FIRST TERM BIOLOGY SS1 E- NOTE

FIRST TERM SCHEME

WEEK TOPICS CONTENTS
1 Recognizing living things  Characteristics of living things
 Difference between plant and animal
 Levels of organization of life
2 Classification of living things  Characteristics and examples of
Kingdom monera, protista and fungi
3 Classification of living things  Characteristics and examples of
continued Kingdom plantae and animalia
4 The cell  Cell theory
 Forms in which cells exist
 Difference between plant and animal
5 Cell and its environment  Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Biological importance
6 Properties and function of  Cell nutrition
the cell  Cell respiration
7 Excretion  Definition
 Importance
 Products of excretion
 Forms of excretory products
8 Growth and irritability  Basis of growth
 Regulation of growth
 Growth measurement
 Cell reaction to its environment
 Types of responses

9 Movement  Definition and importance

 Organelles for movement
 auxins
10 Reproduction  Reproduction in invertebrates
 Vegetative or artificial reproduction
WEEK ONE
BIOLOGY AND LIVING THINGS
CONTENT
 Biology as Inquiry in Science
 Process or method of Science
 Microscope Parts and function

BIOLOGY AS AN INQUIRY IN SCIENCE

Science is the study of nature (living and non-living things). Biology is a science that studies
living things in nature. Biology was formed from the Greek words "Bio" (meaning life) and
“logos" (meaning, study of).
The organisms studied in biology are generally classified into plants and animals. Therefore,
biology is a science subject that can be subdivided into two main branches or subjects namely:
(a) Botany –the study of plants.
(b) Zoology - the study of animals.
Other branches of biology include zoology, botany, microbiology, parasitology, anatomy,
physiology, biotechnology, etc.

RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY
Biology has found great applications in many areas of human life, some of which include:
a. Medicine: Production of drugs and vaccines for preventing and curing many diseases
e.g. penicillin, organ transplant e.g. kidney (renal) transplant, in-vitro fertilization in
infertile couples.
b. Agriculture: Production of hybrid (crops and animals with desired qualities), use of
biological pesticides to control agricultural pests
c. Bioremediation i.e. use of naturally occurring bacteria to clean up oil spills and toxic
chemicals.
d. Biotechnology: Use of genetic engineering to fight genetic diseases.
e. Food production: Production of single cell protein (SCP) to reduce protein deficiency
problem, food storage and preservation

EVALUATION
1. What is biology.
2. Describe the following branches of Biology (a) parasitology (b) anatomy (c) physiology.

PROCESS OR METHOD OF SCIENCE

This is a systematic approach used to investigate enquiries arising from any observation made
in nature. Therefore, the scientific method is the tool used to unravel the mysteries of life. The
scientific methods include the following steps:
 Observation
  Classification
 Inference
 Measurement and Identification
 Hypothesis
 Experiment
 Control or Conclusion
 Theory or Law
The starting point of scientific method is observation which involves the use of the senses to
describe what one has seen or felt about an object. The observation then leads to classification,
then to inference (logical reasoning) and later to measurement and identification of the existing
problem. This is followed by hypothesis which is a reasonable explanation for an observation
made and which can be tested experimentally. A tested hypothesis may be accepted, rejected
or modified to form a new hypothesis. A tested hypothesis that is found to be repeatedly true
within the limits of available evidence becomes a theory. A theory is therefore an aggregate of
many verified hypotheses. An extensively tested and proven theory becomes a law or principle
which is still subject to change due to continual experimentation or research. To carry out a
successful experiment (void of false conclusions), a parallel experiment called controlled
experiment is usually set up. This is done by keeping constant all factors affecting the result of
the main experiment and varying the factor being tested.
Experiments should be reported following a generally accepted pattern laid down by scientists.
The pattern includes:
a. Aim: the purpose of the experiment.
b. Apparatus/ materials required.
c. Method /procedure followed
d. Observation made.
e. Conclusion based on observation made and final result got.
Note: precaution or care that should be taken against dangers/hazards can also feature during
experimentation.

EVALUATION
1. Define (a) Hypothesis (b) Theory (c) Principle
2. List the steps in scientific methods.

MICROSCOPE PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

A microscope is an instrument used in magnifying and viewing organisms smaller than 0.1mm that
is too tiny to be seen by the human eyes. A compound light microscope consists of the following
parts:
a. Revolving nose piece: it is used for selecting lens to be used and to be in line with the eye
piece.
b. Objective lenses (low, medium and high power): for magnification of object
c. Eye piece lens or ocular: for viewing magnified object.
 d. Body tube: provides attachment to eyepiece, revolving nose piece, low-power, medium-
power and high-power objective lens.
e. Coarse focus knob: for focusing on object at low power.
f. Fine adjustment knob: for focusing on object at medium and high power magnification so
that object is sharper at focus.
g. Arm: for lifting or carrying the microscope.
h. Clip: for holding glass slide on stage.
i. Stage: for displaying slide and specimens under focus.
j. Condenser: regulates the amount of light rays entering the microscope and object.
k. Knob: to raise and lower the condenser.
l. Base: for balancing the microscope on the table.
m. Mirror: for collecting light rays and directing them to condenser and object.

EVALUATION
1. List five major parts of a microscope and their functions.
2. Mention two other types of microscopes.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. “Biology is a science that studies life”. Explain.
2. State the various professions practicable with adequate knowledge of biology.
3. How relevant is biology to you as a living organism?
4. What is a scientific method?
5. Describe the pattern followed during experimentation in a scientific study.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Modern Biology, chapter 1, page 1 – 5.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Biology is a subject concerned with the study of ____ (a) living things (b) non-living things
(c) living and non-living things (d) climate.
2. A parallel experiment done alongside a laboratory experiment is said to be _______ (a)
side experiment (b) certainty experiment (c) controlled experiment (d) emergency
experiment.
3. A reasonable explanation for any observation made in nature is scientifically termed ____
(a) idea (b) theory (c) hypothesis (d) notion.
4. _____ is a scientific fact (a) observation (b) theory (c) idea (d) hypothesis
5. The part that regulates the amount of light entering a microscope is the (a) knob (b) fine
adjustment (c) condenser (d) objective lens
THEORY
1. State four relevance of biology to life.
2. List five careers in biology.

LIVING THINGS AND NON LIVING THINGS

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
Everything in nature can be classified into two groups: living and non -living things.
The living things can be distinguished from their nonliving counterparts through the following
characteristics observable in all living things:
1. MOVEMENT: Animals can move from place to place on their own in search of food.
Higher plants move certain parts of their body in response to growth or external stimuli
2. RESPIRATION: In order to perform the numerous life processes, living things need much
energy. The energy can only be obtained when the organism respires. Therefore,
respiration is the oxidation of food substances in the presence of oxygen to produce
energy with carbon (iv) oxide and water released as by products.
3. NUTRITION: The act of feeding is called nutrition. All organisms need food to carry out
their biological activities. Green plants can manufacture their food. Hence, they are
autotrophs while animals are dependent on plants for their food, so they are
heterotrophs.
4. IRRITABILITY: Is the ability of living things to respond to external and internal stimuli in
order to survive. External stimuli may be light, heat, water, sound or chemical
substances.
5. GROWTH: this is the tendency of organisms to increase irreversibly and rapidly in length
and size and in mass. The essence of growth is to enable organisms to repair or replace
damaged or old tissues in their bodies. The food eaten by an organism provides the
basis of growth.
 6. EXCRETION: Toxic waste products of metabolism & other unwanted materials have to
be eliminated to ensure proper functioning of the bodies of organisms. Such wastes
include water, carbon (iv) oxide etc.
7. REPRODUCTION: Is the ability of a living organism to give birth to young ones (off
springs). The essence is to ensure life continuity. Reproduction can be sexual (involving
two organisms) or asexual (involving one organism)
8. LIFE SPAN / DEATH: Every organism has a definite and limited period of existence. Life ,
for all organism has five main stages , namely : origin ( birth ) , growth, maturity, decline
and death.
9. COMPETITION: Living things tend to struggle for the basic things of life in order to
survive. Hence, they compete for food, water, light, mates and space.
10. ADAPTATION: To survive, every organism possesses ability to get used to change in its
environment.
EVALUATION
1. State the characteristics that must be possessed by an organism to be referred to as living
things.
2. Which of these characteristics does a virus possess.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

All living organisms can be generally classified as plants or animals. However, plants can be
distinguished from animals in the following ways:
PLANTS ANIMALS
1. Undergo passive movement. Undergo free or active movement with well
developed organs of locomotion.
2. Gaseous exchange takes place Gaseous exchange is through special organs.
through the entire body.
3. Green plants photosynthesize i. e. Animals do not photosynthesize i. e. they are
they are autotrophs. heterotrophs.
4. They exhibit slow response to They exhibit fast response to stimuli.
stimuli.
5. Growth is apical and indefinite Growth is uniform and definite (limited).
(continuous).
6. No specialized sense organs. Possess specialized sense organs.
7. No specialized excretory systems. They have special and well developed
excretory systems.
8. Cell has rigid non living cellulose Have thin, flexible cell membrane.
cell wall which provides mechanical Mechanical support is provided by external
support. exoskeleton or internal endoskeleton.
9. They store food (carbohydrates) as They store carbohydrates as glycogen
starch except fungi which store
food as glycogen.
EVALUATION
 1. Differentiate between autotrophs and heterotrophs
2. State four differences between plants and animals

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Explain the differences between growth in plants and animals
2. Define the following characteristics of living things (a) respiration (b) irritability
(c) excretion
3. What are the similarities between living and non-living things
4. What are the similarities between plants and animals
5. Define (a) species (b) genus (c) phylum in classification of organisms
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The ability of living things to get used to their environment is ____ (a) survival
(b) adaptation (c) adjustment (d) photosynthesis
2. Response to stimuli in animals can be said to be _______ (a) very slow (b) very flow (c)
fast (d) steady.
3. Fungi store their food (carbohydrate) as _____ (a) starch (b) glycogen (c) hormone (d)
antibody
4. Sensitivity of a living organism to external factor around it is technically known as ________
(a) alertness (b) irritability (c) sense organ (d) knowledge
5. Which of the following is the lowest in the category of classification? (a) Class (b)
Species (c) Family (d) Genus
THEORY
1. With five of the characteristics above, distinguish between plants and animals.
2. Classify human being fully.

