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COURSE INTRODUCTION

(USE OF ENGLISH I AND LIBRARY (Core, 3 Units)

GST 110 (3 credit load) is a fist semester course of year

one students of the Federal University of Technology
Minna. The course covers two major aspects (i) The use
of library and (ii) use of English

LEARNING GUIDES

Texts colored in GREEN are answers to repeated

questions in GST 110 and it also highlight FAQ in GST
110

Text highlighted in RED forms headings or texts with

likelihood of question(s) been asked in a GST 110 tests
from the InfoMAS point of view.

However, the infoMAS should not be held culpable

wherein the lecturer declined to ask questions from any
of the predicted texts.

WE ACKNOWLEDGED THE OWNERS OF THIS LECTURE

NOTE; LIBRARY SERVICES DEPARTMENT FUTMinna AND
ANTICIPATE FOR THEIR SUPPORT AND COOPERATION

GST 110

USE OF LIBRARY:

STUDY OBJECTIVE

At the end of this course, students are expected to have

good understanding of the followings;

1. Nature and Concept of Library (Introduction)

2. The library users.

3. The five fundamental laws of librarianship.

4. The importance of the course �Use of Library�

5. Aims and objectives of user education. Types of

Libraries.

6. The charging system.

7. Functions of a University Library.

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INTRODUCTIONDuck hunt
 The library has undergone different stages in its
development process through in consonance with its
original purpose i.e. the preservation of records, history,
culture wealth and renowned scholars in the society.
Today libraries are not only depositories or store house
or mere buildings for selected few but are agents of
education, socioeconomic and political changes for all
and sundry.

Thus with an expansion in scope and definition, the

functions of library have expanded extensively, more also
with increasing development in the printing media, it is
now charged with acquisition, organization, preservation,
storage, retrieval and dissemination of knowledge.

TYPES OF LIBRARY

Different types of library exist so as to serve

different systems or organiza5tions. Thus, libraries exist
to aid in the achievement of the aims and objectives of
the institutions and organizations which they are
established.

There are about five types of libraries but more

emphases will be laid on the academic/university library
for the purpose of this course. The following are the
different types of libraries.

1. Special Libraries : They are established in

specialized institution like the school, for the
handicapped, NNPC, etc

2. Private Libraries They are libraries that are owned

or developed by renowned individuals e.g. Lt. Chief
Awolowo Library, etc.

3. School Libraries They are libraries in the

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Primary/Secondary Schools set up.
4. The Academic/University Libraries They are
libraries that are established in tertiary institutions. Their
collections reflect the aims and the objectives of the
institution which they are established e.g. Federal
University of Technology Library, Minna.

FUNCTION OF THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

� Access: -Information requirements of the

University community continuously through
formal and informal means with all segments
of the university

� To select from available information sources

most needed items by the University
Community.

� To interpret and publicize other range of

information and educative services to benefit
the University community.

� To acquire, organize and arrange these

information sources in such a way to make
physical usage easy and conducive to users

� To make available and publicize other

information services through inter-library loan.

� To anticipate and provide information needs

according to the changing pattern of the
university.

FUTMinna Library

The library was established in 1984. It was set up

to support teaching and research and has the following
units
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 The Administrative Unit: This Unit houses the office of
the University Librarian who is the Administrative head of
the University Library and a Principal office in the
University system. This Unit deals with records and
things that pertain to the administration of the library.
This Unit is the policy making of the University Library

The Collection/Development Unit: This deals with the

selection and the buying of library materials

The Catalogue and Classification Unit: This unit deals

with the processing of books i.e the cataloguing and
classification of Library materials.

The Serials Unit:

This is where various journals subscribed for the library

are processed and shelved for the library users.

Reference Units: This unit deals with the provision of

specialized services.

Reserve Unit:

This is where study materials that are in short supply

and are highly used are kept for consultation. They are
not to be borrowed out.

The Circulation Unit:

For the purpose of this course, more emphases will also

be given to this unit since the unit deals more often with
the users in their day to day use of the materials in the
library.

The Circulation unit of the library is the integral part of

the library. It is a division or an arm of the reader�s
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service section of the library which also include the
reference and the reserve units.

Thus the unit carries out the following function;

- Registration of all new library users

- Keeping records of books borrowed and those

returned

- Taking note of when the materials borrowed are

due back the library

- Keeping the statistics of the units activities

- Sending over-due notice to defaulting library users

who failed to return the borrowed library books after
stipulated time.

