the line labeled Temporary IPv6 address with an arrow next to it on the left.
This is a global IPv6 address my PC uses when I go to a public IPv6 website. Notice
that the first half of that address matches the prefix I received via DHCP-PD.

Verification

IPv6 is now enabled on my network and all devices capable of running IPv6 should
be good to go. My Windows 7 and Windows 8 PCs all had global IPv6 addresses
without any configuration. My Macbook running MacOS 10.9.5 and my iPhone 4
running iOS 7.0.4 also had global IPv6 addresses without any action on my part.

To verify IPv6 is working, just browse to test-ipv6.com. This website will tell you the
global IPv6 address used by your device and verify your IPv6 functionality. As you
can see from the screenshot below, the test shows my PC is communicating via IPv6
over the Internet. Notice also that the IPv6 address detected by the IPv6 test site
matches the IPv6 address displayed in the ipconfig /all output shown above.

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 UNIT IV
CLOUD FOR IOT: INTRODUCTION
One component that improves the success of the Internet of Things is Cloud
Computing. Cloud computing enables users to perform computing tasks using
services provided over the Internet.
The use of the Internet of Things in conjunction with cloud technologies has
become a kind of catalyst: the Internet of Things and cloud computing is now
related to each other. These are true technologies of the future that will bring many
benefits.
Due to the rapid growth of technology, the problem of storing, processing,
and accessing large amounts of data has arisen. Great innovation relates to the
mutual use of the Internet of Things and cloud technologies.
In combination, it will be possible to use powerful processing of sensory data
streams and new monitoring services. As an example, sensor data can be uploaded
and saved using cloud computing for later use as intelligent monitoring and
activation using other devices. The goal is to transform data into insights and thus
drive cost-effective and productive action.

IOT WITH CLOUD

There are many benefits of combining these services –

1. IoT Cloud Computing provides many connectivity options, implying large

network access. People use a wide range of devices to gain access to cloud
computing resources: mobile devices, tablets, laptops. This is convenient for
users but creates the problem of the need for network access points.
2. Developers can use IoT cloud computing on-demand. In other words, it is a web
service accessed without special permission or any help. The only requirement
is Internet access.
3. Based on the request, users can scale the service according to their needs. Fast
and flexible means you can expand storage space, edit software settings, and
work with the number of users. Due to this characteristic, it is possible to
provide deep computing power and storage.
4. Cloud Computing implies the pooling of resources. It influences increased
collaboration and builds close connections between users.
5. As the number of IoT devices and automation in use grows, security concerns
emerge. Cloud solutions provide companies with reliable authentication and
encryption protocols.
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6. Finally, IoT cloud computing is convenient because you get exactly as much
from the service as you pay. This means that costs vary depending on use: the
provider measures your usage statistics. A growing network of objects with IP
addresses is needed to connect to the Internet and exchange data between the
components of the network.
7. It is important to note that cloud architecture must be well-designed since
reliability, security, economy, and performance optimization depends upon it.
Using well-designed CI/CD pipelines, structured services, and sandboxed
environments results in a secure environment and agile development.

CHALLENGES
The main challenges of adopting an IoT cloud are as follows:
1. Data breaches and security
Security challenges and data breaches are estimated to be the topmost
concern with cloud computing. If there is a bug within the cloud computing
provider‘s network, there is the possibility of hackers getting access not only to your
data, but to all other subscribers‘ information.
2. Internet connectivity
You need internet connectivity to have access to the cloud. If there is an
internet outage, you will not be able to access your data.
3. Migration
Whether you are transitioning toward cloud computing, or you are migrating
from one cloud provider to another, transferring huge amount of data can be time-
consuming, and prone to human error. However, businesses can leverage
automation solutions such as RPA bots or workload automation to automate data
migration processes and avoid human intervention and errors.
4. Costs
The initial cost of an IoT cloud storage base can be costly, especially if the
company requires a private domain.
For example, Google Cloud‘s pricing plan for an enterprise requiring 5
TB or more of capacity would cost $2,250 a month.
5. Environmental concerns
Even though cloud computing can reduce carbon footprint, that does not
mean it‘s a completely green platform.

5.1. Cooling costs

Although there‘s no on-premise hardware for the users, cloud providers do
need to keep their computing facilities running 24/7. And these data centers need to
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be kept cool. And cooling typically accounts for 40% of total energy consumption
(80% if centers are located in warm environments). The latter becomes more
worrying when we consider that most of these centers generating clouds
are offshore, and thus, more susceptible to environmental damage.
5.2. Floods
Over 95% of the world‘s communications traffic is carried by a single under-
sea fiber cable. With the rising sea-levels and the resulting risks of flooding, the
cables are becoming more vulnerable to disruption and increasingly dangerous to
aquatic life by affecting the stability of the sea beds.
5.3. Rising sea temperatures
Related to the previous point is the idea of underwater data centers. These
centers are economical because their heat is released into the ocean. However, this
raises oceans‘ temperature and exacerbates the effects of climate change.

SELECTION OF CLOUD SERVICE PROVIDER

List of Top 10 Cloud Platform Service Providers in 2024
1. Amazon Web Services (AWS)
2. Microsoft Azure
3. Google Cloud Platform (GCP)
4. Alibaba Cloud
5. Oracle Cloud
6. IBM Cloud (Kyndryl)
7. Tencent Cloud
8. OVHcloud
9. DigitalOcean
10. Linode (owned by Akamai)

1. Amazon Web Services (AWS)

Launched in 2006, AWS is the best cloud service provider leading in the market.
It becomes a major player in AI, database, machine learning, 5G cloud, multi-cloud
and serverless deployments. AWS operates in 20 geographical regions across the
world. The company reported revenue of 9 billion dollars in Q3 2019.
 AWS offers 175 fully-featured services to meet any kind of business
requirements. These services are database storage, computing power,
networking and many more
 You can virtually host any applications, including networks like firewall,
DNS, Load balancing, or even you can have your virtual private cloud.
 AWS applications are scalable, flexible, reliable, secure and trustworthy.
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  Easy sign-up and fast deployment. The best thing is there is no upfront cost
and you pay for what you use. It also offers a FREE tier for some of their
popular services.
2. Microsoft Azure
Microsoft Azure was launched in 2010 as Windows Azure, and later in 2014,
it was renamed, Microsoft Azure. It was launched years after the release of AWS
and Google cloud but still, it is the fastest-growing cloud and giving tough
competition to AWS and other cloud service providers. There is a five-year
partnership between Microsoft and Disney. In this partnership, the new method
will be developed to move production content to the cloud. Azure has 54 data
centers regions across the world available in 140 countries.
 Azure offers hundreds of services including AI + Machine
Learning, Analytics, Blockchain, Compute, Containers, Databases, Developer
Tools, DevOps, Identity, Integration, Internet of Things, Management, Media,
Microsoft Azure Stack, Migration, Mixed Reality, Mobile, Networking,
Security, Storage, Web, and Windows Virtual Desktop.
 Microsoft Azure is available with public or private cloud service or hybrid
cloud service consists of both private and public.
 Scalability, consistency, security, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness.
 Azure supports various operating systems, databases, tools, programming
languages and frameworks.
 It‘s easier for users to move their application or framework without any
hassle and recoding them again.
 24/7 cooperative team paying attention to their customers. A free trial
version of Microsoft Azure is available for 30 days.
3. Google Cloud Platform (GCP)
Google cloud platform(GCP) is another set of solutions for users to get the
benefit of cloud services. If you are serious about latency to build performance-
oriented applications then Google cloud is the best choice because it includes GCP
& G Suite. According to Gardner, the public cloud services market is forecast to
grow 17% in 2020 to $266.4 billion, up from $227.8 billion in 2019. Google cloud
has a firm grip over the banking and finance sector. eBay, Snapdeal, and
HSBC are some major clients of Google. In July 2019 VMWare also announced a
partnership with Google cloud which is the biggest collaboration of last year. As of
Q1 2020, Google Cloud Platform is available in 22 regions, 61 zones and 200+
countries.