WEEK TWO
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
CONTENT
 Modern Classification of Living Organisms
 Kingdom Monera, Protista, Fungi
 Kingdom Plantae
 Kingdom Animalia
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISIMS
Nature comprises millions of organisms, hence the need for identification, naming and
classifying them in a meaningful manner. The present and widely accepted method of
classification of organism was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. The study of the general
principles of classification is called taxonomy or systematic. Classification is an arrangement of
organisms into groups, each group is then split into smaller groups and the members of each
group have certain features in common which distinguish them from other groups. The largest
group of organisms is the kingdom. The arrangement of living organisms from the highest to
the lowest (with decreasing variety of organisms) is as follows:
KINGDOM PHYLUM OR DIVISION CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS SPECIES

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

This is the standard system of naming living organisms. Each type of organism is given two
names:
(i) The name of the genus (generic name) to which the organism belongs.
(ii) The name of the species (specific name) to which it belongs.
The generic name is always written first using initial capital letter (underlined or italicized) e.g.
Homosapien is man’s scientific name.
EVALUATION
1. Define taxonomy.
2. What is binomial nomenclature.

MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

All organisms cannot be suitably classified as either plants or animals based on CarolusLinneaus
classification. Therefore five kingdoms have been generally accepted for all living organisms,
these include Monera, Protista, fungi, plantae and animalia.

KINGDOM MONERA (Prokaryotes)

This group consists of simplest living organisms (bacteria, blue-green anabaena).
- They are microscopic single-celled.
- The cell wall does not contain cellulose. It is made up of protein and fatty materials.
- They have no definite nucleus. Nucleus lack nuclear membrane and DNA are scattered in
the cytoplasm.
- They lack most cell organelles except the ribosome.
- Reproduction is asexual by binary fission.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
- They are unicellular organisms.
- The organisms are all eukaryotes i. e. cell have definite nucleus.
- Most protists are aquatic organisms.
- They move either by cilia, flagella or pseudopodia.
- Some are free living while few are parasitic.
Protists can be broadly divided into two groups;
a. Protozoa: animal-like protists e.g. amoeba, paramecium, plasmodium, trypanosome.
b. Protophyta: Plant-like protists e. g. Diatoms, chlorella, chlamydomonas.
Note: Euglena is a protist with plant and animal like features.
KINGDOM FUNGI
- They are non-green organisms which do not photosynthesize (lack chlorophyll).
 - All fungi except slime moulds are non-motile.
- They have rigid cell wall made up of chitin and polysaccharides.
- They reproduce asexually by producing spores and sexually as well.
- Most of them are saprophytes while some are parasites.
- They lack true roots, stem and leaves.
- Few are unicellular (yeast) while most are multicellular (rhizopus, mushroom).
Multicellular fungi have filamentous bodies that are made up of a network of fine, branching
filaments called hyphae (singular: hypha). This mass of hyphae is known as mycelium (plural:
mycelia).

EVALUATION
1. Describe the features of a named (a) Animal like protist (b) Fungi (c) Bacteria
2. State the phyla of fungi.

KINGDOM PLANTAE
This consists of organisms with cellulose cell wall and chlorophyll for manufacturing their food.
It consists of three major phyla i. e thallophyta, bryophyta and tracheophyta.
a. THALLOPHYTA (ALGAE)
Examples include spirogyra, volvox, sargassum and kelp
- These are simple aquatic photosynthetic plants
- They are non vascular plants
- They lack true root, stem and leaves.
- They are either unicellular or multicellular and may be green, brown or red.
- They reproduce asexually (by cell division, fragmentation, spore) or sexually.
- They exhibit alternation of generation.
b. BRYOPHTA
These include hornworts, liverworts and mosses
- Bryophytes are multicellular, non vascular plants.
- They also lack true roots, stems and leaves.
- They have chlorophyll as the only photosynthetic pigment.
- They are terrestrial but live in moist place.
- They produce spores asexually and also reproduce sexually. Hence, they also show a
distinct alternation of generation.
c. TRACHEOPHYTA
- They are green multicelluar, terrestrial vascular plants i.e. they have tissues for
conducting water and food.
- They have true roots, stem, and leaves.
It is the largest group of plants and can be subdivided into two i. e. pteridophytes and
spermatophytes.
i. PTERIDOPHYTA (FERNS)
Examples include Dryopteris, platycerium, ferns etc
- They are spore bearing plants.
 - They possess well developed vascular tissues and chlorophyll
- Asexual and sexual reproductive organs are referred to as sori and prothalusrespectively
- The stem grows horizontally and is referred to as rhizome

ii. SPERMATOPHYTA
These are seed bearing plants. They can be grouped into two

(i) GYMNOSPERMS
Examples are cycads (whistling pine, fir), conifers and gingkos
- Their seeds are borne naked in special structures called cones. They don’t have flowers
e.g conifers, cycads.
- These are trees or shrubs with needle, broad or scale like leaves.
(ii) ANGIOSPERMS
They form the largest group in the plants kingdom and are adapted to almost every kind of
habitat. Examples are oil palm tree, water leaf, maize plant etc.
- They bear true flowers for sexual reproduction.
- They have more abundant water conducting vessels than gymnosperms.
- They bear seeds enclosed in fruits.
- They show more specialized and complex reproductive mechanism involving pollination
and fertilization.
Angiosperms are grouped into two, monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Examples include maize, guinea grass, rice, oil palm etc.
- They have seeds with one seed leaf (cotyledon).
- They are generally herbs with scattered vascular bundles in their stem.
- They have leaves with parallel venation and fibrous root system.
- They undergo hypogeal germination (i.e. their cotyledons remain below the ground at
germination.)
- They do not undergo secondary growth.
 DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Examples include orange, hibiscus plants etc.
- They are more primitive angiosperms having seeds with two seed leaves
- They have tap root system
- They usually undergo secondary growth
- The leaves have veins arranged in branched network
- They undergo epigeal germination (i.e the cotyledons are borne above the soil).
EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between thallophytes and bryophytes
2. Differentiate between angiosperms and gymnosperms

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
This consists of multicellular organisms with no cell wall; they have no chloroplasts in their cell
therefore they feed heterotrophically. Animals can be classified into two main groups:
a. Invertebrates – animals without backbones.
b. Vertebrates – animals with backbones.
These two groups can further be divided and subdivided based on body symmetry, body design
and body cavity.