- Checking users on their way out of the library to

make sure that library books are not taken out
unlawfully.

THE CHARGING SYSTEM

For registered user to borrow a book successfully

from the library, the following process must be followed:

- The user brings the book from the shelve

- Shows his/her ID and borrower�s card to staff

concern

- The staff stamps the date due stamp at the date

due slip on the right hand side of the book

- Stamps the date due also on the book card

- Then the book card is put inside the borrower�s

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card and filed according to the date due.
 For students, only two books (2) books are allowed to
be borrowed at a time and for two weeks only

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF USER EDUCATION

(a) Long Term Objectives

o To ensure that the user can exploit resources

adequately and to his own satisfaction

o To established a link between the subject taught and

the library resources available;

o To develop in the user confidence in the use of

library and in library staff

o To enable students to be independent in his

information seeking

o Saving them (student) time by making them aware of

the most useful reference source for their subject.

o To develop skills in finding information, identifying

and locating bibliographic references for
specification purpose.

o To teach effective method of approach to information

library search situation.

o To encourage users to ask for assistance.

(b) Short Term Objectives

o To be aware of the existence of the university library,

what it contains and when it is open;
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o To have the ability to locate books, handbooks,
 encyclopedia, dictionaries, periodicals and
photocopying areas

ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE

Modern society is said to be an age of information or

knowledge explosion. Some forces which led into this
�explosion� are many and varied. They include
progress made in science and technology improvement
in printing and paper technology, speedy
communications such as radio, television, telephone and
others. It also includes world trade and industries,
commerce and various government activities from the
local councils to the federal levels. For one to find the
information one needs within the huge mass of
information now available it becomes very difficult. If
information or knowledge is to be easily accessible to
those who need it, it must be organized.

Today, information is recorded in different and

separately published media emerging from hundreds of
thousands of sources all over the world.

To be able to track down particular information a

prospective user needs tools or techniques used by
information scientist and documents to make things
easy for the users. This is known as RETRIEVAL DEVICE.
Retrieval devices are carried out in two ways;

1) Classification

2) Cataloguing

CLASSIFICATION:

Classification is the putting together of similar things. It

is the arrangement of things according to their likeness
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or unlikeness. It Duck hunt
is sorting and grouping of things.
Book classification as defined by Arthur Maltby is

�the systematic arrangement by subject of books and

other materials on shelves or catalogue and index in

the manner which is most useful to those who need

or seek a definite piece of information�

According to W. C. B Sayers classification is

�the arrangement of book on shelves or descriptions

of them in the manner which is most useful to those

who read�

TYPES OF LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

Library classification scheme or schedules include the

following.

1. Dewy Decimal Classification Scheme (DDC)

2. Library of Congress Classification Scheme (LC)

3. Universal Decimal Classification Scheme (UDC)

4. Bliss Classification Scheme

5. Colon Classification Scheme

However, there are some classification schemes that are

locally designed to suit a particular environment or
library. These are sometimes called Abridged
Classification Scheme.
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FUNCTION OF A LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
 - It helps the reader to identify and locate a book
through a classification mark or call number or call
mark

- It helps to group all books of a kind together

- Through the medium of catalogue, analysis the

content of books for readers.

- It is a time saving device for both the reader and

the Liberian

- It is also useful in compiling biography

NOTATION

No book classification scheme can function without

notation. Notation is a shorthand system. It is a sign or
symbol used in classification to represent the classes
and subdivisions of classes in a classification scheme.

A notation may consist of any symbol(s), letters, figures

or signs to represent the terms of classification scheme.
There are two types of notation

a) PURE: Consisting of one kind of symbol e.g. Dewy

Decimal Classification (DDC) has a pure notation,
using only Arabic figures

b) MIXED: Consist of two or more kinds of symbols e.g.

Library of Congress (LC) uses a mixed notation or letters
and figures

The pure notation of numbers has advantages in that it

conveys order and it is relatively simple. It has the
disadvantages of being restrictive i.e. Knowledge has to
be divided into a part (10 if the zero is used) and each
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subject has to beDuck hunt
subdivided into ( 9 or 10 parts)
QUALITIES OF A GOOD NOTATION

A good notation should

a. Convey order

b. Be brief and simple

c. Be easy to write and recall

d. Be flexible

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION SCHEME (LC)

This classification scheme uses alphabets and

figures to organize knowledge. This means that it can
derive up to 26 letters. It uses simple alpha bets for main
CLASSES and operating alphabets for its subclass and
each of the subclass can be subdivided to specific
topics.