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  It offers a variety of products and services including AI and Machine
Learning, API Management, Compute, Containers, Data Analytics,
Databases, Developer Tools, Healthcare and Life Scienctes, Hybrid and
Multi-cloud, Internet of Things, Management Tools, Media and Gaming,
Migration, Networking, Security and Identity, Serverless Computing,
and Storage.
 Google products are also offered in the cloud, including G Suite, Google
Maps Platform, Google Hardware, Google Identity, Chrome Enterprise,
Android Enterprise, Apigee, Firebase, and Orbitera.
4. Alibaba Cloud
Alibaba Cloud, also known as Aliyun, is the cloud computing arm of Alibaba
Group, one of the world‘s largest e-commerce and technology conglomerates based
in China. It offers a comprehensive suite of cloud computing services to support
businesses worldwide, including:
Market Presence:
 Currently holding the third largest global market share in cloud
computing, following Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure.
 Dominates the Asian market, particularly in China.
Service Portfolio:
 Offers a diverse and comprehensive suite of cloud solutions, including:
 Compute: Elastic Compute Service (ECS) for virtual machines, Serverless
Computing, Container Services.
 Storage: Object Storage Service (OSS), File Storage Service (NAS), Block
Storage Service (ESSD).
 Networking: Virtual Private Cloud (VPC), Elastic Network Interface
(ENI), Global Accelerator.
 Databases: Alibaba Cloud Database Service (RDS), NoSQL databases, Graph
Database.
 AI & ML: AI Platform, pre-trained models, Big Data Analytics.
 Security & Identity: Security Center, Anti-DDoS, Key Management Service.
 Developer Tools: API Gateway, Serverless Application Model
(SAM), CodePipeline.
 Industry-Specific Solutions: Tailored solutions for
retail, manufacturing, finance, and more.
5. Oracle Cloud
Oracle Cloud is an ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) based cloud service
that helps you to build, deploy, and manage workloads in the cloud or on-
71
premises. Oracle has approximately 4, 30, 000 huge numbers of clients around the
world. The total revenue generated by Oracle was around 6.81 billion dollars in
2019.
 Oracle IaaS offerings are Compute, Storage, Networking, Governance,
Database, Load Balancing, DNS Monitoring, Ravello, and FastConnect.IaaS
help to run any kind of workload of an Enterprise.
 Oracle PaaS offerings are Data Management, Application Development,
Integration, Business Analytics, Security, Management, and Content and
Enterprise. PaaS helps developers to develop, connect, secure and share data
across the applications.
 Oracle SaaS offerings are CX, HCM, ERP, SCM, EPM, IoT, Analytics, Data,
and Blockchain Applications. SaaS provides a complete data-driven and
secure cloud environment.
 The best thing about this cloud services provider is its chatbot option which
can help customers 24/7 whenever they face difficulties.
 Data analytics by users that help decision-makers in planning for the
company‘s financial condition.
 Secure and better visibility to unsanctioned apps and protects against
sophisticated cyberattacks.
 Payment according to the usage.
6. IBM Cloud (Kyndryl)
Developed by IBM, this cloud service offers another set of solutions to the
users to deploy their applications on the cloud. It offers IaaS, SaaS, and PaaS
services via public, private, hybrid and multi-cloud models. IBM generated 5.3
billion dollars of revenues according to Q3 2019 which is 6.4 percent higher than
the previous quarter. IBM cloud offers approximately 170 products and services to
meet the customer‘s business demands. IBM‘s best bets come in the form of
the Internet of Things, Cognitive Computing and Blockchain. Recently IBM
has Red Hat, for the delivery of hybrid solutions efficiently. The cloud service is
helping home appliance manufacturers, retailers, and medical supply businesses.
 Computer Network, Storage, Cloud Packs, Management, Security, Database,
Analytics, AI, IoT, Mobile, Dev Tools, Blockchain, Integration, Migration,
Private Cloud, and VMware are some services offered by IBM cloud.
 Freedom to select and unite the desired tools, data models and delivery
models in designing/creating the next-generation services or applications.
 Users can manage their applications in many coding languages such as
Java, Python, Swift, Php, etc.
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  IBM AI helps with its multifunctional ability such as text to speech, detecting
language, machine learning, classification of natural language, etc.
 Costs depends on the usage but free in its lite mode with free access to more
than 40 services by IBM Cloud.
 You can incorporate highly performing cloud communications and
services into your IT environment with the help of IBM Bluemix Cloud
platform.
7. Tencent Cloud
DigitalOcean is a well-known cloud hosting provider that currently holds
the fourth largest global market share in cloud computing, following Alibaba
Cloud, AWS, and Microsoft Azure. It has a strong presence in China and Southeast
Asia, with growing international reach.

Service Portfolio:
 Offers a comprehensive range of cloud solutions, including:
 Compute: Cloud Virtual Machines (CVM) for traditional VMs, Serverless
Functions (SCF) for serverless computing, and Container Orchestration
(TKE) for managing containerized applications.
 Storage: Cloud Object Storage (COS) for highly scalable object
storage, Cloud Block Storage (CBS) for high-performance block storage, and
Cloud File Storage (CFS) for network-attached storage.
 Networking: Cloud Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) for creating isolated virtual
networks, Cloud Private Line (CPL) for dedicated connections, and Global
Transit Gateway (GTW) for managing complex network environments.
 Databases: Cloud Database Service (TDSQL) for managed databases, various
managed NoSQL databases, and Data Aggregation Storage (DAS) for big data
analytics.
 AI & ML: Tencent AI Platform provides tools for building, training, and
deploying AI models, and offers pre-trained models for various tasks.
 Security & Identity: Cloud Security (Tencent Cloud Security) offers various
security solutions, including Anti-DDoS protection, Web Application Firewall
(WAF), and Key Management Service (KMS).
 Developer Tools: API Gateway for managing APIs, Serverless Application
Model (SAM) for developing serverless applications, and Cloud Code for
integrated development and deployment.
 Industry-Specific Solutions: Tailored solutions for
gaming, media, healthcare, finance, and more.
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8. OVHcloud
Digital Ocean is a well-known cloud hosting provider that currently holds
the sixth largest global market share in cloud computing, following Alibaba
Cloud, AWS, Microsoft Azure, Tencent Cloud, and Google Cloud Platform.
Service Portfolio:
 Offers a diverse range of cloud solutions, including:
 Compute: Dedicated servers (bare metal), Public Cloud with various VM
options, Web Hosting solutions, and Private Cloud for on-premises
infrastructure.
 Storage: Dedicated storage solutions, Public Cloud Object Storage, Backup
solutions, and High Availability storage.
 Networking: Dedicated network solutions, Public Cloud Virtual Private
Cloud (vRack), and managed network services.
 Databases: Managed database solutions for various engines like
MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB.
 AI & ML: AI Marketplace with pre-trained models and solutions, and access
to various AI and ML frameworks.
 Security & Identity: Security solutions for various needs, including anti-
DDoS protection, web application firewall, and vulnerability management.
 Developer Tools: Various DevOps tools, API Gateway, and code repositories.
 Industry-Specific Solutions: Tailored solutions for healthcare, media, e-
commerce, and more.
9. Digital Ocean
Digital Ocean is a well-known cloud hosting provider that primarily caters
to startups, small and medium-sized businesses (SMBs), and individual
developers, holding a smaller market share compared to larger cloud providers.
Known for its strong presence in developer communities.
Service Portfolio:
 Offers a focused set of essential cloud solutions, including:
 Compute: Droplets (virtual machines) with various configurations and
operating systems.
 Storage: Block storage options for data persistence.
 Networking: Private networking capabilities and additional networking add-
ons.
 Databases: Managed databases for popular engines like
MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MariaDB.