INVERTERBRATES
a. Phylum Porifera (sponges):
- They are primitive multicellular, aquatic animals (colonies of cells)
- They lack true tissues and nervous system
- Reproduce asexually and sexually (hermaphrodites
b. PhylumCoelenterata (Cnidaria: Hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones):
- They have two layered bodies surrounding a central hollow cavity called enteron.
- They have tentacles and most of them are marine
- Possession of stinging cells called nematocysts
- There is only one opening called mouth. No anus.
c. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms: Tapeworm, planaria, liver fluke)
- They have soft, flat, unsegmented elongated bodies
- They lack body cavity.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical and mainly parasites in man and other animals
- They possess alimentary canal. No anus
d. Phylum Nematoda (roundworm, hookworm, guinea worm)
- They have thread like, cylindrical, unsegmented body with no body cavity.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- They have alimentary canal with mouth and anus
- Some are parasitic, while others are free living
e. Phylum Annelida (earthworm, leeches)
- They have internal and external segmented bodies which are long and cylindrical.
- They have true body cavity (ceoloma).
- The appendages (setae) are not jointed
f. Phylum Mollusca (snail, squid, octopus)
- They have soft unsegmented bodies
- Tentacles are present in most members
- Some have shells e.g snails, squid etc while others have no shell e. g. octopus, slug
g. Phylum Echinodermata (star fish, bristle star, sae lily)
- They possess tough, spiny and calcerous exoskeleton
- The head is not usually distinct
- They are all marine
- Most of them are stay shaped
Examples are britle star, star fish, sea urchin, sea lily etc
h. Phylum Arthropoda (the largest group in the animal kingdom)
 - They have segmented bodies
- They have exoskeleton made up of chitin
- Their appendages are jointed.
- They have body divisions
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
They can be subdivided into four classes
i. Insectae.g cockroach, housefly, grasshopper etc.
ii. Arachnida e.g. spider, scorpion, tick etc.
iii. Crustaceans e.g. crab, crayfish, prawns etc.
iv. Myriapoda e.g. centipedes and millipedes.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following in relation to body symmetry (a) asymmetrical (b) radially
symmetrical (c) bilateral symmetrical
2. Write short note on body cavity
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between an algae and a fungi
2. Describe the structural features of a named algae
3. Differentiate between pteridophytes and spermatophytes
4. What do you understand by alternation of generation
5. State four differences between mollusca and arthropoda
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Angiosperms and gymnosperms belong to the plant group known as A. scizophyta
B. bryophyta C. pteridophyta D. spermatophyte
2. Sting cells are normally found in A. Flatworms B. Hydra C. Snails D. Paramecium
3. Which of the following are differentiated into true roots, stems and leaves?
A. Schizophyta B. Bryophyta C. Pteridophyta D. Algae
4. Each of the following is an arthropod EXCEPT A. crab B. millipede C. spider D. snail
5. In which of the following groups of animals are flagella and cilia found A. Flatworms
B. Protozoa C. Nematodes D. Coelenterates
THEORY
1. State two distinguishing features each of the four classes of the phylum arthropoda
2. In a tabular form, state four differences between monocot and dicot plants
 WEEK THREE
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS AND ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
CONTENT
 The vertebrates
 Level of organization of life
 Complexity of organization in higher organization

THE VERTEBRATES (PHYLUM CHORDATA)

All vertebrates have the following features:
a. A bilaterally symmetrical body which is divided into a head, trunk and a tail with a neck
joining the head to the trunk in most vertebrates.
b. An internal skeleton (endoskeleton)
c. Well developed central nervous system and sense organs.
d. A closed blood system
e. Skin covered with scales, feather or hair.
The phylum chordata (animals with notochord) can be subdivided into five classes. Thee include
a. Class Pisces (tilapia, shark, dogfish)
- These are fishes which are aquatic, cold blooded (poikilothermic) i.e. the body
temperature varies with that of the surrounding).
- Their bodies are covered with scales.
- They breathe through their gills
- Fertilization is external
- They posses fins for locomotion
- Their bodies are streamlined in shape
b. Class Amphibians (toad, frog, newt)
- They are cold blooded animals.
- They spend most of their time on land but reproduce (lay eggs) in water.
- They carry out gaseous exchange using gills, lungs, skin or mouth living.
- They have naked moist skin
- Fertilization is external
- They have two pairs of limbs with webbed toes
c. Class Reptilia (lizards, snakes, crocodiles etc)
- Their skin is covered with dry scales which prevent water loss from the body.
- Gaseous exchange is carried out through their lungs
- Fertilization is internal and eggs are laid on land.
- They are cold-blooded
d. Class Aves (birds)
 - They are warm- blooded (homoiothermic) i.e. they are able to keep their body
temperature more or less constant.
- Their body is covered with feathers
- They have toothless beak for feeding.
- Fore limbs modified into wings for flight
- Fertilization is internal.
e. Class Mammalia (rats, bats, dogs, whales, monkey, kangaroos, man etc)
- They are warm-blooded
- They have skin covered with hair.
- They possess heterodont teeth i.e. different sets of teeth.
- They have a well-developed brain
- They give birth to their young ones alive (viviparous)
- They use lungs for gaseous exchange.

EVALUATION
1. State five distinguishing features of the phylum chordata
2. Differentiate between a named amphibian and a reptile

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

Every living thing is made up of a cell or a number of cells. A single-celled organism is called
unicellular while a many-celled organism is called multicellular. Organization of life is therefore
the existence of life from a single-celled organism to a multicellular organism with complex
forms that performs different functions. Four levels of organization of life exist, namely: cell,
tissue, organ and system.
1. Cell: A cell is a functional and structural unit of protoplasm bounded by a membrane and
containing nuclear and cytoplasmic materials. Some living things exist as cells which have
cytoplasmic structures such as pseudopodia, cilia, flagella and vacuoles e.g. Amoeba,
Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and Euglena. Common cells that perform distinct functions
in plant and animals include sperm cells, nerve cells, bone cells, red blood cells, root hair
cells etc.
2. Tissues: A tissue is a collection of cells which are similar in structure and functions. Hydra
is an example of an animal that is made up of tissues only. Examples of tissues in animals
and plants are epithelial tissue, blood, nerve tissue, muscle tissue, xylem and phloem
tissues etc.
3. Organ: An organ is a collection of different tissues that perform a common function or
functions e.g. Kidney, heart, brain, stem, roots etc. Example of organ in plant is onion
bulb.
4. System: A system is a set of organs which co-operate to carry out one of the vital
functions of life e. g. Digestive system, respiratory system, reproductive system, transport
system etc.
EVALUATION
1. List four types of cells in organisms and their functions
 2. State the functions of five types of tissues in man

COMPLEXITY OF ORGANIZATION IN HIGHER ORGANISMS

Higher organisms have bodies that are differentiated into specialised parts performing different
functions. The different specialized parts made up of tissues, organs and systems make higher
organisms more complex and efficient to carry out various activities of life.

Advantages of complexity
1. It leads to division of labour and specialization
2. It has led to the efficiency of the various organs of the body.
3. The complexity of higher organism has led to their survival (adaptation) in their different
habitats.
4. Various systems operate side by side without adversely affecting each other
5. Reproduction in complex organisms does not lead to the disintegration of the parents

Disadvantages of complexity
1. Individual cells are not capable of existing independently and therefore depend on one
another’s activities to exist
2. With complexity, ability to regenerate lost parts decreases.
3. Difficulties in acquisition of food materials and oxygen and loss of waste product
4. Difficulties in reproduction
5. It leads to slower rate of diffusion because the surface area to volume ratio is small and
the distance from exterior to the center of the body is great

EVALUATION
1. Why are higher organisms referred to as ‘complex’
2. State the advantages of complexity.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Distinguish between Pisces, and amphibian.
2. Using their biological features distinguish between a cold-blooded animal and a warm-
blooded animal.
3. How can you recognize a vertebrate?
4. List five systems in flowering plants and their functions
5. State four advantages and three disadvantages of a complex organisms
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. The feature that distinguishes a toad from a fish is the absence of A. scales B. lungs
C. tail D. paired appendages
2. Some of the features of an animal are scales, teeth, nails and backbone. The animal is
likely to be A. bird B. lizard C. toad D. rat
 3. Which of the following animal is cold blooded? A. cat B. Lizard C. Whales
D. Bird
4. A peculiar characteristics of mammals is that they A. have teeth B. are warm blooded
C. have sebaceous gland D. have lungs
5. The third level of organization of life is A. cell B. tissue C. system D. organs
THEORY
1. In a tabular form, differentiate between the five classes of mammals under the following
sub headings
(a) Body temperature (b) fertilization (c) dentition (d) type of heart (e) body covering
2. State four advantages of complexity in higher organisms

WEEK FOUR
THE CELLL
CONTENT
 Definition of cell and forms of cellular existence
 Cell structure and functions of the cell components
 Similarities and Differences between plant and animal cell
 Cell theory

DEFINITION AND FORMS OF CELLULAR EXISTENCE

The cell is the simplest, smallest, basic, structural and functional unit of life. The cell can carry
out all life activities such as growth, respiration e. t. c.
Cells can exist in various forms which include
a. As a single cell (unicellular forms) e. g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Euglena
i. Chlamydomonas(Chlamydomonas rivalries)
Chlamydomonas is a unicellular plant like protist, motile using its flagellum and has a cup
shaped chloroplast. It is sensitive to light using its eye spot. In the presence of light, starch
grains appear in the cytoplasm. These disappear in a dark environment.
Chlamydomonas cells through its flagella (whip like) respond to changes in the surrounding
such as moving from a dark region to a region of light. This organism disposes off its excess
water using its contractile vacuoles. It reproduces asexually and sexually when it reaches its
maximum size.
ii. Amoeba (Amoeba proteus)
Amoeba is a unicellular animal like protest and the simplest organism with heterotrophic mode
of feeding. It is shapeless. It digests its complex food with its food vacuole. The undigested food
materials are got rid of with excess water through its contractile vacuole. Amoeba moves about
and captures its food with the aid of its pseudopodia (‘’false feet’’). At maximum growth,
amoeba reproduces asexually by dividing into two daughter cells (binary fission)
iii. Paramecium
Paramecium is a more complex unicellular organism compared to Amoeba. It is slipper- shaped
and moves with the aid of its cilia, which also directs food into its gullet. The undigested food
material is removed through the anal pore. Excess water is got rid of through the anterior and
posterior contractile vacuoles. Two types of nucleus are visible in this organism, the
micronucleus and mega nucleus
iv. Euglena (Euglena viridis)
Euglenaviridis is a protist that has both plant and animal features.
As a plant, it has chloroplasts (star shaped) for photosynthesis, pyrenoid for starch storage and
paramylum granules (form in which starch is stored).
As an animal, it has no cellulose cell wall, but a plasma membrane called pellicle, a gullet, eye
spot, contractile vacuole and flagellum for movement.
b. In colonial forms e. g. Volvox, Sponges, Pandorina
Volvox
Volvox is made up of severalchlamydomonas- like cells which are arranged in angular layer to
form a hollow ball-like structure. The cells are connected by cytoplasm strands.
The cell of Volvox moves about through the beating of the flagella. Most cells of Volvox lose
their ability to reproduce. Only a few of them can reproduce to form two daughter cells
c. In filamentous forms e. g. Spirogyra, Oscillateria, Oedogonium
Spirogyra
Spirogyra is a filament of identical cells which are joined end to end without branching. Each
cell of spirogyra carries out its function independent of another cell. Spirogyra has spirally
arranged chloroplast for photosynthesis.
The filament grows indefinitely. The break-off cells from the filament have the ability to
reproduce asexually to form a new filament. Spirogyra also has ability to reproduce sexually.
d. As a part of multicellular organisms 0
A multicellular organism is made up of interdependent cells carrying out several special
functions. The cells of the multicellular organisms are arranged to perform similar functions and
then form tissues. A group of specialized tissues performing similar function forms an organ.
Organs are further organized to carry out special functions in form of system or organ system.
Ultimately, the interdependent biological system results in the complex multicellular organisms.