OUTLINE OF LIBRARY OF CONGRESS (LC)

CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

A: General Work

B: Philosophy and Psychology

C: Auxiliary Sciences of History

D: General History and Old World

E � F: American History

G: Geography, Anthropology

H: Social Science
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J: Political Science
K: Law

L: Education

M: Music

N: Fine Art

P: Language and Literature

Q: Science

R: Medicine

S: Agriculture

T: Technology

U: Military Science

V: Natural Science

Z: Bibliography and Library Science

SUBCLASSES

Each of the main classes with the exception of

Classes E- F and Z is divided into subclass, representing
disciplines or major branches of the class

Class Q for example is divided into the following

subclasses

Q: Science

QA: Mathematics

QB: Astronomy Duck hunt »

QC: Physics

QD: Chemistry

QE: Geology

QH: Natural History (General)

QK: Botany

QL: Zoology

QM: Human Anatomy

QP: Physiology

QR: Microbiology

Class T, for example is divided into the following

subclasses;

T: Technology (General)

TA: Engineering (General)

TC: Hydraulic Engineering

TD: Environmental Technology

TE: Highway Engineering

TF: Road Engineering

TG: Bridge Engineering

TH: Building Construction

TJ: MechanicalDuck
Engineering
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TK: Electrical Engineering

TL: Motor Vehicles

TN: Mining Engineering

TP: Chemical Technology

TR: Photography

TS: Manufactures

TT: Handcraft

TX: Home Economics

Class N for Example is divided into the following

subclasses;

N: Visual Arts

NA: Architecture

NB: Sculpture

NC: Drawing, Design and Illustration

ND: Painting

NE:` Printing Media

NK: Decorative Arts, Applied Arts etc.

NX: Arts in General

Class S is divided into the following subclasses:

S: AgricultureDuck
(General)
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SB: Plant Culture

SD: Forestry

SF: Animal Culture

SH: Agriculture and Fisheries

DIVISION

Each subclass is further divided into division

representing components of the subclass. For example,
the subclass �Chemistry� has the following division

QD: Chemistry

23 � 26 Alchemy Chemistry

71 � 42 Analytical Chemistry

146 � 197 Inorganic Chemistry

450 � 731 Physical Chemistry

901 � 999 Crystallography

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SUBDIVISIONS
 Again each of the divisions in turn has subdivisions
specifying different aspect of the subject such as Form,
Time, Place and further subjects� subdivisions for
example

FORM:

English prose, drama, poetry

TIME:

Victorian English; 1800 Nigerian History

PLACE:

German Literature, American Encyclopedias

As stated earlier, the library of congress classification

scheme notation is mixed. i.e. Letter and numbers.
Usually, main classes are represented by a capital Letter
and a second capital letter is used to show the subclass.

e.g.

T: Technology

TH: Building Technology and building engineering is a

subclass of T.

But this is not the case with classes E, F, and Z which

have only a letter and are used integrally from 1 � 999
with gaps to accommodate new subjects or topics as
they arise. Decimal points are used for further
subdivisions and yet further arrangement is often
alphabetical using cutter number after a point.

CATALOGUE
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A catalogue in librarianship is a retrieval device. It
is a means through which information is stored and
obtained from the library. Catalogue is the process of
making entry into the catalogue. A catalogue can also be
defined as a comprehensive list or collection of reading
materials in a particular library or groups of libraries. It
records all the bibliography information of each readings
material within the library for easy identification and
retrieval.

Cataloguing and classification are complementary

retrieval devices. While one describes the item, the other
puts them in an order that facilitates retrieval within a
short time.

FORMS OF CATALOGUE

There are different forms of catalogue such as the

Card, the Sheaf, the Book and the Computer Catalogue
However, the most generally accepted and used forms
are the card, the book and the sheaf.

CARD CATALOGUE: It comprises a set of slips held in

specially manufactured loose binders. This type of
catalogue is not however popular with the Nigerian
libraries.

BOOK CATALOGUE: Is a conventionally printed

catalogue containing several entries on each page and
usually in two columns. They are printed and bound in a
book form. Some special libraries use book catalogue. It
is not suitable for rapidly changing collection, but it can
be updated by producing new editions.

FUNCTIONS OF CATALOGUE

- It records each work that is received in the library

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- It arrangesDuck
all hunt
entries by the same author in the
 same place

- It provides call numbers that are used in retrieving

information materials

- It arranges subject entries in such a way it all

related topics are brought together.