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  Containerization: Managed Kubernetes platform for deploying containerized
applications.
 App Platform: Serverless platform for deploying web applications without
managing infrastructure.
 Marketplace: Additional tools and services from third-party partners.
10. Linode (owned by Akamai)
Linode, which is now part of Akamai, is a cloud platform primarily caters
to developers, startups, and SMBs, holding a smaller market share compared to
major cloud providers.Known for its strong developer community and focus on
simplicity.
Service Portfolio:
Offers a focused set of cloud hosting solutions, including:
 Nanode and Linode: Virtual machines (VMs) with various configurations and
operating systems.
 LKE: Managed Kubernetes platform for deploying containerized applications.
 Managed Databases: Managed options for popular databases like
MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB.
 Block Storage: Additional storage options for data persistence.
 Marketplace: Additional tools and services from third-party partners.

INTRODUCTION TO FOG COMPUTING

Fog Computing is the term coined by Cisco that refers to extending cloud
computing to an edge of the enterprise‘s network. Thus, it is also known as Edge
computing or fogging. It facilitates the operation of computing, storage, and
networking services between end devices and computing data centers.

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  The devices comprising the fog infrastructure are known as fog nodes.
 In fog computing, all the storage capabilities, computation capabilities, data
along with the applications are placed between the cloud and the physical
host.
 All these functionalities are placed more towards the host. This makes
processing faster as it is done almost at the place where data is created.
 It improves the efficiency of the system and is also used to ensure increased
security.
History of fog computing
The term fog computing was coined by Cisco in January 2014. This was
because fog is referred to as clouds that are close to the ground in the same way
fog computing was related to the nodes which are present near the nodes
somewhere in between the host and the cloud. It was intended to bring the
computational capabilities of the system close to the host machine. After this
gained a little popularity, IBM, in 2015, coined a similar term called ―Edge
Computing‖.
When to use fog computing?
Fog Computing can be used in the following scenarios:
 It is used when only selected data is required to send to the cloud. This
selected data is chosen for long-term storage and is less frequently accessed
by the host.
 It is used when the data should be analyzed within a fraction of seconds i.e
Latency should be low.
 It is used whenever a large number of services need to be provided over a
large area at different geographical locations.
 Devices that are subjected to rigorous computations and processing‘s must
use fog computing.
 Real-world examples where fog computing is used are in IoT devices (eg. Car-
to-Car Consortium, Europe), Devices with Sensors, Cameras (IIoT-Industrial
Internet of Things), etc.
Advantages of fog computing
 This approach reduces the amount of data that needs to be sent to the
cloud.
 Since the distance to be traveled by the data is reduced, it results in saving
network bandwidth.

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  Reduces the response time of the system.
 It improves the overall security of the system as the data resides close to the
host.
 It provides better privacy as industries can perform analysis on their data
locally.

Disadvantages of fog computing

 Congestion may occur between the host and the fog node due to increased
traffic (heavy data flow).
 Power consumption increases when another layer is placed between the host
and the cloud.
 Scheduling tasks between host and fog nodes along with fog nodes and the
cloud is difficult.
 Data management becomes tedious as along with the data stored and
computed, the transmission of data involves encryption-decryption too which
in turn release data.

Applications of fog computing

 It can be used to monitor and analyze the patients‘ condition. In case of
emergency, doctors can be alerted.
 It can be used for real-time rail monitoring as for high-speed trains we want
as little latency as possible.
 It can be used for gas and oils pipeline optimization. It generates a huge
amount of data and it is inefficient to store all data into the cloud for
analysis.

CLOUD COMPUTING: SECURITY ASPECTS

Cloud computing which is one of the most demanding technologies of the
current time, starting from small to large organizations have started using cloud
computing services. Where there are different types of cloud deployment models
are available and cloud services are provided as per requirement like that
internally and externally security is maintained to keep the cloud system safe.
Cloud computing security or cloud security is an important concern which refers to
the act of protecting cloud environments, data, information and applications
against unauthorized access, DDOS attacks, malwares, hackers and other similar
attacks. Community Cloud : These allow to a limited set of organizations or
employees to access a shared cloud computing service environment.
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Planning of security in Cloud Computing:
As security is a major concern in cloud implementation, so an organization have
to plan for security based on some factors like below represents the three main
factors on which planning of cloud security depends.

 Resources that can be moved to the cloud and test its sensitivity risk are
picked.
 The type of cloud is to be considered.
 The risk in the deployment of the cloud depends on the types of cloud and
service models.
Types of Cloud Computing Security Controls:
There are 4 types of cloud computing security controls i.e.

1. Deterrent Controls: Deterrent controls are designed to block nefarious attacks

on a cloud system. These come in handy when there are insider attackers.
2. Preventive Controls: Preventive controls make the system resilient to attacks
by eliminating vulnerabilities in it.
3. Detective Controls: It identifies and reacts to security threats and control.
Some examples of detective control software are Intrusion detection software
and network security monitoring tools.
4. Corrective Controls: In the event of a security attack these controls are
activated. They limit the damage caused by the attack.
Importance of cloud security:
For the organizations making their transition to cloud, cloud security is an
essential factor while choosing a cloud provider. The attacks are getting stronger
day by day and so the security needs to keep up with it. For this purpose it is
essential to pick a cloud provider who offers the best security and is customized
with the organization‘s infrastructure. Cloud security has a lot of benefits –

 Centralized security: Centralized security results in centralizing protection. As

managing all the devices and endpoints is not an easy task cloud security helps
in doing so. This results in enhancing traffic analysis and web filtering which
means less policy and software updates.
 Reduced costs : Investing in cloud computing and cloud security results in less
expenditure in hardware and also less manpower in administration
 Reduced Administration: It makes it easier to administer the organization and
does not have manual security configuration and constant security updates.
 Reliability: These are very reliable and the cloud can be accessed from
anywhere with any device with proper authorization.
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 When we are thinking about cloud security it includes various types of security
like access control for authorized access, network segmentation for maintaining
isolated data, encryption for encoded data transfer, vulnerability check for
patching vulnerable areas, security monitoring for keeping eye on various security
attacks and disaster recovery for backup and recovery during data loss.

There are different types of security techniques which are implemented to make
the cloud computing system more secure such as SSL (Secure Socket Layer)
Encryption, Multi Tenancy based Access Control, Intrusion Detection System,
firewalls, penetration testing, tokenization, VPN (Virtual Private Networks), and
avoiding public internet connections and many more techniques.

But the thing is not so simple how we think, even implementation of number of
security techniques there is always security issues are involved for the cloud
system. As cloud system is managed and accessed over internet so a lot of
challenges arise during maintaining a secure cloud. Some cloud security
challenges are

 Control over cloud data

 Mis configuration
 Ever changing workload
 Access Management
 Disaster recovery

DATA ANALYTICS: INTRODUCTION

Data analytics is an important field that involves the process of collecting,
processing, and interpreting data to uncover insights and help in making
decisions. Data analytics is the practice of examining raw data to identify trends,
draw conclusions, and extract meaningful information. This involves various
techniques and tools to process and transform data into valuable insights that can
be used for decision-making.