EVALUATION
1. What is a cell, list four forms of cellular existence with examples?
2. Discuss feeding, movement and reproduction in a named unicellular organism

CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The study of a cell is called cytology. A cell consists of a living material called protoplasm, which
is surrounded by a membrane called plasma membrane. In plants, a cell wall (non-living part) is
also present surrounding the plasma membrane. The protoplasm is made up of two major
parts: a. cytoplasm b. Nucleus

The cytoplasm contains cell organelles or inc

L+usions, which are cellular structures with specific functions. The cells which contain a nucleus
and organelles are called eukaryotic cells. These show a high level of cellular organization.
However, some cells lack definite nucleus and organelles. In such cells (prokaryotic cells e.g.
bacteria), materials containing instructions for growth and development are found in a
particular part of the cell and so are not enclosed in any membrane.

Nucleus is the largest cellular organelle enclosed by a double-layered nuclear membrane with
many pores. It contains chromosomes and nucleolus which are rich in proteins and nucleic
acids.

The nucleus performs the following functions:

a. Exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm through the nuclear
pores.
b. Storage of hereditary information by the chromosomes
c. Control centre of cellular activities

Structure of a typical animal cell

CELL COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL FUNCTIONS
COMPONENT/ORGANELLE
S
i. Mitochondrion Site of cellular respiration for energy production. It consists of
enzymes and DNA. The enzymes convert ADP to ATP.
ii. Vacuole Surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast. It contains cell
sap mineral salt and sugar. It act as an osmoregulator
 (removing excess water).
iii. Endoplasmic reticulum Aids transport of materials within the cytoplasm. Rough
(ER) endoplasmic reticulum(RER) (having ribosome attached) is for
protein synthesis and transportation. Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER) is for lipids and steroids synthesis and
transportion.
iv. Golgi bodies/apparatus For synthesis, packaging and distribution of materials.
v. Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis in green plants
vi. Lysosomes Site for production of enzymes for respiration and destruction
of worn out cells.
vii. Ribosome For protein synthesis
viii. Centrioles Active in cell division by producing spindle fibres to which
chromosomes are attached. (present only in animal cell).
ix. Cell plasma) membrane This is flexible and selectively permeable. It controls the
materials entering or leaving the cell
x. Cell wall It protects the cell, thus providing mechanical support in
plants.

Structure of a typical plant cell

EVALUATION
List five cell organelles and their functions

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Both plant and animal cells have the following in common
(a)Nucleus (b) golgi bodies (c) mitochondria (d) cytoplasm (e) chromosomes (f) endoplasmic
reticulum (g) nucleolus (h) ribosomes (i) lysosomes (j) cell membrane
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL
 PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
1 Has chloroplast No chloroplast
2 Rectangular and definite in shape Usually spherical or shapeless
3 Has rigid cellulose cell wall No cell wall
4 Centrioles are absent Centrioles are present for cell division
5 Cytoplasm is less dense Cytoplasm is dense granular
6 Starch granules present Glycogen granules present
7 Presence of large central permanent Vacuoles are absent or small and
vacuole temporary when presnt

CELL THEORY

This is the summary of research efforts of many scientist like Robert Hooke, Matthias Schleidein
and Theodore Schwann in 1838 and 1839 likewise, Rudolf Virchow (1855) etc.
The cell theory states that:
a. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
b. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms i.e. the basic
organizational unit of life.
c. All existing cells come from pre-existing ones.
d. A cell contains information for its structural and functional development in its nucleic
acids. This information is passed down from the parents to the off spring

EVALUATION
1. State three similarities and five differences between plants and animals cell
2. Write short note on the history of the cell
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Describe briefly the history of the cell
2. State the four forms of cell existence.
3. Discuss, with a diagram, a named plant- like unicellular protest.
4. Discuss, with a diagram, a named animal-like protist .
5. Draw the diagram of a named filamentous organism.
6. Differentiate between: (a) cells forming tissues and those forming colonies
(b) Colonial and filamentous organisms
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. A cell that is capable of self existence is a/an A. amoeba B. ovum C. amoeba
D. onion epidermal cell
2. Which of these organelles is common to both plants and animals cells? A. Chloroplast
B. Centriole C. Mitochondrion D. Pyrenoid
3. Which scientist did not contribute to the formation of cell theory? A. Isaac Newton
B. Robert Hooke C. Matthias Schliemann D. Theodor Schwann
4. The organelle which is contractile in function in Euglena is the A. eye spot B. gullet
C. myoneme D. paramylon
5. Which of the following cells are not regarded as specialized? A. Muscle cells
B. Root tip cells C. Somatic cells D. Sperm cells
 WEEK FIVE
CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
CONTENT
 Environment/Nature and state of matter
 Diffusion (Definition, process and significance)
 Osmosis (Definition, process and significance)
 Relationship between osmosis and diffusion
 Haemolysis and plasmolysis
 Flaccidity and turgidity

Environment/Nature and State of Matter

Living cells are known to be surrounded by a watery environment. This may include:
Fresh/salt water in which the unicellular organisms live, Intercellular fluid that bath the bodies
of cells of higher animals.

The nature of states of matter makes diffusion and osmosis possible.

Matter can be defined as any material that has mass and occupies space. It includes all the
living and non-living things around us. Matter is also made up of tiny particles which may be
molecules or irons and can exist in three forms; solid, liquid, and gas.

EVALUATION
What is a matter, mention the three state of matter

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process by which molecules of substances move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration (through the medium of air or liquid) until
equilibrium is reached. The difference in the concentration of the substances in the two regions
before diffusion occurs is called concentration/diffusion gradient, e.g. If KMn04 (Potassium
tetraoxomanganate VII) is placed in a beaker of water and allowed to stand, the purple colour
of the KMn04 start to spread outward from the crystal. Eventually, the colour spread evenly
throughout the water medium.

Diffusion is also observed in the spread of odour of perfume, insecticide which is used to spray
a room and also in the release of gases from the anus.

Diffusion is affected by the following factors

a. Change in temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion
b. Molecular size: Diffusion increases with decreasing size of molecule
c. State of matter Diffusion of gases is much faster than that of liquid.
d. Difference in concentration: The greater the difference in concentration of molecules,
the faster the rate of diffusion.
IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING ORGANISMS
a. The movement of carbon (IV) oxide through the stomata of leaves during the process of
photosynthesis.
b. Movement of oxygen into the leaves during respiration.
c. Movement of water vapour out of the leaf in the process of transpiration
d. Gaseous exchange in the lungs of mammals
e. Intake of oxygen and nutrients and the removal of waste product by the foetus from its
mother through placenta.
f. Movement of digested and soluble food from the villi of small intestine to the blood
stream.
g. Removal of waste product in small organisms such as amoeba

EVALUATION
1. Define diffusion, state the factors that can affect the rate of diffusion
2. Outline five importance of diffusion

OSMOSIS
Osmosis can be defined as the movement of water molecules from a region of lower
concentration to the region of higher concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
A permeable membrane allows molecules to pass through it freely while a selectively
permeable membrane only allows certain molecules to pass through it. Osmosis will only occur
when a semi-permeable membrane separates weak and strong solutions.
Living cells may find themselves in any of the following situation:
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is more concentrated than the inside of the cell, the
surrounding fluid is said to be hypertonic to the content of the cells. A net movement of
water molecules out of the cell into the surrounding fluid occurs and causes the cell to
shrink. This process is known as Exosmosis.
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is less concentrated than the inside of the cell, the
surrounding fluid is said to be hypotonic to the content of the cell. There is a net
movement of water molecules from the surrounding fluid into the cells. This process is
known as Endosmosis.
 When the surrounding fluid and the cell concentration have the same concentration,
they are said to be Isotonic. A net movement of water molecule in and out of the cells
does not occur.

IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS
a. It aids the absorption of water from the soil into the vacuole of the root hairs
b. It aids the movement of water from the root hairs into the cells of other parts of the
plants
c. It helps to control the opening and closing of the stomata pores
d. It gives turgidity to the plant cells i.e. it gives support.
e. It aids intracellular movement of water in animals
 f. It aids reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules into the blood
g. It causes haemolysis of red blood cells.

EVALUATION
1. What is osmosis, mention three condition necessary for osmosis
2. State three differences between osmosis and diffusion

PLASMOLYSIS

Plasymolysis is the shrinkage of the vacuole and pulling away of the cytoplasmic lining from the
cell wall when placed in hypertonic solution. When a plant cell is surrounded or place in
hypertonic solution, exosmosis will occur i.e. water moves out of the cell into the surrounding
fluid leading to the shrinking of the vacuole and pulling the cytoplasm away from the cell wall.
When cells are plasmolysed, it eventually leads to wilting or death of the plant.

HAEMOLYSIS
This is the process whereby red blood cells (corpuscles) splits and burst as a result of too much
water passing into it. Red blood cells and blood plasma are always isotonic i.e. having the same
osmotic concentration, if for some reasons the concentration of blood plasma falls; endosmosis
will occur (water moves from the plasma into the red blood cells). Continuous absorption of
water into the cell makes it turgid and when fully stretched, it burst.

EVALUATION
1. Define plasmolysis and haemolysis
2. In a tabular form, differentiate between plasmolysis and haemolysis

TURGIDITY AND BIOLOGY SIGNIFICANCE

Turgidity is the condition in which cell absorbs plenty of water up to a point where the cell is
fully stretched. Turgidity is observed in plants where it makes them erect and support the stem,
leaves and flowers.

FLACCIDITY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Flaccidity is the condition in which plant lose water to their surrounding faster than they can
absorb. When a plant loses more water than it absorbs, it becomes flaccid. Flaccidity usually
occurs when there is no water in the soil, especially where there is drought. The continuous loss
of water can result in the death of the plant.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between flaccidity and turgidity
2. State two application flaccidity and turgidity
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Explain the following terms: Hypertonic, Hypotonic and Isotonic solution
 2. State the differences between osmosis and diffusion
3. Define diffusion and state factors that can affect it.
4. How does endosmosis lead to turgidity?
5. Plasmolysis results from exosmosis. Explain.
6. Of what importance is diffusion to life?
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which structures must be present in a cell for osmosis to take place? A. cell (sap)
vacuole and cell wall B. cell wall and cell membrane C. chloroplast and cytoplasm
D. cytoplasm and cell membrane
2. The scent from a bunch of flowers spreads throughout a room. How does the scent
spread? A. by conduction B. by diffusion C. by osmosis D. by transpiration
3. Which of the following environmental conditions is ideal for plant cells to remain turgid?
A. Hot, dry weather B. Cold, dry weather C. Cool, humid weather D. Windy
weather
4. Osmosis occurs through a membrane that can be _____ permeable A. Fully B. slowly
C. differentially D. freely
5. Which of the following processes takes place when a plant cell is put in a hypotonic
solution? (a) water moves into the cell and the cell bursts (b) water leaves the cell and
the cell becomes flabby (c) water moves into the cell and the cell becomes turgid (d) the
cell becomes plasmolysed
THEORY
1. State the similarities and differences between
(a) Osmosis and Diffusion
(b) Plasmolysis and haemolysis

WEEK SIX
SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
CONTENT
 Cellular respiration
 Mechanism of cellular respiration

CELLULAR (INTERNAL/TISSUE) RESPIRATION

The oxidation of glucose in the cell to release energy is known as cellular respiration and it
occurs in the mitochondria of all living cells. There are two types of cellular respiration i.e.
aerobic and anaerobic respiration
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
When cellular respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen is known as aerobic respiration.
The largest amount of ATP possible is generated through it from one molecule of glucose with
the release of carbon (iv) oxide and water as by product.
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
In some organisms such as bacteria, fungi and endoparasites, the cells gets energy from
breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen this is known as anaerobic respiration. In this
type of respiration, lesser amount of ATP is produced. The pyruvic acid produced is converted
to alcohol in plants (alcoholic fermentation) while in animals, lactic acid is produced which leads
to muscle fatigue in athletes

In plants
C6 H12 O6 CH2COCOOH C2H5OH + CO2 + 2ATP

In animals
C6 H12 O6 CH2COCOOH CH2 CHOHCOOH + CO2 + 2ATP

EVALUATION
1. What is internal respiration?
2. Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

MECHANISM OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration involve two main stages
a. Glycolysis: this occurs in the cytoplasm of the cells. First the glucose molecule is
phosphorylated by the addition of a phosphate group to the glucose to become glucose-6-
phosphate which is carried out by an enzyme known as hexose kinase. There are ten steps
in this pathway that leads to the breakdown of One molecule of 6 – carbon into two
molecules of the 3 carbon pyruvic acid by the enzymes in the cytoplasm. This process does
not require oxygen. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm. At the end of the pathway, 2
ATP is used to produce 4 ATP (2 ATPs from each pyruvate) so that a net energy of 2 ATP is
generated in glycolysis, this is called “substrate level phosphorylation”.

b. Kreb’s cycle (also known as citric acid cycle CAC or Tricarboxylic acid cycle TCA): Here, each
pyruvic acid is further oxidized completely to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria.
The pyruvic acid from the glycolysis is coverted to acetic acid through the removal of one
molecule of CO2. The acetic is carried into the kreb’s cycle by co enzyme A. The combination
of acetic acid and co enzyme A forms acetyl-coA. Acetyl-coA combines with oxaloacetatic
acid to form citric acid which is an important started of the kreb’s cycle. Kreb’s cycle takes
 place in the matrix of the mitochondrion. Most of the ATP is generated in the cycle. The
oxidation process in kreb’s cycle leads to the production of 36 ATPs (18 ATP from each
pyruvate). The process used in the production of ATP in kreb’s cycle is called Oxidative
phosphorylation. A total of 38 ATP is generated from the aerobic breakdown of glucose. The
kreb’s cycle is particularly important because it is key pathway that connects protein, fats
and carbohydrates.

EVALUATION
Differentiate between glycolysis and kreb’s cycle
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between micro and macro elements
2. State four importance of macro elements in plants
3. Differentiate between external and internal respiration
4. Explain briefly ‘the Kreb’s cycle
5. What do you understand by (a) muscle fatigue (b) oxygen debt
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The organelle involved in tissue respiration is the A. endoplasmic reticulum B. golgi
body C. mitochondrion D. ribosome
2. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis is converted to
CO2 and A. water B. glycerol C. ethanol D. citric acid
3. Glycolysis takes place in A. lysosome B. Mitochondrion C. Nucleus D. ribosome
4. The starting substance in kreb’s cycle is A. Citric acid B. Acetic acid C. oxalic acid D.
Malic acid
5. A total of __ ATP is produced from one glucose during aerobic respiration A. 34 B. 36
C. 38 D.40
THEORY
1. In a tabular form, differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
2. State three importance of alcoholic fermentation
 WEEK SEVEN
GROWTH
CONTENT
 Basis of growth
 Aspects of growth
 Regulation of growth by hormones

GROWTH
Growth is the irreversible increase in dry mass, size and complexity of an organism brought
about by the synthesis of new protoplasm.
For growth to be effective, building up of materials (anabolism) must exceed the rate of
breaking down (catabolism).
In plants, growth is indefinite and apical while it is definite and uniform in animals.

BASIS OF GROWTH
The basis of growth involves three major phases i.e. cell division (mitosis), cell enlargement and
cell differentiation.

Life begins as a single fertilized cell, continuous as the cell divides into two daughter cells then
into four and so on. After cell division, the daughter cells increase in mass and size
(enlargement). Eventually, each cell develops into a special type of cell (specialization) by
changing its shape and structure to carry out a particular function. Most specialized cells, at
maturity lose their ability to divide.

TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

There are two types of cell division: (a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis

Mitosis
Mitosis is a cell division to produce two daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes
and characteristics as those of the parent cell. This cell division takes place only in somatic cells
(i.e. body cells that are not involved in the production of gametes) such as skin, bone marrow
and meristematic tissues in plants.
Mitotic cell division involve five main stages
a. Interphase: This is referred to as the resting stage where the chromosomes becomes
elongated and form a network of fine threads called chromatids
b. Prophase: in early prophase chromosomes become visible, nucleolus shrinks, centrioles
start moving away from each other in opposite direction and the formation of spindle
fibres begins. During the late prophase, chromosomes become shorter, thicker and
visible. Each chromosome now forms two distinct chromatids joined by a centromere.
Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear entirely.
 c. Metaphase: paired chromatids arrange themselves along the equator of the spindle and
are attached to the spindle at the centromere.
d. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate and start migrating to the opposite poles of the
cell and eventually reach the poles.
e. Telophase: the cell starts dividing into two by constricting at the equator, nucleolus and
nuclear membrane are reform in each daughter cell, spindle fibres degenerates and
chromosomes eventually regain their threadlike form

Importance of mitosis
a. It brings about growth, development and specialization especially in multicellular
organisms.
b. Asexual reproduction binary and multiple fissions in protozoa, budding in yeasts are
result of mitosis.
c. It ensures the diploid condition of the cells is retained from generation to generation
d. It aids the repair of damaged cells

Life processes involved in mitosis

a. Formation of new cells in Malpighian layer of the skin
b. Production of red and white blood cells in the bone marrow
c. Healing of wounds
d. Growth in meristem
e. Binary fission

EVALUATION
1. Define growth
2. What is mitosis, state three importance of mitosis

ASPECTS OF GROWTH
Growth varies from one organism to another. To measure growth, the following parameters are
used:
a. Man: the dry mass is more accurate and reliable than the wet mass
b. size and length e.g. height of man
c. increase in number of cells e.g. budding in yeast cell

REGIONS OF FASTEST GROWTH IN PLANTS

The regions of fastest growth in plants are the root and stem apices. Since growth in plants is
apical, the root and stem apices can be divided into
a. Region of cell division (called the apical meritstem) brings about primary growth of a
plant
b. Region of elongation
c. Region of cell maturation/specialization
GROWTH CURVE
The growth rate of a living organism is measured using a growth a curve. The growth pattern of
man shows a sigmoid curve. The growth pattern consists of three phase:
1. Lag phase: This is the initial stage where slow growth is experienced. At this stage, the
cell is still accumulating the necessary material to begin the process.
2. Log or exponential phase: This is the phase of rapid of rapid growth.
3. Stationary phase: This is a stage where no observable growth is experienced.
The growth curve of insect is like a step. Each growth phase (instar) is interrupted by a period of
molting (ecdysis)

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

a. External factors it include availability of nutrients, humidity, light, temperature, PH and
accumulation of metabolic products.
b. Internal factors are mainly hormones. The two major growth hormones in plant are
auxin and gibberellins. In animals, the hormones concerned with growth are secreted by
the anterior pituitary gland, thyroid gland and the gonads. Over or under secretion of
any of these hormones leads to abnormal growth.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. How can growth be measured
2. List four external factors that can affect growth
3. Mention two growth hormones each in plants and animals
4. Discuss the stages involved in mitotic cell division
5. Outline four life processes involving mitosis
6. List four places where mitosis takes place in organisms
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Growth include the following processes except A. differentiation B. meiosis C. mitosis
D. elongation
2. When the zygote of an organism continues to grow, it produces new cells by A.
meiosis B. mitosis C. crossing-over D. gestation
3. The aspect of growth in living organisms include all the following except A. increase in
dry weight B. irreversible increase in length C. reversible increase in size
D. increase in number of cells
4. The organelle involved in tissue respiration is the A. endoplasmic reticulum B. golgi by
od C. mitochondrion D. ribosome
5. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis is converted to
CO2 and A. water B. glycerol C. ethanol D. citric acid

THEORY
1. In a tabular form, differentiate between growth in plants and animals
2. State three importance of alcoholic fermentation

WEEK EIGHT

NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e. being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis (holophytic).

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which organisms depend directly or indirectly on autotrophs for
food. All animals, fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group and they are referred
to as heterotrophs

HETEROTROPHIC MODES OF FEEDING

(a) Holozoic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which food is ingested in the form of complex organic
substances which is digested and assimilated into the body. Holozoic organisms are
grouped into carnivores, herbivores, omnivores and scavengers.
(b) Parasitic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which certain organisms (parasites) feed on other
organisms (host). Parasites can be endoparasites (tapeworm, liver fluke) or
ectoparasites (lice, ticks) depending on whether they live inside or outside the host.
Plant parasites include dodder, mistletoe. Parasites have special structures such as
haustoria, sucker, hooks, and muscular lips e. t. c.
(c) Saprophytic Nutrition
This is feeding process in which certain organisms (saprophytes) feed on non living
organic matter i. e. plant and animal remains. Saprophytes secrete digestive enzymes
into the dead organic matter to digest the food (extracellular digestion) and the soluble
food substances are then absorbed into their body. Examples include fungi i.e. mucor,
mushroom, yeast and some bacteria
(d) Symbiotic Nutrition
This is a mode of feeding in which two organisms of different species called symbionts
live together and derive mutual benefits e.g. nutrients or food, shelter, moisture e. t. c
from each other. Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria called Rhizobia, which live in root
nodules of legumes, algae and fungi in a lichen.
(e) Carnivorous / Insectivorous Nutrition
This is a feeding process in which some plants that have special devices trap and digest
insects. These plants grow in poor soil and proteins obtained from the insects are used
to supplement their nitrogenous compound requirement. These plants secrete enzymes
which help in digesting their victim. Examples include bladderwort (Ultricularia), Pitcher
plant, sundew and venus fly trap

EVALUATION
1. List five types of heterotrophic nutrition giving two examples of organisms where each
occur
2. What are carnivores, omnivores and herbivores

MODES OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e. being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants synthesize organic compounds from inorganic raw
materials in the presence of chlorophyll and light.
light
6C02 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 602
(Inorganic materials) Chlorophyll (organic compound) (by product)
The main product of photosynthesis is sugar (carbohydrate) while the oxygen given up is a by-
product which is released into the atmosphere.

FEATURES (CHARACTERISTICS) OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

These are as follows:
1. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of cells in the presence of light.
2. The raw materials required are low energy containing inorganic compound i.e. CO 2 and
H 2O
3. The final product is a high energy containing compound (C6H12O6 )n Photosynthesis,
therefore is an anabolic process (metabolic building up process)
4. The energy required is obtained from solar energy through the chlorophyll (the green
pigment present in the chloroplast of green plants.
5. The carbon dioxide and oxygen diffuse in and out (respectively) between the
surrounding air and leaf passing through the stomata opening on the leaf surface. These
gases are stored in insoluble form until the day is dark. Then, the sugar is converted and
transported to other parts of the plants where it is needed. The movement of the sugar
is called translocation.
6. Leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of the plant although all green parts of a plant
are photosynthetic. The main site of photosynthesis in a leaf is the pallisade mesophyll.
EVALUATION

1. What is photosynthesis?
2. Outline four features of photosynthesis
3. Draw a labeled diagram of the internal structure of a leaf

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis involves two stages
a. Light phase: it takes place during the day. It involves four stages
− Activation of chlorophyll: the chlorophyll trap light energy from the sun and get
energized
− Photolysis of water: splitting of water molecules by light energy
H 2O H+ + OH-- OH−
H 2O
− Hydrogen transfer by NADP (NADP + H+ NADPH2)
− Formation of ATP from ADP: this takes place to store energy for the dark phase
reaction
b. Dark phase: In the dark phase of photosynthesis (occurring in the stroma of chloroplast
in the presence of NADPH and ATP), neither light energy nor chlorophyll is needed. This
stage takes place in the dark or at night.
During this phase, hydrogen ion and carbon dioxide molecule combine chemically under the
control of enzymes to form the simple sugar.
4H+ + CO2 CH2O + H2O
Simple sugar forms the chemical structural basis for other carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYTHESIS
The enzyme-rich product of photosynthesis is used by plants and animals in the following ways:
1. The source of energy for their metabolic activities
2. It is needed in food cycle being the only process that can trap sun energy.
3. All animals and other heterotrophic plants are directly or indirectly dependent on green
plants for food.
4. Photosynthesis assists in the purification of the environment by removing carbon (iv)
oxide from it while oxygen is released into it.
5. Basis for manufacturing other complex organic compounds such as lipids, proteins

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between the two stages of photosynthesis
2. State two importance of photosynthesis.

EXPERIMENTS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The occurrence of photosynthesis in plants can be shown by experiments. Experiment is carried
out to show the importance of carbondioxide, sunlight energy, chlorophyll. There is the need to
prove that oxygen is given off.

Testing a leaf for starch

The leaf to be tested is detached from the plant and put into boiling water for about 10-15mins.
This kills the protoplasm of the leaf and makes iodine to easily penetrate the starch granules.
The boiled leaf is put into alcohol. This is to extract the chlorophyll from the leaf. The leaf
becomes white and brittle. It is then dipped into hot water to soften the tissues.
The bleached leaf is spread on a white tile a few drop of iodine is added to it. The colour of the
leaf is then tested against a light source.
If the leaf appears blue-black in colour, it contains starch, if the colour is yellowish-brown, it
contains no starch

To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Two potted plants are kept in darkness or 48-72 hours to make it starch-free or carry out the
above experiment in destarching leaves. One of the potted plants remains in darkness while the
other is exposed to sunlight for 4 hours. Leaves from the potted plants exposed to light turns
blue-black when tested with iodine while the leaves kept in darkness remains brown. This
shows that without light, photosynthesis cannot take place

To show that oxygen is given off as a by-product of photosynthesis

In this experiment, gas is collected in the test tube placed over the green plant and tested with
a glowing splint. If it re-kindles the glowing splint, it shows that oxygen is given off because it is
the only colourless gas that re-kindles a glowing splint.
Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
The same experiment in destarching a leaf is carried out here

Experiment to show that carbon (IV) oxide is necessary for photosynthesis

In this experiment, the leaves are destarched. Two potted plants are placed in two bell jars
labeled A and B. Each of the potted plants is place on a Vaseline glass plate to prevent air
containing carbon (iv) oxide from leaking into the bell jar. A dish containing lime water is placed
in one of the jars to absorb carbon (iv) oxide. Both jars are left exposed to sunlight for about 4
hours and tested for starch.