- It provides cross-reference to guide the users.

- It describes each book or reading materials the

library by a given author title and subject.

AUTHOR

This is the person responsible for the intellectual as well

as artistic production of the contents of a document.

TITLE

This is a word or phrase appearing in publication,

naming the production or work contain in it.

IMPRINT

This is dealing with the following

- Place of publication

- The name of publisher

- Date of publication

COLLATION

This has to do with

(a) Pagination orDuck

number
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(b) Information of pagination illustration diagram

(c) Size of the book

SERIES

If the book is in series it has to be stated e.g. Library

Science Series

NOTES

This refers to a brief description of the book and it comes

after collection and series

ISBN

This stands for International Standard Book Number. It is

important for ordering books

TRACING

There are added entry readings e.g. Joint author, subject,

title etc.

There are three types of catalogue namely;

Author/Title Catalogue

The Classified Catalogue

The Subject Catalogue

AUTHOR/TITLE CATALOGUE

This catalogue exercise is applicable on the materials

where the author�s name or title is known. It is
alphabetically arranged.
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CLASSIFIED CATALOGUE
This is the type of catalogue where the entries are
arranged using the notation of the library materials.

SUBJECT CATALOGUE

This is the type of catalogue that is arranged according

to the subjects. This is equally arranged in an
alphabetical order.

REFERENCE SERVICES

In every institution of higher learning, Library is

regarded as the backbone of the Institution. Similarly, a
reference unit of every library is regarded as the
backbone of that library. Thus, one can argue that a
reference unit of every library serves as that Library�s
mirror, because this unit is usually the firs part of call of
every Library.

However, in the 9th century, one probably would

have been satisfied to define Library work as the process
of answering questions. But because of the rapid
changes that are taking place in information technology
and indeed, in all fields of human endeavour, this
definition is now simplistic. Hence, there may be as
many definitions as there are Liberians. Nevertheless, we
optionally define reference work as the personal
assistance given by Liberian to individual readers who
are in pursuit of information. This involves not only
locating the material where the required information can
be found but also locating the information and sorting
out what information is relevant from a mass of relevant
and irrelevant information.

In short, reference service is the springboard to the

library and Librarianship wherein one is involved with all
aspects of information both theoretical and practical. In
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Library services, failures to locate any required
information have the same effect. A satisfied user on the
other hand, serves as a public relations officer for the
Library. Thus �assistant to reader� is a great big tent
of a phrase that embraces an enormous range and
variety of activities. Many users want to know more and
more about less and less; they want to acquire more
knowledge and they want more about their society and
their historical culture.

TYPES OF REFERENCES SOURCES

Reference sources could be divided into two main

classes� compilation of kind or another which furnish
information directly and compilations that refer to other
sources containing information which merely indicate
places in which information may be found. Sources of
the first type include dictionaries, atlases, encyclopedias,
dictionaries, almanacs, newspapers, handbooks,
geographical sources, biological sources, magazines
and gazettes while sources of the second type include;
catalogue, bibliographies and index.

REFERENCE TOOL/BOOKS

A reference book is an intellectual work that is to be

looked up for specific information; that is not meant to
be read through and that has an array of disjointed
entries which are alphabetically arranged. Examples of
such tools are;

a) Encyclopedia

b) Dictionary

c) Geographical Sources

A. ENCYCLOPEDIA
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It inform a user the origin and development of a
particular subject or topic. It also helps a user to have a
fair idea of any subject he/she is reading. There are two
types of encyclopedia namely;

Subject and General Encyclopedia

The subject encyclopedias are usually detailed and

comprehensive while the General encyclopedia carries
shallow and basic articles. The subject encyclopedias
are normally long articles and they concentrate on
special fields of study. Thus they are meant for
specialist, elites, students and researchers. On the other
hand, the general encyclopedias try to cover general
field(s) factual articles and they are meant for the
general public, layman and the beginners. Finally, the
subject encyclopedias cost more than the general
encyclopedia.

Biographical Sources:

These are important reference materials where life

histories of persons or individuals are documented.
There are two types of biographies.

1. Special biographies e.g. �who is chemistry�

2. General biographies e.g. �the international

who�s who�

B. DICTIONARY SOURCES:

These are publications containing words or languages

defining or explaining different terms of various
professions. They are usually arranged according to a
definite order � that is, in an A � Z order. In other
words, these reference tool carry the meanings,
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pronunciation, spellings etc. of various terms in different
areas of specialization.