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What is Data Analytics?
In this new digital world, data is being generated in an enormous amount
which opens new paradigms. As we have high computing power and a large
amount of data we can use this data to help us make data-driven decision making.
The main benefits of data-driven decisions are that they are made up by
observing past trends which have resulted in beneficial results.
In short, we can say that data analytics is the process of manipulating data
to extract useful trends and hidden patterns that can help us derive valuable
insights to make business predictions.
Understanding Data Analytics
Data analytics encompasses a wide array of techniques for analyzing data to
gain valuable insights that can enhance various aspects of operations. By
scrutinizing information, businesses can uncover patterns and metrics that might
otherwise go unnoticed, enabling them to optimize processes and improve overall
efficiency.
For instance, in manufacturing, companies collect data on machine runtime,
downtime, and work queues to analyze and improve workload planning, ensuring
machines operate at optimal levels.
Beyond production optimization, data analytics is utilized in diverse sectors.
Gaming firms utilize it to design reward systems that engage players effectively,
while content providers leverage analytics to optimize content placement and
presentation, ultimately driving user engagement.

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Types of Data Analytics
There are four major types of data analytics:
1. Predictive (forecasting)
2. Descriptive (business intelligence and data mining)
3. Prescriptive (optimization and simulation)
4. Diagnostic analytics

Predictive Analytics
Predictive analytics turn the data into valuable, actionable information.
predictive analytics uses data to determine the probable outcome of an event or a
likelihood of a situation occurring. Predictive analytics holds a variety of statistical
techniques from modeling, machine learning, data mining, and game theory that
analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about a future
event. Techniques that are used for predictive analytics are:
 Linear Regression
 Time Series Analysis and Forecasting
 Data Mining
Descriptive Analytics
Descriptive analytics looks at data and analyze past event for insight as to
how to approach future events. It looks at past performance and understands the
performance by mining historical data to understand the cause of success or
failure in the past. Almost all management reporting such as sales, marketing,
operations, and finance uses this type of analysis.
The descriptive model quantifies relationships in data in a way that is often
used to classify customers or prospects into groups. Unlike a predictive model that

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focuses on predicting the behavior of a single customer, Descriptive
analytics identifies many different relationships between customer and product.
Common examples of Descriptive analytics are company reports that provide
historic reviews like:
 Data Queries
 Reports
 Descriptive Statistics
 Data dashboard
Prescriptive Analytics
Prescriptive Analytics automatically synthesize big data, mathematical
science, business rule, and machine learning to make a prediction and then
suggests a decision option to take advantage of the prediction.
Prescriptive analytics goes beyond predicting future outcomes by also
suggesting action benefits from the predictions and showing the decision maker
the implication of each decision option. Prescriptive Analytics not only anticipates
what will happen and when to happen but also why it will happen. Further,
Prescriptive Analytics can suggest decision options on how to take advantage of a
future opportunity or mitigate a future risk and illustrate the implication of each
decision option.
For example, Prescriptive Analytics can benefit healthcare strategic planning
by using analytics to leverage operational and usage data combined with data of
external factors such as economic data, population demography, etc.
Diagnostic Analytics
In this analysis, we generally use historical data over other data to answer
any question or for the solution of any problem. We try to find any dependency and
pattern in the historical data of the particular problem.
For example, companies go for this analysis because it gives a great insight
into a problem, and they also keep detailed information about their disposal
otherwise data collection may turn out individual for every problem and it will be
very time-consuming. Common techniques used for Diagnostic Analytics are:
 Data discovery
 Data mining
 Correlations

DATA ANALYSIS

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 As the internet‘s usage continues to grow among individuals and businesses,
there‘s an exponential increase in both data consumption and production. As of
the close of 2020, it was anticipated that nearly 30.73 billion IoT devices would be
in operation. The Internet of Thing represents a digital ecosystem where various
elements — human resources, technologies, networks, and tools interact and
connect to achieve shared objectives.
IoT analytics refers to collect process and analyze data that are generated by IoT
devices. As more devices are connected in the internet, it generates a large amount
of data that provides a valuable insight and provides valuable information from
that particular data. IoT can be the subset of big data and it consists of
heterogeneous streams that combined and transformed to correct information.
The Significance of Data Analytics in IoT
 Data analytics is a process of analyzing unstructured data to give meaningful
conclusions. Numerous of the methods and processes of data analytics are
automated and algorithms designed to process raw data for humans to
understand.
 IoT devices give large volumes of precious data that are used for multiple
applications. The main goal is to use this data in a comprehensive and precise
way so that it‘s organized, and structured into a further usable format.
 A Data analytics uses methods to process large data sets of varying sizes and
characteristics; it provides meaningful patterns, and extracts useful outputs
from raw data.
 Manually analyzing these large data sets is veritably time consuming, resource
intensive, and expensive. Data analytics is used for saving time, energy,
resources and gives precious information in the form of statistics, patterns, and
trends.
 Organizations use this information to improve their decision making processes,
apply further effective strategies, and achieve desired outcomes.
How Does Employing a Data Analyst in IoT Benefit Businesses?
Data analysis gives substantial value to their associations by interpreting,
analyzing, and presenting findings grounded on specific data sets. In the
environment of IoT, data analysis offers precious data entry services that enable
businesses to harness the potential of IoT alongside effective data analytics
methods, driving growth and competitive advantage.
Generally, businesses matriculate the services of data analysis to streamline
primary operations related to the optimal application of precious datasets. Data
analysis helps in sifting through expansive data clusters, recognizing user
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patterns, and structuring valuable insights into a comprehensible format for the
business platoon‘s interpretation and operation.
Well- organized and structured data yields perceptivity into consumer
preferences and choices, enabling businesses to boost profit and gain a competitive
edge. A data analyst‘s primary ideal in IoT is to identify ongoing industry trends
and offer competitive analysis. In this capacity, data analysts take over seven
pivotal responsibilities and roles within organizations.
The 7 Roles of Data Analysts in IoT
The roles of data analysts within organizations are contingent on their
knowledge, skills, and expertise. Here are seven prominent roles that data analysts
fulfill:
1. Determining Organizational Goals: A data analyst‘s most crucial part is
helping a business define its primary organizational objectives. This original
step is vital for setting a business apart, outperforming challengers, and
attracting the right audience. Data analysts collaborate with staff and team
members to monitor, track, gather, and analyze data, necessitating access to all
available data used within the organization.
2. Data Mining: Data analysts gather and mine data from internet sources and
company databases, conducting analysis and research. This research helps
businesses understand market dynamics, current trends, competitor activities,
and consumer preferences.
3. Data Cleaning: Data analysts play an essential part in data cleansing, a critical
aspect of data preparation. Data cleansing involves correcting, identifying, and
analyzing raw data, significantly improving decision making by providing
accurate and precise data.
4. Data Analysis: Data analysts offer data entry services that include data
analysis. They employ ways to efficiently explore data, excerpt relevant
information, and give accurate answers to business-specific questions. Data
analysts bring statistical and logical tools to the table, enhancing a business‘s
competitive advantage.
5. Recognizing Patterns and Identifying Trends: Data analysts excel in
recognizing trends within industries and making sense of vast datasets. Their
expertise in identifying industry trends enables businesses to enhance
performance, estimate strategy effectiveness, and more.
6. Reporting: Data analysts convert essential insights from raw data into reports
that drive advancements in business operations. Reporting is vital for

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 monitoring online business performance and safeguarding against data misuse.
It serves as the primary means to measure overall business performance.
7. Data and System Maintenance: Data analysts also contribute to maintaining
data systems and databases, ensuring data coherence, availability, and storage
align with organizational requirements. Data analysts employ ways to enhance
data gathering, structuring, and evaluation across various datasets.

