Literature Review

The advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in educational settings has been a

transformative development, particularly in the realm of language learning with the
debut of the innovative Large Language Model(LLM), such as ChatGPT, Gemini,
Wenxinyiyan, etc. These LLMs’ great progress renders access to language corpus
more available, will encompass the emergence of AI in education, its applications in
language learning, and the challenges and limitations that accompany its integration.

Advantages of AI-assisted Education

AI's integration into educational systems marks a significant shift towards

modernizing traditional teaching methods(Deng&Yu, 2023; Crompton&Burke, 2023).
The potential of AI to revolutionize education is evident in its ability to create
adaptive learning environments, provide Real-Time Feedback, and offer Personalized
Learning experiences (Wang & Su, 2024). AI-driven systems can analyze vast
amounts of data to tailor instruction to individual learner needs, thus enhancing the
educational process.AI-driven language learning platforms also leverage Intelligent
Tutoring Systems (ITS), which use AI algorithms to offer personalized instruction
and feedback, enhancing self-directed learning and communication confidence
(Huang et al., 2022).

Since the debut of famous LLMs in 2022, such as ChatGPT, Gemini, and
Wenxinyiyan, the application and study of AI in language learning has been
particularly heated discussed(Uchida, 2024; Mizumoto, 2023 ).Some scholars have
introduced the Metacognitive Resource Use (MRU) framework, advocating for the
strategic integration of various language resources, such as DDL and GenAI tools,
enabling learners to effectively utilize a range of language resources and promoting
autonomy in language learning (Mizumoto, 2023). Uchida's (2024) research provides
a practical assessment of the utility of early LLMs in corpus linguistics. Through
comparison with early corpus, Uchida found that LLMs like ChatGPT 3.5
demonstrate considerable accuracy in generating word frequency lists and
collocations but are less proficient in genre identification. Crompton and Burke
(2023) revealed a surge in AIEd HE publications, with the application of artificial
intelligence expanding from student-centered to inclusive of teachers and managers,
reflecting a shift from language learning to language teaching.
Additionally, Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) technology based on the spoken
corpus can assess and improve pronunciation accuracy, contributing to a
comprehensive language learning experience, which provide basis for AI spoken
language teaching and learning(Rathi&Tripathy, 2024). AI chatbots, such as those
studied by Kim and Su (2024), facilitate interactive language practice, offering a
platform for learners to engage in conversational exercises. These tools enable
learners to refine their pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary in a supportive
setting.

Impact on the Affective Domains: Reducing Anxiety and Increasing Confidence

AI's influence significantly shows on Motivation, the driving force behind language
learning, which can be intrinsic (internal to the learner) or extrinsic (external rewards or
pressures). In other words, it influence on the affective domains of language learning,
such as reducing anxiety and fear while boosting confidence, has been extensively
studied. Alemi, Meghdari, and Ghazisaedy (2014) examined the impact of humanoid
robots on students' anxiety and attitudes toward learning English, finding that interaction
with these robots significantly lowered learners' anxiety levels and fostered more positive
attitudes toward language acquisition. This finding is consistent with the work of Hsu,
Chen, and Yu (2021), that revealed a task-oriented chatbot system could reduce EFL
learners’ fear of speaking English, thereby increasing their confidence. This study
suggests that AI tools, by providing a non-judgmental and supportive environment, are
crucial in easing the emotional challenges associated with language learning. However,
the task-oriented nature of Hsu et al.’s study limited its exploration of chatbot usage in a
broader application, beyond specific and structured tasks.

In contrast, Kim and Su’s research (2024) observed the Andy English AI chatbot’s
broader influence on leaners’ willingness and motivation. With more emphasis on natural
language use and ongoing communication rather than structured tasks, this approach
more closely simulates real-world conversations, offering richer insights into AI’s
potential. Nevertheless, these studies do not manage to cover other essential domains in
language learning, particularly the effectiveness of AI in enhancing actual language skills
rather than improvements in the affective domains alone.
Enhancing Language Skills: Focus on Speaking

Research on AI-based language learning spans various cultural contexts, with significant
inquiry emerging from East Asia, particularly Korea and China. In Korea, Han (2020)
examined the effects of voice-based AI chatbots on Korean EFL middle school students.
This study revealed that these AI tools significantly enhanced students' speaking
competence, while also positively affecting their emotional response, such as reducing
anxiety and increasing motivation. This research is notable for its focus on younger
learners in Korea, offering insights into how AI can be tailored to meet the needs of
different learner groups. Other Korean studies different aspects of language learning—
vocabulary (Kim & Jeongjo, 2018), grammar (Kim, 2019), and listening/reading (Kim,
2018), highlighting the broad effectiveness of AI in enhancing language skills within the
Korean educational context.