USES OF DICTIONARY

(1) A:span style="font-size: 16.0pt;"span style="font-size: 16.0pt;"p class="MsoNormal"; They

express usage of words in different
conteL:/pspan style="font-size: 16.0pt;" /bp
class="MsoNormal"xt e.g. current slang

(2) They carry meaning of words, expressions etc.

(3) They contain pronunciation of words.

(4) They contain antonyms and synonyms,

abbreviations, acronym, sign and symbols

(5) They contain major places or names e.g.

politics, history etc.

(6) They check spellings, syllables etc.

(7) They carry meanings of foreign terms in a

language and

(8) They provide important quotations

C. GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES

These are the reference materials that are mainly

used by the travelers. The types of tourist, colours,
surveyors, prospects for minerals e.t.c.

The kinds of geographical sources are atlas, maps,

globes, travel guide and directories.

The types of maps are;

a) Region Duck hunt »

 b) Physical

c) Historical

d) Economics

e) Social Maps.

The types of directories are;

a) telephone

b) address

c) parks

d) hotel directories

D. SERIAL

A serial is defined by the American Library

Association as �a publication issued in successive
parts, usually at regulars and as a rule intended to be
continued indefinitely.

There are different types of serials which include

periodicals/journals, Newspapers, Magazines, Reports
(Annuals), Memoirs, Proceedings, Treaties, Transactions
of societies etc. Examples of journals are; Journal of
Engineering mechanics, Crop Production an International
Journal of Pest disease and weed control; The Canadian
Journal of Chemical Engineering, Nigerian Journal of
Physics.

Periodicals/Journals (both can be interchangeably as

they means the same things. Periodical is for the
Americans, while Journal is for British), are the most
common of all the serials
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available in the library. This is
so because all the latest researches made by the
scholars in the areas of their specializations are first of
all published in the journals. So in almost all the
branches of knowledge periodicals can always be
published. Thus, periodical could be regarded as
spearhead of current human knowledge.

TYPES OF PERIODICALS

Periodicals are of two types, primary and

secondary or non primary type.

The Primary Sources/types

These are those periodicals exclusively devoted to

carrying articles or reports on new discoveries or
development. They are so called because the articles
appearing in them represent the original thinking of the
researchers.

The Secondary Source

The are those periodicals that are meant for news

generation, recreation and entertainment they also
specialize in interpreting and providing opinions on new
developments.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PERIODICAL

They contain authentic articles by contributors

especially scholars (the articles are usually signed).

The articles contain in the periodicals are the main

means of communication for the exchange of scientific
current information than books. Information on new
processes or discoveries appears in a periodical within
weeks of their formulation. This is contrary to books
which take two to three years before they are» published.
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 They help researchers to be up to date and well
informed of the new developments.

They also help researchers to avoid duplication as new

discoveries are promptly reported.

They help to bridge the gap between the books and the
day to day developments.

Above all, they are mostly issued by the professional

bodies/organizations.

ORGANIZATIONS OF PERIODICALS

When periodicals are acquired, they are processed for

easy retrieval by the users.

The serials unit has a Kadex, where each title of a

periodical is entered on a card. When the periodicals are
received the date of receipt is indicated on the cards and
the classification mark is assigned to them and they are
then displayed on the periodical rack for library users to
brows. To find out whether a library has particular
periodical a �strip index� which is the list of all the
periodicals in stock can be checked. In libraries where
serials operations have been computerized, it is possible
to use the computer terminals to figure out what journal
is available, the latest issue and other information
concerning the journals in the library.

In most cases, periodicals are not borrowed out of

the library like books unless in exceptional cases. They
are used or referred to in the library. This is because of
their fragile nature.

REFERENCE AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATION

suggested that being able»to use a

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One Liberian has
library is �in the first place that art of consulting
authorities and comparing results� We would like to
believe that this statement is a true summary at this
stage, of our ability to use a library, otherwise the past
few weeks would have been waste of your time and
hours.

You should now be in a position to walk into the library

and by using the catalogue, find a book of your choice
provided that you can remember the author, title or the
subject of the book. You should now know that
information may be found in library materials other than
books; for example, in periodicals, newspapers and other
serials as well as in non-book materials.

On resumption, therefore, that you should be able to

�consult authorities and compare results�, the present
lecture is designed to provide a guide to the rules of
citing.