UNIT V
APPLICATION BUILDING WITH IOT: INTRODUCTION
The most important characteristic of humans is that we can work with each
other as team and gain knowledge from each other. What if this was true for
machines as well? What if they could interact with each other and share
information and data? That would lead to a truly connected world! And that is the
central concept of the Internet of Things.
This concept just means a connected network of various devices that can
collect data and share it with each other to obtain meaningful insights from the
data. There are various applications of IoT in the world and these are so diverse
that you cannot imagine.
There are endless possibilities for having an interconnected web of ―things‖
that can interact with each other over the internet. IoT can be used for all types of
applications ranging from connecting all the devices in your house to create a
smart home or even connecting all the government and civic services in a city to
create a smart city! Who knows, we may even have a smart world one day!
SMART PERISHABLE TRACKING WITH IOT AND SENSORS
Food hygiene and safety is a major concern for individuals and businesses
around the world. Poor food safety practices can lead to food borne illnesses, which
can have serious health consequences for people who consume contaminated food.
In addition, businesses that sell contaminated food can suffer from financial losses
due to product recalls and legal action. To address these issues, it is important to
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develop effective food safety management systems that can help prevent food
contamination and ensure that perishable foods are properly stored and handled.
One promising approach to improving food hygiene and safety management is
the use of Internet of Things (IoT) and deep learning technologies. These
technologies can provide real-time monitoring of perishable food products, allowing
businesses to detect and address potential issues before they lead to serious
problems. In this research article, we propose a perishable food monitoring model
based on IoT and deep learning to improve food hygiene and safety management.
The proposed model utilizes sensors and other IoT devices to collect data on
the storage and handling of perishable foods, which is then, analyzed using deep
learning algorithms to identify potential problems and suggest appropriate
interventions.
Food hygiene and safety is a major concern for individuals and businesses
around the world. Poor food safety practices can lead to food borne illnesses, which
can have serious health consequences for people who consume contaminated food.
In addition, businesses that sell contaminated food can suffer from financial losses
due to product recalls and legal action. To address these issues, it is important to
develop effective food safety management systems that can help prevent food
contamination and ensure that perishable foods are properly stored and handled.
One promising approach to improving food hygiene and safety management is
the use of Internet of Things (IoT) and deep learning technologies. These
technologies can provide real-time monitoring of perishable food products, allowing
businesses to detect and address potential issues before they lead to serious
problems. In this research article, we propose a perishable food monitoring model
based on IoT and deep learning to improve food hygiene and safety management.
The proposed model utilizes sensors and other IoT devices to collect data on the
storage and handling of perishable foods, which is then analyzed using deep
learning algorithms to identify potential problems and suggest appropriate
interventions
. IoT and deep learning technologies have the potential to revolutionize the
way that businesses manage food safety and hygiene. IoT devices, such as sensors
and cameras, can continuously collect data on the storage and handling of
perishable foods, providing real-time information on the condition of the products.
This data can be used to identify potential issues and trigger alerts when necessary.
For example, sensors can detect changes in temperature, humidity, and other
factors that can affect the quality of perishable foods, allowing businesses to take
timely action to prevent contamination or deterioration. Deep learning algorithms
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can analyze the data collected by IoT devices and identify patterns and trends that
may indicate potential problems. For example, a deep learning model could be
trained to recognize patterns of temperature fluctuations that are indicative of food
spoilage, allowing businesses to take preventative action before the food becomes
unsafe to consume. In addition, deep learning algorithms can be used to predict the
shelf life of perishable foods based on various factors such as storage conditions and
handling practices, helping businesses to manage their inventory more effectively
and reduce waste.
There are a number of studies that have explored the use of IoT and deep
learning technologies for food safety and hygiene management. Which proposed a
food safety monitoring system based on IoT and machine learning. The system used
sensors to collect data on temperature, humidity, and other factors, and a machine
learning algorithm to identify patterns and trends that may indicate potential
problems. The study found that the system was able to accurately detect deviations
from normal patterns and trigger alerts, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of
food safety management. Another example is which proposed a deep learning-based
approach to predicting the shelf life of perishable foods.
The study used a deep learning model to analyze data on storage conditions,
handling practices, and other factors, and found that the model was able to
accurately predict the shelf life of various types of perishable foods. The study also
found that the model was able to identify important factors that influence the shelf
life of perishable foods, such as temperature and humidity, allowing businesses to
make informed decisions about how to store and handle these products.

SMART HEALTHCARE
IoT devices offer a number of new opportunities for healthcare professionals to
monitor patients, as well as for patients to monitor themselves. By extension, the
varieties of wearable IoT devices provide an array of benefits and challenges, for
healthcare providers and their patients alike.
1. Remote patient monitoring
Remote patient monitoring is the most common application of IoT devices for
healthcare. IoT devices can automatically collect health metrics like heart rate, blood
pressure, temperature, and more from patients who are not physically present in a
healthcare facility, eliminating the need for patients to travel to the providers, or for
patients to collect it themselves.
When an IoT device collects patient data, it forwards the data to a software
application where healthcare professionals and/or patients can view it. Algorithms

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may be used to analyze the data in order to recommend treatments or generate
alerts. For example, an IoT sensor that detects a patient‘s unusually low heart rate
may generate an alert so that healthcare professionals can intervene.
A major challenge with remote patient monitoring devices is ensuring that the
highly personal data that these IoT devices collect is secure and private.
2. Glucose monitoring
For the more than 30 million Americans with diabetes, glucose monitoring has
traditionally been difficult. Not only is it inconvenient to have to check glucose levels
and manually record results, but doing so reports a patient‘s glucose levels only at
the exact time the test is provided. If levels fluctuate widely, periodic testing may not
be sufficient to detect a problem.
IoT devices can help address these challenges by providing continuous,
automatic monitoring of glucose levels in patients. Glucose monitoring devices
eliminate the need to keep records manually, and they can alert patients when
glucose levels are problematic.
3. Heart-rate monitoring
Like glucose, monitoring heart rates can be challenging, even for patients who
are present in healthcare facilities. Periodic heart rate checks don‘t guard against
rapid fluctuations in heart rates, and conventional devices for continuous cardiac
monitoring used in hospitals require patients to be attached to wired machines
constantly, impairing their mobility.
Today, a variety of small IoT devices are available for heart rate
monitoring, freeing patients to move around as they like while ensuring that their
hearts are monitored continuously. Guaranteeing ultra-accurate results remains
somewhat of a challenge, but most modern devices can deliver accuracy rates of
about 90 percent or better.
4. Hand hygiene monitoring
Traditionally, there hasn‘t been a good way to ensure that providers and
patients inside a healthcare facility washed their hands properly in order to
minimize the risk of spreading contagion. Today, many hospitals and other health
care operations use IoT devices to remind people to sanitize their hands when they
enter hospital rooms. The devices can even give instructions on how best to sanitize
to mitigate a particular risk for a particular patient.
A major shortcoming is that these devices can only remind people to clean
their hands; they can‘t do it for them. Still, research suggests that these devices can
reduce infection rates by more than 60 percent in hospitals.