In China, Wang and Xue (2024) conducted an intervention study to utilize AI-driven
chatbots to boost academic engagement among Chinese EFL students. This innovative
approach demonstrates how AI technology can be integrated into academic engagement
strategies, showing its potential not only in improving speaking skills but also in fostering
deeper academic involvement (includes Chinese EFL students’ behavioral, cognitive, and
emotional engagement) (Wang & Xue, 2024). However, since this study is based on self-
reported questionnaires, its result may lack reliability. To address this limitation, our
study incorporates peer review and expert evaluation, aiming for more trustworthy
outcomes.

Two additional Chinese studies investigate the potential of AI in enhancing Chinese

students’ speaking skills through AI-driven applications, Smart UEnglish (Hwang, 2022),
and Talk AI (Yang, 2024). Hwang study's strength lies in its inclusion of both “designed
talk” (structured around English textbooks) and “free talk” (based on authentic
environments). It found that “designed talk” is more effective because students can
practice newly acquired knowledge, making it more flexible and adaptive than other
studies. The other study carried out by Yang (2024), on the other hand, underscores the
role of AI in creating a reflective and self-directed learning environment. Through real-
time feedback and personalized recommendations, students can not only improve their
speaking skills but also develop greater self-awareness of their speaking habits, thereby
identifying areas for improvement and monitoring their progress over time. These studies
align with our research, which also employs AI-driven language learning apps to enhance
speaking abilities.

How AI Impact On Different Age Groups

Out of the diverse aims such as optimizing English teaching, passing IELTS/TOFEL tests
and stimulating enthusiasm of English learning, research on AI-based English learning
tools focuses on different target groups and selects distinct objects for the surveys. In
Japan, in view of the global research background indicating that the existing research on
RALL mainly focus on children, with little evidence revealing the effects of RALL on
adults, Takamasa (2018) and his team examined 9 adult women between the ages of 18
and 22 to ascertain the impact of robot-assisted language learning (RALL) on Japanese
adults' English-speaking skills. Similarly, with the aim of figuring out children’s attitude
towards Robot Assisted Language Learning (RALL) in English language classes, Alemi,
Meghdari, and Ghazisaedy (2014) chose 19 preschool children ranging from 3 to 6 years
old and examined the changes of attitude after interacting with AI robots in classes. In
addition, Han (2020) selected 44 freshmen students from one Korean middle school and
examined the effects of voice-based AI chatbots and their related affective domains: level
of interest, belief, motivation, and perceived anxiety. In order to find out how different
interactions (face-to-face chatting and chatting with AI chatbots) may affect speaking
skills, Kim’s team in Korea chose 110 university students as their research participants
for the comparative study.

However, while the majority of research examining the impact of AI-based English
learning tools on a specific demographic has been conducted, there is a paucity of studies
investigating how AI affects individuals across different age groups. At the current stage,
whether AI AI-based English learning tools are effective or how they act on human
beings are still the research focuses rather than the age differentiation. For the research
needs of instructional design, student interest development and personal development,
researchers often conduct experiments from the perspective of a group of people who
share certain same characteristics.
Hi Echo: The AI-Based Membership APP For Oral English Practice

Hi Echo, the world's first virtual language coach equipped with the Ziyue education
model, is a paid software launched by NYSE:DAO in 2023. Hi Echo was chosen as the
tool for this study for the following reasons. Till now, Hi Echo has established a relatively
sophisticated pattern. Students are able to select different AI teachers and learning
scenarios to meet their individual requirements. The visual effects of the virtual English
teacher enhance the sense of interaction. Furthermore, following an analysis of other AI
spoken dialogue software on the market, this study determined that Hi Echo has a notable
proficiency in language comprehension. Relying on its powerful database, Hi Echo has a
comprehensive repository of knowledge across diverse domains, ensuring rigor and
effectiveness in teaching. In consideration of the poor performance of students in
communication initiatives, Hi Echo provides timely leading questions and invigorates
new topics to support continuous dialogue. Furthermore, it concludes the conversation
with a report each time the user ends the conversation, and provides a detailed speech
analysis focusing on grammar and pronunciation, leaving suggestions for further
improvements.

Despite the advantages, AI in language learning faces challenges. The quality of AI

interactions miss nuances of human communication (Shum et al., 2018) may have
improved. More linguistic features after AI-based English learning remain obscure.
Another significant gap is the lack of longitudinal studies examining the long-term effects
of AI on English-speaking skills across different age groups. Understanding the sustained
impact of AI interventions over time could provide insights into the most effective
integration of AI in language curricula.

This study investigates the impact of AI-powered tools on improving English speaking
skills among Chinese students by tracking three distinct age groups—compulsory-
education stage students and university students—over four months using the Hi-echo
app. By analyzing the progress of each group, this research aims to uncover the efficacy
of AI in language learning and the differential effects across various stages of educational
development, answering following questions:
1. In what specific aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax, and structure does AI-
enhanced English proficiency manifest through prolonged and systematic learning?

2.How does the improvement in speaking skills vary among students of different age
groups and varying levels of English proficiency?

3.What are the advantages and disadvantages of student learning motivation when using
AI for learning?

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