Writing a research paper and producing a write-up

for a newspaper are two different things. A newspaper
reporter can avoid disclosing his sources of information
by saying vaguely that �sources close to the
government house said� or that �usually reliable
sources disclosed�� The scholar cannot be obscure
about these sources; otherwise he would not be taken
seriously. If anything that scholar/researcher strives to
identify his sources clearly as possible, so that some of
his assertions or conclusion could be subjected to
security and verification to do this successfully, the
researcher must acquire the rudiments of bibliographical
citation.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL CITATION OR DESCRIPTION

This is the process of identifying a published

»
work of
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literary composition giving particulars of authorship or
others who have contributed to the work (e.g. edition,
translator or illustrator). Tile, edition, date, particulars of
publication (place and name of publisher) number if
pages etc. in the case periodical (title 2 volume and is
sued number, date) and pages are necessary for be
defined as putting a name to a source.

PURPOSE OF BIBLIOGRAPHICAL CITATION

a) to pay homage to pioneers in ones subject area

b) To give credit to related work

c) To identify methodology, equipment etc.

d) To provide background reading

e) To correct ones own work

f) To criticize previous work

g) To substantiate claims

h) To alert researchers to forthcoming work

i) To disclaim work or ideas of others

j) To dispute priority claims of others.

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA

GST 110 - CONTINUATION

USE OF ENGLISH PART (II)

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COMMUNICATION THEORY
Language in communication

Language has been described as �the vehicle of

thought.� It is almost the only means of
communicating thoughts and feelings available to
man. There are other means of course, like the
paralinguistic form (signs and symbols). Even so,
in its spoken and written forms, language remains
by far the commonest means of communication.
By definition, language can be said to be a method
by which a person expresses his thoughts and
feelings in a way that they can be understood by
others. The essence of language is to convey
messages. Linguistic studies have discovered that
the emergence and development of language has
contributed more than any other factor in bridging
the wide silence that would have characterized the
existence of the early man. It still plays the same
role today. It is the sole and life-blood of
communication. Without the emergence and use
of language, there can be no communication at all,
whether written or oral. Life itself would have been
paralyzed. For business purpose of every kind or
for individual purpose, efficiency is liable to turn
from time to time on communication cannot be
eliminated. Rather, the need for higher standards
of clear precise and purposeful expression grows
constantly with the increasing complexity of life
and society.

THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

»
According to Longman
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Dictionary of
Contemporary English, communication means the
act of sharing or exchanging opinions, news,
information etc. in the opinion of Chappell and
Reed, (1984) communication is any means by
which a thought is transferred from one person top
another. Undall and Undall (1979: 5) defined
communication as the process by which one
person (or a group) shares and imparts
information to another person (or group) so that
both people (and group) clearly understand one
another.
The definitions above summarize the concept of
communication as a process of giving and
receiving information through previously familiar
symbols and signs. It involves a transfer of
opinions, attitudes, beliefs, ideas, thought and
feelings from one person or group to another.
Communication is the essence of life. No society
or individual or firm can exist meaningfully without
proficiently fulfilling communication roles relevant
to it. Through meaningful interaction between
person and groups, better understanding is
achieved. When there is understanding, there is
harmony, oneness and peace.
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

A process is a phenomenon that is on-going,

continuous and ever changing. If communication
is a process of transferring information, ideas,
thought and feelings it then follows that
communication is a continuous action.»It is a
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two-way affair involving sender and a receiver. For
the process to be effective, there are basic
elements that should be present. The elements are
the sender, the receiver, a message, a medium
(language that is understood by the sender and
the receiver) and a feedback.

Communication can only be s aid to have taken

place when the message sent by a transmitter is
duly received and correctly interpreted by the
receiver who also sends a feedback to the
transmitter. The feedback will reflect how well a
message has been understood because an
incorrectly interpreted message will give a wrong
message. It clearly manifests misunderstanding of
a message. As process, encoding and decoding
message and sending feedback could generate
further encoding, and decoding and feedback
between the communicants.

The elements of communication process and their

meaning are

presented below;
The Sender: - this is the initiator of the
communication also called the encoder, the
transmitter or the source. He receives stimulants
and selects codes which his decoder must be able
to understand. He then sends the message using
appropriate language.
The Receiver: This is the decoder of the message,
the target audience who receives, gives
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appropriate interpretation to the message and a
feedback.
The Message: The message comprises the
thoughts, ideas, attitudes, opinion, feelings which
a sender sends to his receiver. As long as people
exist and have need, there will be need for sending
and receiving messages.
The Medium: This refers to the form in which the
message transmitted is sent. It could be oral,
written, or paralinguistic.
The Feedback: when the message sent by the
sender has been decoded and understood, the
receiver will send a response called feedback to
the sender. If the message is not properly given,
the receiver may have a problem understanding
and interpreting it.
The Channel: Some people use channel and
medium to mean the same thing. In this book,
much difference may not be made between them,
as their interpretations may be similar. While
medium refers to the form, which a sender uses in
sending a message, channel refers to any course
or way along which information travels. Oral
channels include letters, memos, report, telex etc.