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5. Depression and mood monitoring
Information about depression symptoms and patients‘ general mood is
another type of data that has traditionally been difficult to collect continuously.
Healthcare providers might periodically ask patients how they are feeling, but were
unable to anticipate sudden mood swings. And, often, patients don‘t accurately
report their feelings.
―Mood-aware‖ IoT devices can address these challenges. By collecting and
analyzing data such as heart rate and blood pressure, devices can infer information
about a patient‘s mental state. Advanced IoT devices for mood monitoring can even
track data such as the movement of a patient‘s eyes.
The key challenge here is that metrics like these can‘t predict depression
symptoms or other causes for concern with complete accuracy. But neither can a
traditional in-person mental assessment.
6. Parkinson’s disease monitoring
In order to treat Parkinson‘s patients most effectively, healthcare providers
must be able to assess how the severity of their symptoms fluctuate through the
day.
IoT sensors promise to make this task much easier by continuously collecting
data about Parkinson‘s symptoms. At the same time, the devices give patients the
freedom to go about their lives in their own homes, instead of having to spend
extended periods in a hospital for observation.
7. Connected inhalers
Conditions such as asthma or COPD often involve attacks that come on
suddenly, with little warning. IoT-connected inhalers can help patients by
monitoring the frequency of attacks, as well as collecting data from the environment
to help healthcare providers understand what triggered an attack.
In addition, connected inhalers can alert patients when they leave inhalers at
home, placing them at risk of suffering an attack without their inhaler present, or
when they use the inhaler improperly.
8. Ingestible sensors
Collecting data from inside the human body is typically a messy and highly
disruptive affair. No enjoys having a camera or probe stuck into their digestive tract,
for example. With ingestible sensors, it‘s possible to collect information from
digestive and other systems in a much less invasive way. They provide insights into
stomach PH levels, for instance, or help pinpoint the source of internal bleeding.

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 These devices must be small enough to be swallowed easily. They must also be
able to dissolve or pass through the human body cleanly on their own. Several
companies are hard at work on ingestible sensors that meet these criteria.
9. Connected contact lenses
Smart contact lenses provide another opportunity for collecting healthcare
data in a passive, non-intrusive way. They could also, incidentally, include micro
cameras that allow wearers effectively to take pictures with their eyes, which is
probably why companies like Google have patented connected contact lenses.
Whether they‘re used to improve health outcomes or for other purposes, smart
lenses promise to turn human eyes into a powerful tool for digital interactions.
10. Robotic surgery
By deploying small Internet-connected robots inside the human
body, surgeons can perform complex procedures that would be difficult to manage
using human hands. At the same time, robotic surgeries performed by small IoT
devices can reduce the size of incisions required to perform surgery, leading to a less
invasive process, and faster healing for patients.
These devices must be small enough and reliable enough to perform surgeries
with minimal disruption. They must also be able to interpret complex conditions
inside bodies in order to make the right decisions about how to proceed during a
surgery. But IoT robots are already being used for surgery, showing that these
challenges can be adequately addressed.

IOT BASED APPLICATION TO MONITOR WATER QUALITY

Drinking water is more precious and valuable for all the human beings so the
quality of water should be monitored in real time. Some water quality detection
parameters are temperature, pH, turbidity, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), ammonia
nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, various metal ions and so on.
The most common method to detect these parameters is to collect samples
manually and then send them to laboratory for detecting and analyzing. This
method wastes too much man power and material resource, and has the limitations
of the samples collecting, long-time analyzing, the aging of experiment equipment
and other issues.
Sensor is an ideal detecting device to solve these problems. It can convert
sensor information into electrical signals. It can easily transfer process, transform
and control signals, and has many special advantages such as good selectivity, high
sensitivity, and fast response speed and so on. According to these characteristics
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and advantages of sensors, monitoring of Turbidity, PH & Temperature of Water is
designed and developed.

The measured values from the sensors can be processed by the core controller
finally, the sensor data can be viewed on internet using IOT environment using
Zigbee protocol and data from the core micro controller which can be interfaced with
multiple sensors at a given time.

This proposed block diagram consist number of devices having respective

sensors, and the collected data from all devices are gathered at the core controller
via Zigbee protocol IEEE 802.15.4. Taking close look of the device, which shown in
figure.1. The device consist several sensors for measuring water quality parameter
such as pH, turbidity, water level, temperature. The data of sensors are not in a
proper manner for sending them directly to the core controller using Zigbee protocol.
So, the microcontroller is introduced in a proposed system for getting data
from sensors and processes on them to make compatible for Zigbee module. Zigbee
has low data rate, low power consumption, more node density that makes it suitable
for sensor networking in the proposed system. A Zigbee module consists router
Zigbee, which located on all devices that transmit the processed data to the
coordinator Zigbee, which collects data from devices connected in the same network.
The router Zigbee and coordinator Zigbee are connected in same network
using a same PAN ID (personnel are network) for all Zigbee devices in the network.
The PAN ID provides the personal area network for wireless data communication for
sensor networking. Coordinator Zigbee is connected to the core controller, the core
controller manages data coming from different devices.

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 The core controller puts the data in a text file which is transmitted to the IOT
module. For transmitting data to the IOT, gateway is created on the core controller
using FTP (file transfer protocol) protocol. The brief introduction of IOT module is
discussed in further. In the proposed system, to monitor processed data on the
internet cloud computing technology is use which provides the personal local server.

In cloud computing, separate IP address is provided which make possible to

monitor data from anywhere in the world using the internet. To access that monitor
data and make system user-friendly browser application is introduced which work
on HTTP. So, by using browser application user can access and monitor the data
from all over the world.

SMART WAREHOUSE MONITORING

Smart warehouse monitoring system involves a matrix of many complex
machinery and equipment connected to the mains system. All these should be
installed at the right place to ensure optimum utilization of the systems.
These are some of the important components required for a smart warehouse
depending on the industry it operates in and the different problem it solves.

1. Surveillance Cameras
Video surveillance through cameras is the first and foremost step in the
security of any place be it house, hospital, shopping centre and warehouse. Cameras
nowadays, are evolved from just being devices of video capturing.
They are used to read the text, identify motion and heat and so on. Analogue
cameras are sort of obsolete now because they can only be connected to DVRs and
NVRs.
High tech IP cameras with HD capabilities are prevalent today which are
compatible with CMVRs also. Coupled with AI, these cameras can be programmed to
do any task virtually. For example, camera footage can be analyzed by AI to check
the clean or unclean status of an ATM.
Tasks like people counting, scanning vehicle number pates, checking the
availability of inventory and compliance of SOP becomes easy with smart
surveillance systems. Tracking of lost or misplaced shipments is also made effortless
by smart cameras.

2. Set of Sensors and Other Hardware

Wireless sensors are a great way to keep an eye on the enterprise‘s activities
without having to manually move anywhere. Sensors like LTH (light, temperature,
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humidity) helps in maintaining proper light and temperature.
Humidity and temperature can be very important factors for cold storage
warehouses where inventory needs to be in the correct environment and little
deviation in temperatures can spoil the products. Warehouse temperature
monitoring system is capable of detecting smoke and alerting in case a fire breaks
out. Motion sensors track the movement around.
Where as in certain industries air quality needs to be regularly checked to
avoid any ill effects. IoT and data from sensors together abolish the need to adjust
operations with changing environments manually.

3. Alarms Systems
In widespread warehouses, it‘s really difficult for individuals to know what‘s
happening everywhere. Alarm and hooters quickly notify if something bizarre
happens.

These warehouse monitoring solutions can be integrated with any security or

surveillance system. Like hooter goes on if temperature changes beyond a level or
motion sensor detect some unusual movement or glass break sensor detects any
forceful entry.

It quickly makes everyone aware of what‘s happening and timely action is

made possible. Smart alarm systems also have a feature of engaging or disengaging
the alarms with user‘s discretion, which makes them flexible to use without causing
any inconvenience.

The warehouse alarm system can also be paired with a smartphone to give
real-time alerts regardless of the place.