THE IMPORTANT OF COMMUNICATION

The importance of communication both to

individual and organization are obvious. For
business purposes of every kind and for every
level of performance
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and writing. In some
»
profession as in religion, law, politics,
communication is the essence of their activity.
Communication is useful in establishing and
keeping relationships (formal or informal)

In mass communication, some of the functions of

communication are education, information and
entertainment. Through organized and systematic
dissemination of information these purposes are
achieved.

In business, effective communication not only

create awareness of goods and services available
but also uses appropriate language of campaign
to draw the appetite of the audience to the
services.

Effective communication brings harmony and

understanding

between human beings and societies because

individuals and communities understand each
other better and express mutual trust on each
other.

In written communication, information can be

stored and preserved since its form is very
durable.

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Generally, communication falls into two basic

categories, namely, verbal and non-verbal.
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Verbal Communication: This is the type of
communication done through the use of spoken
words. It is used in intra-personal, interpersonal
and group situation. Intra-Personal
Communication: This type of communication goes
on within an individual. The thought process that
go on in human minds during the consideration
and weighing of situations in the mind and may
become verbalized with no definite receiver in
mind. This often is the case when people
soliloquies.
Interpersonal Communication: This is the type
where face-to-face contact is involved exchange
of ideas, thoughts, feelings and information
between two persons on personal contact basis.
This is the commonest type of communication in
human life. It helps to breaks the barrier of formal
relationship and draws communication together in
an atmosphere of warmth and harmony.
Group Communication: This involves the exchange
of ideas and information among members of a
group-at home, in the club or association, political
party, in the office. Group may vary in size, intent
and composition. Members in the same group
share ideas and information with one another in
their meetings in pursuance of their common
objective. Thus, they concern themselves with
their group affairs.

ADVANTAGES OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Immediate Feedback: In person-to-person

»
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communication situation, feedback is immediate.
There is no delay in responding, as both persons
are present on the spot. This will enable
immediate scheduling or rescheduling or
adjustments.

Reinforcement: The use of gestures, facial

expression and other body language will help to
reinforce a message because a speaker�s feeling
may be better expressed in these terms.
Message Clarification: In face-to-face contact
issues are clarified as a message is given. This
reduces misunderstanding and misinterpretation
as all misconceptions are settled on the spot.
Interpersonal Report: A very sure method of
establishing and maintaining interpersonal
rapport is by face-to-face �talking it over.� This
reduces mistrust and tension in offices, homes
and organizations.
Participation: It allows for participation and
contribution of everyone present during a
discussion.
DISADVANTAGE
Temporary: Verbal communication has no
pursuance since it is not recorded in any form. As
a result, a speaker can be misquoted. In fact, oral
information can be forgotten or denied anywhere,
anytime.
Inconvenient: It is often not convenient to reach a
large number of people
Duck hunt on a face-to-face
» and
individual basis. Similarly, highly placed person
may not be easily reached in this form.

Imprecision: During the course of an utterance, it

may not be easy to reason and eliminate errors,
before an utterance is given.

Non Verbal Communication: Non verbal

communication includes all other forms of
communication other than the verbal forms. It can
be broadly grouped into written communication
and sign language.
Written Communication: This involves the use of
written words as an outgrowth of oral language.
Alphabetic symbols are organized in a manner to
convey ideas, messages between

communicants. Learning to write is a process that

begins from childhood to adulthood. We have to be
able to write what we want to say and read what
others have written. Examples of written
communication are letters, reports, memos, books,
bulletins, circulars, minutes, articles etc.

ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

It is a permanent means of giving and storing

messages. Materials written by people and
organization can be preserved for a very long time
without losing the message. Written materials can
be read and re-read. More time is spent
composing them thus ensuring accuracy.
»
In law, written agreement
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forms the basis of
Contract. It can be read again and again by the
receiver to clarify doubts. It is therefore ideal for
sending long distance and complex
communication. Written Communication can be
duplicated into several other copies that can be
circulated to distant places to get a wider
readership. The risk of distortion is greatly
reduced since the material can circulate to various
places in the same form and shape. In official
matters, only written communication carries
weight of authority acceptable in such situations.
In business matters, it interprets, clarifies,
confirms and preserves oral communication.