4. Cloud Storage
Cloud is the new generation storage preference. This is a smart storage option
for HD cameras which makes the task of storage, hassle-free. Compared to
traditional hard drives and DVRs, CMVRs are pretty flexible and cheaper to
maintain.
This eases one from changing drives to expand storage as simply bigger plans
can be subscribed in the case of cloud. All the data uploaded only can be easily
accessed and shared via the provided API.
As the cameras directly connect to the cloud via the internet, all the mess of
cables and wires is not a thing to be associated with it.

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5. Access Control System
There are certain sites in a warehouse which are restricted to be used by only
a few people. So there‘s always segregation of rooms within the warehouse. To
efficiently monitor that, sophisticated RFID locks or face or voice recognition
hardware is installed to have limited access.
This replaces the need for keys and also keeps an extensive record of traffic in
and out of that area. This guards certain valuable items or data against being stolen
and reduces wasteful movements.
These smart warehouse monitoring solutions can also be installed at loading
and unloading areas to permit only the called for vehicles. When installed at entry
and exit points gives the data of workforce present in the warehouse at any given
point.

6. Centralized Intercom System

A wireless or a wired intercom system installed across the warehouse let
managers and an employee communicate with each other and saves from traveling
to far areas in and around a warehouse. It gives managers the ability to unlock
doors, manage deliveries and dispatch shipments remotely even from off the
premises.

It can be integrated with security cameras in vast and noisy warehouses to

make communication much easier. It opens the remote management of inventory
and SOP adherence through communicating with the workforce.
An extensive network of intercoms all around the warehouse can make
controlling the warehouse from a single place possible as any task can be assigned
and protocol can be enforced without physically visiting the area.

7. Energy Management System

Energy bills are one of the main expenses for a warehouse. Due to the size of
the warehouse, even minimal improvements results in large amounts of savings in a
year. So, to run a warehouse profitably, managing energy costs is very essential.
Main factors that put load power consumption are unmonitored use of
lighting, heating-cooling systems, use of outdated electrical devices and appliances
running of even when not in use poor power factors also result in energy being
wasted.
The energy management system consists of several phase meters and sensors
embedded between the electrical circuits to track energy flows. This provides with
customized reports and data regarding energy used and trends. This smart system
is then capable of predicting future patterns and ways to efficiently manage current
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consumption.

8. Unified IoT Platform

Unified IoT Platform is certainly the most significant component, which
manages all the other components of a smart monitoring system. In a smart
warehouse monitoring system, every device is integrated with the IoT platform where
the data is processed and instructions are given.
Also, this is the platform from where the user controls every other hardware in
the management system making it easier for them to make a decision as well. It is a
challenging task to record everything and organize paper documents for the reports
and the data.
The working dashboard in the platform is where the user can make all the
decision by analyzing greatly saving time and the need to maintain paper
documents.

SMART RETAIL
The retail industry has been undergoing a profound transformation with the
advent of the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is not just a buzzword; it‘s a game-
changer, offering retailers the ability to enhance the shopping experience, streamline
operations, and gather valuable insights into customer behavior. In this article, we‘ll
explore how IoT is shaping the world of smart retail, its key applications, benefits,
and the promising future it holds.

Smart retail, powered by IoT, is about leveraging technology to create a

seamless shopping experience that caters to the preferences and demands of today‘s
tech-savvy consumers. The retail industry is fiercely competitive, and retailers are
turning to IoT to differentiate them and stay relevant.
Key Applications of IoT in Smart Retail

1. Inventory Management

IoT devices, such as RFID tags and sensors, can be placed on products and
store shelves to monitor inventory in real-time. Retailers can receive alerts when
stock is running low, prevent overstocking, and even track the location of products
within the store.
2. Customer Tracking and Analytics

Retailers can use IoT to track customer movement within the store. Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth beacons, for example, can detect customers‘ smartphones, enabling

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retailers to gather data on foot traffic, popular shopping paths, and the amount of
time customers spend in various sections of the store.
3. Personalized Marketing

IoT enables retailers to send personalized offers and promotions to customers

based on their location and previous purchase history. This can be done through
mobile apps or digital signage in the store.
4. Smart Shelves

Smart shelves equipped with IoT technology can automatically detect when a
product is running low or approaching its expiration date. This information can be
used to trigger restocking and reduce wastage.
5. Automated Checkout

Retailers are exploring cashier less checkout options using IoT and computer
vision technology. Customers can simply pick up items and walk out of the store,
with the IoT system automatically charging their accounts.
6. Supply Chain Optimization

IoT provides real-time tracking of products throughout the supply chain.

Retailers can monitor the location and condition of products in transit, helping to
ensure products arrive on time and in good condition.
7. Energy Efficiency

IoT systems can control lighting, heating, and cooling in the store based on
occupancy and environmental conditions. This reduces energy consumption and
costs.

IOT BASED SMART DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEM

Countless of mishaps regarding road accidents are caused by fatigue, tirednes
s, and so on. About 50% of the accidents are road accidents. The road accidents can
be due to inadequate way of driving, and these could arise if the driver is an alcohol
ic or drowsy.

The drowsiness and the alcoholic condition of the driver has become a major c
ause for the road accidents. This also has led to major challenges in developing a sys
tem for the prevention of this issue. IOT-based innovation tends to be much more pr
actical to work with since it runs on a real time system, and it can transfer all the da
ta or information without any human interaction.
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 Fatigue is a safety problem that has not yet been deeply tackled by any countr
y in the world mainly because of its nature. Drowsiness, in general, is very difficult t
o measure or observe unlike alcohol and drugs, which have clear key indicators and
tests that are available easily. An IOT –based system is designed to avoid countless
mishaps due to drowsy drivers‘ behavioural and psychological changes by focusing o
n driver‘s eye moments and health issues like heart attack, dizziness, and other heal
th issues.

We‘ll be focusing on the drowsiness aspect of it followed by checking other hea

lth parameters like pulse and alcohol detection. To obtain a solution to drowsy drivi
ng is extremely new and is set in motion. But the steps to prevent it with the help of
IOT sensors and methodologies is what this paper discusses on IOT-based innovatio
n will offer propelled dimensions of administrations and for all intents and purposes
change the way individuals lead their day by day lives. Fatigue is a safety problem th
at has not yet been deeply tackled by any country in the world mainly because of its
nature.

Drowsiness, in general, is very difficult to measure or observe unlike alcohol a

nd drugs, which have clear key indicators and tests that are available easily. An IOT
–based system is designed to avoid countless mishaps due to drowsy drivers‘ behavi
oral and psychological changes by focusing on driver‘s eye moments and health issu
es like heart attack, dizziness, and other health issues.

The main aim of this project is to develop a certain system which is efficient to
predict the drowsiness and the health parameters of the driver using sensors to aler
t the driver and reduce the increasing number of accidents. The following are the pro
blems we are going to tackle in our entire project:

1. Driver Drowsiness Detection

2. Alcohol Detection
3. Vehicle Locking System
4. Pulse Rate Monitoring System
5. Crash collision Detection
The basic purpose of this system is to track the driver‘s facial condition and eye
movements if the driver is feeling drowsy, then the system will trigger a warning mes
sage. When the drowsiness is detected, the driver is alerted by a buzzer.

Measurement of different parameters of the driver such as Pulse Rate, Alcoholic

Condition and Eye blink using the sensors like Heartbeat Sensor, Alcohol Sensor an
d Eye Blink Sensor respectively. There are many products out there that provide the

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measure of fatigue level in the drivers which are implemented in many vehicles.

The driver drowsiness detection and health monitoring system provide the similar
functionality but with better results and additional benefits. Also, it alerts the user
on reaching a certain saturation point of the drowsiness measure.