DISADVANTAGE OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

- It is tasking producing a written material. Much

time, talent, energy and money is spent putting
one together.

- On the part of communication, the writer must be

literate enough to write and the receiver must be
able to read and interpret before communication
can take place.

- In written communication on the spot feedback

is not possible since the receiver may not be at
same place of writing.

- Written material may be too bulky or complex for

the reader who may on this ground not be willing
to read e.g. reports
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etc.
- Written materials also derail in transit and end in
unwanted hands.

SIGN LANGUAGE

This involves the use of gesture, paralanguage and

distance to convey ideas, thought and feelings as
we discuss them below;

Gesture: This represents the way or manner we

move some parts of the body or even the whole of
it. This phenomenon is also called
body language. Sometimes, such gestures are
understood without any words going with them. If
for instance, one gives a handshake to a visitor,
that visitor will understand that he is welcome.
Supposing one motion to another with bare hand
to come, the person so motioned can understand
even when no words accompany the gesture.
Some gesture have well developed sign language
with which they communicate.
Paralanguage: Information, attitude and feelings
can be convey by the manner a thing is said rather
than what is said. A hiss at someone is a sign of
scorn or dissatisfaction to that one. Similarly,
things like volume or tone of voice may say a lot
about the speaker�s feelings, attitude or his
status. In paralanguage, information is conveyed
by tone of voice of the speaker and his
countenance rather than any specified word used.
Distance: This Duck
is the
hunt gap maintained between
»
people. Keeping a distance from a person can say
a number of things. It may be that the person
distance is unwanted or that the source wants to
remove himself from a particular situation.
Distance totally cuts off possib/pnbsp; In most
cases, periodicals are not borrowed out of the
library like books unless in exceptional cases.
They are used or referred to in the library. This is
because of their fragile nature.quot;"ility of
communication. However, distance can be broken
by friends and colleagues but strangers cannot
penetrate it.

ADVANTAGES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

It can give additional information to

communicaThey provide important quotationstion
by the use of gestures, action, and tone of the
voice. It gives visible actions. It enhances oral
communication by the provision of visible
movement.

DISADVANTAGES OF NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION

Interpretation of non-verbal codes may lead to

contradiction and misinformation. It may take
additional skill to be able to understand and
interpret non verbal codes.

INTERFERENCE IN COMMUNICATION

Interference is said to occur in communication

when there is aDuck
hindrance
hunt
or obstruction
» in the
channel. The chief source of this hindrance or
barrier is NOISE. Noise in communication is
anything that reduces the effectiveness of a
message. In linguistic parlance, the source of
noise could be semantic, grammatical or
phonological.
Semantic Barrier: Sometimes, there is disparity in
the level of language usage of different individuals
at various points. As a result of this, there is
misunderstanding arising from meanings attached
to certain expressions. This is often so in a second
language situation. Sometimes, this problem
occurs because of the educational level of the
individuals. For instance, to an ordinary taxi or bus
driver to �see� a policeman may mean a
different thing to him as it will to a company chief
executive. In the same way business connotes
different things to different people. People who
operate at different semantic levels may have
problems communicating effectively.
Code of Switching: This is a situation in which a
single speaker uses varieties of codes from
different languages in a single utterance. He may
start with one language code and with another e.g.
(i) Kedu maka your people, ( ii) Nye m my money
Code Mixing: This involves a mix of varieties of
codes from two languages in a single utterance.
The codes are mixed as opposed to switching. In a
second language English, there is mother tongue
interference. On the other hand, there could be
English phonemes, which do not occur in the
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learner�s native language. The learner would
substitute such sound with a nearest sound in the
mother tongue e.g. substituting the native / / for
English / / in Yoruba and native Igbo // for English
//. Igbo language has no �-ging� progressive
form so the nearest / / sound is substituted in
word like longing, singing etc. Lexical Level
Barrier: Hindrance at this level involves direct
translation from mother tongue and imposition of
the patterns of the native language on the
secondary language.
Look at these translations:

(i) Obinna was chasing Adaora yesterday (wooing)

(ii) My mother is cooking soup (preparing)

(iii) The government should take qualified teachers

(employ)

(iv) He used four years to study (spent)

(v) My sister born a baby (gave birth).

(vi) Our class representative ate our money

(embezzled).

{END OF PART (I)}

CONTINUATION�

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