SYSTEM TO MEASURE COLLISION IMPACT IN AN ACCIDENT WITH

IOT

Every year, the number of vehicles on the road rises, bringing both
convenience and a concerning trend, increasing traffic accidents. These accidents
can have devastating consequences, with delayed medical attention often making
the difference between life and death.
Here‘s where the Internet of Things (IoT) offers a promising solution for an
expedited emergency response system.
What is an IoT-based Accident Detection System
An IoT-based Automatic Vehicle Accident Detection and Rescue System leverages
a network of interconnected sensors and devices embedded within a car. These
sensors constantly monitor various parameters that can indicate a potential
accident.
 Accelerometer: This sensor acts as a silent guardian, constantly monitoring
the vehicle‘s acceleration and deceleration. It measures these changes in
terms of G-forces, the unit of force equal to the acceleration due to Earth‘s
gravity. During normal driving, the G-forces remain relatively constant.
However, a sudden and significant shift in G-forces, like a hard stop or a
forceful impact, can signal a potential collision. The accelerometer‘s data
becomes a crucial piece of the puzzle for the system to identify an accident.
 Gyroscope: Imagine a tiny acrobat performing on a high wire – that‘s
essentially what a gyroscope does in the car. This sensor tracks the vehicle‘s
orientation, constantly monitoring its tilt and rotation. While a car leans
slightly during turns, a sharp and unexpected tilt could indicate a rollover
accident. The gyroscope‘s data helps the system differentiate between a
normal turn and a situation where the car might be losing stability.
 Impact Sensors: Unlike the silent observers mentioned above, impact sensors
are the first responders on the sensor team. These are strategically placed on
the bumper, doors, and other vulnerable areas of the car. Imagine tiny
pressure pads – when a collision occurs, the impact sensors directly detect the

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 physical contact with another object. This provides a clear and immediate
confirmation of a crash, giving the system valuable real-time data.
 GPS Module: In an emergency, knowing where you are is critical. This is
where the GPS module comes in. It acts like a digital map reader, constantly
pinpointing the vehicle‘s exact location using a network of satellites. This
precise location data is vital for the system to transmit an emergency alert.
Imagine calling for help without knowing your address – the GPS module
ensures emergency services can locate the accident scene quickly and
efficiently.

In addition to these core sensors, several other hardware components work together to
create a functional system:
 Microcontroller Unit (MCU): This serves as the system‘s brain, processing data
collected from various sensors and making real-time decisions based on pre-
programmed algorithms. It analyzes the sensor data for signs of an accident,
such as sudden acceleration changes, sharp inclines, or significant impact
forces. A popular choice for this role is the Arduino microcontroller board,
known for its affordability and ease of use.
 Cellular Connectivity Module: This module enables the system to transmit
emergency alerts and location data to designated emergency response centers
or pre-defined contacts. A GSM module is commonly used for cellular
connectivity, offering reliable communication even in areas with limited
cellular network coverage.
 LCD Display: An LCD can be integrated into the system to provide visual
feedback. In the event of an accident, it can display messages like ―Emergency
Alert Sent‖ or ―Help on the Way.‖
 Li-ion Battery: A reliable power source is essential for the system‘s continuous
operation. This can be achieved through a charging module that keeps
a Lithium Ion (Li-ion) battery topped up. The Li-ion battery offers a lightweight
and long-lasting power source compared to traditional car batteries.
The collected sensor data is fed into the MCU, which analyzes it in real-time.
The MCU employs algorithms to differentiate between normal driving maneuvers
and potential accidents. Factors like the severity of the impact, the change in vehicle
orientation, and the rate of deceleration are all considered.

INTEGRATED VEHICLE HEALTH MANAGEMENT

 Automated collection of on-vehicle sensor data allows the development of
artificial intelligence (AI) techniques for vehicular systems‘ diagnostic and
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 prognostic processes to better assess the state-of-health, predict faults and
evaluate residual life of ground vehicle systems.

 One of the vital subsystems, in terms of safety and mission criticality, is the
power train, (comprising the engine, transmission, and final drives), which
provides the driving torque required for vehicle acceleration.

 A novel health and usage monitoring system (HUMS) architecture is

presented, together with dedicated diagnosis/prognosis algorithms that utilize
data gathered from a sensor network embedded in an armored personnel
carrier (APC) vehicle. To model the drive train, a virtual dynamometer is
introduced, which estimates the engine torque output for successive
comparison with the measured torque values taken from the engine control
unit.

 This virtual dynamometer is also used in conjunction with other sensed

variables to determine the maximum torque output of the engine, which is
considered to be the primary indicator of engine health. Regression analysis is
performed to capture the effect of certain variables such as engine hours, oil
temperature, and coolant temperature on the degradation of maximum engine
torque.

 Degradations in the final drives system were identified using a comparison of

the temperature trends between the left-hand and right-hand final drives. This
research lays foundations for the development of real-time diagnosis and
prognosis functions for an integrated vehicle health management (IVHM)
system suitable for safety critical manned and unmanned vehicle applications.
The recent drive to increase efficiency in vehicle systems has led to an
increased interest in developing vehicle health management systems to
improve condition-based maintenance (CBM) programs across air, space, and
ground platforms.

 These programs help reduce the cost of maintenance, repair, and overhaul
(MRO) of individual and fleet assets. However, from a military standpoint, the
key advantages brought forward by CBM are the increased availability and
dispatch reliability of vehicle assets and the reduction in any unplanned
downtime or accidents related to vehicle faults.

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 The development of health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) has been
the principle enabler in support of CBM. This involves embedding a network of
sensors on-board the vehicle that harvest health data across various
subsystems and stores it for further processing. This provides an opportunity
to leverage the data to develop an intelligent vehicle health management
system with the intention of increasing the levels of efficiency and
effectiveness of individual assets and vehicle fleets, which can translate into
tangible mission, maintenance, and support benefits.

 The overall benefits expected from an opportune exploitation of HUMS

technology are improved availability, safety, and reliability of vehicles and
components as well as the minimization of operational, maintenance, and life-
cycle costs also in relation to a reduction in the redundancy levels.

 The concept of HUMS was initially introduced by the National Aeronautics

Space Administration (NASA) in 1992, as a technology to collect data,
diagnose, predict, and mitigate faults and support the operational decisions
and post-operational maintenance activities of space vehicle. Current HUMS
technologies encompass many vehicle industries such as aircraft, ships, and
automobiles, particularly in the defense sector.

 Several studies have been conducted to explore different applications and

effective implementation strategies of the HUMS concept to bring forward
enhanced maintenance capabilities and techniques, covering many aspects
ranging from design and development to verification and operation.
Advancements in diagnostics and prognostics methods as well as enhanced
sensitization capabilities of physical assets has led to this increased interest in
health and usage management research, particularly for power train systems.

 In a study by Kulkarni and Corbetta (2019), a health monitoring framework is

developed for the power train of electric unmanned aerial systems (UAS) by
integrating a failure mode, effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) based on
the qualitative Bayesian approach with a model-based diagnostic and
prognostic framework. Le et al. (2017) used machine-learning models to
predict the remaining useful (RUL) engine oil in ground-based military
vehicles, with data gathered by HUMS on engine RPM, temperature, throttle
position, oil temperature, and other key parameters.

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 Other relevant studies in this area include an integrated framework for health
assessment and fault classification of the drive train of wind turbines by Zhao
et al. (2013) and an online fault diagnosis method for a power train in fuel cell
vehicles by Yun et al. (2008). Within these studies, the importance of the
positioning on-board sensors in essential subsystem components is
highlighted, particularly those that have a high probability failure rate. A
study by Dong et al. (2019) presents the requirements, selection principles,
and future development trends of sensors to support the health management
of armored vehicles as well difficulties in sensor installation, taking the vehicle
gear box as a case study.

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