CONDITIONS (FACTORS) FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The two major conditions necessary for photosynthesis are
a. External factors which include light, water, carbon (iv) oxide and mineral salt.
b. Internal factors include chlorophyll and enzymes.
Temperature is partly external (from sunlight) and partly internal (from the chemical
reactions taking place in plant

EVALUATION
1. List four factors that affects photosynthesis
2. Describe an experiment to show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

CHEMOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which non-green plants (e.g. Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, iron bacteria etc)
synthesize organic compound from inorganic materials (carbon dioxide and water). The energy
used in this process is got from inorganic substances such as ammonia and by hydrogen
sulphite.
H 2S + O 2 S + H2O + chemical energy
chemical

H 2O + CO2 CH2O
energy

EVALUATION
1. What is chemosynthesis
2. Give two examples of chemosynthetic plants

MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS

Mineral elements are required for normal growth and development of green plants. In addition
to Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, other mineral requirements are discussed below. Unlike
glucose and other carbohydrates made from carbondioxide and water by green plants, mineral
salts are obtained from the soil.
Macronutrients
These are mineral nutrients that are required by plants in large quantities. They include the
following;
Macronutrients Importance Deficiency
Nitrogen(N) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Stunted growth and
2. Nucliec acid synthesis chlorosis
3. Proper root development 2. Poor flower and fruit
4. Component of chlorophyll and formation
enzymes
Phosphorus(P) 1. Formation of co-enzymes and 1. Poor root development
proteins 2. Stunted growth
2. Formation of DNA, RNA and ATP
3. Stem, root, fruit and seeds
formation
Sulphur(S) Formation of certain proteins in the 1. Stunted growth
protoplasm 2. Chlorosis
Potassium(K) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Premature death
2. Cell membrane formation 2. Leaf margin turns yellow and
3. Activates respiration and brown
photosynthesis
4. Crop maturation
Magnesium(Mg) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Helps in cell division 2. Chlorosis
3. Activates many co-enzymes
Calcium(Ca) 1. Formation of cell wall 1. Death of terminal buds
2. Helps in storage of protein and 2. Roots develops poorly
carbohydrates in roots and tubers 3. Stunted growth
3. Gives rigidity to plants
Iron(Fe) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Formation of protein 2. Yellowing of leaves

MICRO NUTRIENTS
These are mineral nutrients required by plants in small quantities. They include the following;
Micro nutrients Importance Deficiency
Zinc(Zn) 1. Necessary for the synthesis of the 1. Poor growth
starting material of auxin
2. Activates some enzymes
3. Plays a role in the synthesis of protein
Copper(Cu) Component of respiratory enzymes Poor growth

Manganese(Mn) Activates some enzymes involved in Death of shoot

cellular respiration
Boron(B) Translocation of sugar and calcium Poor growth of pollen tubes
Chlorine(Cl) Necessary for oxygen release during Affects growth
photosynthesis
Molybdenum(Mb) 1. Necessary for nitrogen fixation by Poor growth
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
2. Activates the enzyme that reduces
nitrate to nitrite
EVALUATION
1. What are macro nutrients
2. list three macro elements that are essential for protein synthesis
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is autotrophic nutrition?
2. List the two modes of autotrophic nutrition. (b) Differentiate between the two modes
listed above.
3. State the characteristics of photosynthesis.
4. What is the significance of leaf in photosynthesis?
5. State the two stages involved in the process of photosynthesis.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The main photosynthetic organ of plant is ----- (a) leaf (b) seed (c) fruit (d) root
2. Which of these is not a macro element needed for plant growth? A. potassium
B. magnesium C. sodium D. molybdenum
3. Yellowing of leaves is a symptoms associated with deficiency of A. iron, calcium and
magnesium B. nitrogen, sulphur and potassium C. sulphur, phosphorus and iron
D. iron, magnesium and nitrogen
4. Trace elements are required by plants mainly for the A. formation of pigments and
enzymes B. production of energy and hormones C. manufacture of carbohydrates
D. manufacture of protein
5. The dark phase of photosynthesis occurs in the ------- of chloroplast (a) cells (b) tissues
(c) fluid (d) stroma

THEORY
1. State five importance of photosynthesis
2. Differentiate between light and dark phase of photosynthesis

WEEK NINE
Cell Reactions to Its Environment and Movement

Irritability or sensitivity is the ability of a cell to respond to stimuli. All living things respond to
stimuli. A stimulus is a change in the cell’s environment that can make it change its activity. The
cell’s change in activity is known as its response to the stimulus. The cell responds both
externally and internally to changes. The external stimuli are due to non-living or abiotic factors
of the environment such as change in light intensity, temperature, humidity etc. while an
internal stimulus is a change within the cell itself.
Types of Response
• Phototropism: This is the response of plants to light. The shoots are positively phototropic
while the roots are negatively phototropic.
• Hydrotropism: This is the response of plants to water. The roots are positively hydrotropic
while the shoots are negatively hydrotropic.
• Geotropism: This is the response of plants to gravity. The roots are positively geotropic while
the shoots are negatively geotropic.

How Environmental Factors Evoke Response

A plant that is starved of adequate light responds towards any source of light available. The
shoot will respond positively to the source of light while the root will respond negatively.
Placing a plant in a horizontal position causes an unequal diffusion of hormones. This will make
the shoot negatively geotropic by growing upwards. In a shaded area, smaller plants in an
attempt to get light from top grow taller. This is called aetiolation

Movement
Movements that are due to external stimuli may be nastic, tactic or tropic movement.
• Nastic movements: These are responses shown by a part of a plant to non-directional stimuli
such as changes in light intensity, temperature or humidity. Examples are closing of the
morning glory flower when the light intensity is low.
• Tactic movements: This is when a whole organism moves directly towards or away from a
stimulus. The stimulus comes from a particular direction. This type of response is said to be
directional, and is positive if the organism moves towards the stimulus and negative if it moves
away from it. Tactic movement are named according to the type of external stimuli:
1. Phototaxis—if the stimulus is light.
2. Chemotaxis—if the stimulus is chemical
3. Thermotaxis—if the stimulus is temperature Tactic movements occur in motile organisms
such as Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Euglena and Earthworm.
Tropic movements: when a part of a plant moves in response to a directional stimulus. The
direction of the response is related to that of the stimulus, and is positive if the plant parts grow
towards the stimulus and negative if the part grows away from it. Tropisms are very slow
growth movements. They are named according to the stimuli, e.g. phototropism is a response
to light, while hydrotropism is a response to water.

Cyclosis
This is the streaming rotary motion of protoplasm within certain cells and one-celled organisms,
i.e. circulation of cytoplasm or cell organelles, such as food vacuoles in some protozoan.
Movement in plants is not as conspicuous as found in animals. Their movement is by
continuous and uniform flow of cytoplasm. In animals, cyclosis occurs in protozoa like amoeba
(amoeboid movement).
Organs for Movement
1. Flagella: They are long and are used in moving in liquid medium by flashing against water
current. Euglena and Chlamydomonas have flagella.
2. Cilia: They are usually numerous and short. It aids movement in water just like flagella.
Paramecium has cilia.

Practice Questions
1. ______ is the ability of a cell to respond to stimuli a) Adaptability b) Irritability c) Sensation d)
Stimuli
2. _____ is the response of plants to light
3. ______ is the streaming rotary motion of protoplasm within certain cells and one-celled
organisms, i.e. circulation of cytoplasm or cell organelles a) Cyclosis b) Sporosis c) Neurosis d)
Stimuli
4. Euglena and Chlamydomonas move by their _____.
5. A response to a cemical stimulus is called _____
6. ____ is the response of plants to gravity a) Gravitropism b) Neotropism c) Geotropism d)
Phototropism
7. _____ is the response of plants to water a) Gravitropism b) Hydrotropism c) Geotropism d)
Phototropism

WEEK TEN
REPRODUCTION
MEANING AND TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the ability of an organism to give rise to new individuals of the same species in
order to ensure continuity of life.
There are two types of reproduction
a. asexual reproduction
b. sexual reproduction
a. Asexual Reproduction: is the process whereby an organism produces an offspring by
itself. I.e. only one parent is presence. No gametes involved thus there is no fusion of
nuclei, but the cells that give rise to the offspring usually divide by means of mitosis.
Offspring produced are identical to the parent in all respect and are called clones
b. Sexual Reproduction: is a type of reproduction that involves two parents and the fusion
of the male and the female gamete to form a zygote. Offspring produced show new
variation. The sex cells (gametes) are produced by meiotic cell division and after
fertilization the new individual continue to grow and produce new cells by mitosis.
EVALUATION
1. What is reproduction?
2. Why is reproduction necessary?
3. Differentiate between the two types of reproduction.

FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

a. Binary Fission: Fission is the simplest form and involves the division of a single organism
into two complete organisms, each identical to the other and to the parent. Fission is
common among unicellular organisms such as bacteria, many protists and some algae.
b. Budding: The parent organism develops an outgrowth which subsequently forms the new
individual organism. These buds break off from the parent without causing any injury and
live an independent life. Budding is common in yeast and hydra
c. Spore Formation: Spores are DNA-containing capsules capable of sprouting into new
organisms; unlike most seeds, spores are produced without sexual union of gametes, when
dispersed, each spore is capable of developing into a new organism. Spores are common in
lower organisms especially fungi such as rhizopus and penicillum.
d. Fragmentation: A part of the parent organism breaks up and develops into a new
independent organism. This type of reproduction is also called regeneration. Fragmentation
is common in spirogyra and coelenterates.
e. Vegetative Propagation: It occurs in higher plants. In this process, a new plant grows from
any portion of an old one other than the seeds. There are two methods of vegetative
propagation, this include natural and artificial vegetative propagations.
Natural vegetative propagation involves the use of vegetative parts such as stems, leaves, roots
or buds. The part involved must have a store of food and sometimes able to act as a
perennating organ i. e. enable the plant to survive from one growing season to the next. Organs
of vegetative propagation include;
- Bulbil: Axillary buds growing from the veins of leaves e. g. Bryophyllum and Begonia.
- Runners or stolons: Stems that creep horizontally on soil surface. Buds and adventitious
roots develop from the nodes of the parent plants e. g. sweet potato, grass.
- Rhizomes: Underground horizontal stem. It has scaly leaves which cover lateral buds at
the nodes. Lateral buds grow into new aerial shoots e. g. ginger, canna lily.
- Corms: Underground stems which grow vertically in the soil. Buds develop from the
axils of scale leaves, grow upward and form leaves and flowers e. g. cocoyam.
- Stem tubers: Underground stems which have swollen tips. Axillary buds on tubers give
rise to new aerial shoots e. g. yam, sweet potato
- Suckers: Short underground horizontal branches e. g. banana, pineapple
- Bulb: Underground condensed shoots with compressed stems and scaly leaves e. g.
onion, garlic.
Artificial propagation is the use of parts of the parent plant to multiply the plants. Budding,
grafting, layering, cutting and marcotting are types of artificial propagation.
EVALUATION
1. List four types of asexual reproduction with examples.
2. Discuss spore formation in a named fungus.
GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS
1. List four forms of asexual reproduction giving one example of organism that exhibit
each.
2. List four common natural vegetative parts in plant giving one example of plant in each
case.
3. Describe five types of artificial vegetative propagation.
4. Briefly describe fragmentation in spirogyra.
5. Describe sporulation in amoeba.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Bacteria multiply rapidly by A. fragmentation B. binary fission C. spore formation
D. budding
2. The type of reproduction that is common to both Hydra and Yeast is A. conjugation
B. binary fission C. grafting D. budding
3. During asexual reproduction in paramecium, how many times does the zygote divide to
produce eight nuclei A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4
4. Vegetative propagation is described asexual reproduction because A. reproductive
organs are not involved B. many new plants are produced C. there is no exchange of
genetic materials D. new individuals are not formed
5. Which of these organs of vegetative propagation is not a perennating organ?
A. Rhizome B. Sucker C. Bulbil D. Bulb
THEORY
1. Describe two types of artificial propagation.
2. State three advantages and two disadvantages of asexual reproduction.
SECOND TERM SCHEME
1. Sexual Reproduction
2. Tissues and supporting system
3. Vertebrate Skeleton
4. Supporting tissues in plants
5. Nutrition in animals
6. Mammalian teeth and enzymes
7. Basic ecological concepts
8. Population studies by sampling method
9. Ecological factors
10. Functioning ecosystem
11. Trophic levels
12. Revision
SECOND TERM BIOLOGY SS1 E-
NOTE
WEEK 1
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
CONTENT
 Sexual Reproduction
 Conjugation
 Fusion of Gametes
 Meiosis
 Excretion
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
There are two types of sexual reproduction, this include conjugation and fusion of gametes.
a. Conjugation: the simplest form of sexual reproduction, as contrasted with asexual
reproduction. This is observed in some unicellular organisms e. g. paramecium, fungi e.
g. rhizopus, algae e. g. spirogyra. Two similar organisms (conjugants) join together and
exchange genetic material contained in their nuclei. After the exchange, the organisms
separate. The zygote or zygosphere form is capable of developing into a new organism.
b. Fusion of Gametes: This occurs in higher organisms where gametes (male and female
sex cells) are produced in special structures by a process known as gametogenesis
which involves meiotic cell divisions. Fertilization, the process in which haploid male
and female sex cells fuse together to producing a single diploid cell (zygote) that
develops into an adult organism occurs after gamatogenesis.

EVALUATION
1. Describe conjugation in spirogyra.
2. Define spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the reduction method of division that leads to the formation of four daughter cells
that are haploids. Meiosis differs from mitosis, in that it involves two consecutive cell divisions
instead of one and the genetic material contained in chromosomes is not copied during the
second meiotic division. Whereas mitosis produces identical daughter cells, meiosis randomly
mixes the chromosomes, resulting in unique combinations of chromosomes in each daughter
cell. Meiosis ensures the chromosome number of an individual remains the same from
generation to generation.

Meiosis consists of two successive divisions:

First Meiotic Division

a. Interphase: resting phase, chromosomes are not seen.
b. Prophase I: At early prophase, chromosomes contract and become clearly visible. At
middle prophase, homologous chromosomes come together and spindle is formed. At
 late prophase crossing over takes place between homologous chromosomes at a place
called chiasma.
c. Metaphase: Nuclear membrane disappears, the bivalent chromosomes assemble at the
equator and are attached to the spindle by their centromere.
d. Anaphase: Bivalent chromosomes separate completely and move to the opposite pole
of the cell.
e. Telophase: bivalent chromosomes arrived at the pole, nuclear membrane are formed
around the chromosomes at the two poles, two daughter cells result with half the
number of chromosomes in the parent cell.

Second Meiotic Division

It consists of four stages similar to mitosis, no resting stage and no replication of chromosomes.
At the end, four daughter cells are formed.

Importance of Meiosis
Meiosis aids the formation of
a. Spermatozoa.
b. Ova or egg cells.
c. Pollen grains in flowering plants.
d. Ovules in flowering plants.

EVALUATION
1. What is crossing over?
2. Outline four life processes involving meiosis.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

o Describe conjugation in Mucor.
o Mention two structures each where meiosis takes place in plants and animals.
o Describe sexual reproduction in hydra.
o What is meiosis?
o Outline four importance of meiosis to life.
o List five excretory products in living organisms.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The process which ensures that the chromosome number for each species of organism
remain constant from generation to generation is called A. fission B. meiosis
C. mitosis D. oogenesis
2. The cell organelle, from which spindle fibres originate during cell division in animal cells
is known A. centrosome B. chromosome C. lysosome D. ribosome
3. In animals meiosis comes A. after fertilization B. after every mitotic division C. before
fertilization D. before every meiotic division
 4. One of the ways in which body cells differ from gamete cells is in A. Type of
centromeres they contain B. Number of chromosome pairs they contain C. Type of
chromatids they contain D. Number of chromosomes they contain.
5. Which of these excretory structures is not found in amphibians? A. Gills B. Lungs
C. Skin D. Flame cell

THEORY
1. In a tabular form, state five differences between
a. Mitosis and meiosis.
b. Sexual and asexual reproduction.
2. Explain the phases of meiosis.

REPRODUCTION IN AMOEBA
Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission and multiple fission (sporulation) during adverse
condition.
In binary fission when an amoeba reaches full size, it stops moving and divides into two equal
parts starting from the nucleus. This is followed by the division of the cytoplasm, after which
two daughter amoebae are formed.
In multiple fission amoeba becomes rounded and secretes around itself a cyst. Inside the cyst,
the nucleus divides several times. When conditions becomes favourable, the cyst burst; each
nucleus surrounded by a part of the cytoplasm of the parent. In this way, very small amoebae
are formed.

REPRODUCTION IN PARAMECIUM
Paramecium reproduces asexually by binary fission and sexually by conjugation.
Binary fission occurs under favourable conditions, the micronucleus divides into two equal
halves by mitosis and each moves to the opposite side of the cell, the meganucleus elongates
and the cytoplasm constricts after which two young paramecia are produced.
Sexual reproduction is by conjugation of two individuals of different lines of descent. Stages in
conjugation include
1. Two matured paramecium come together and get fused by their oral grooves.
2. The micronucleus divides twice by meiosis and four nuclei are formed in each conjugant
3. The smaller micronuclei are exchanged between the two conjugants
4. The migatory micronucleus fuses with the stationary micronucleus in each conjugant to
form a zygote
5. The zygote in each conjugant divides thrice to form eight nuclei
6. The ex-conjugant with four meganuclei and four micronuclei divide to form four
paramecia each having a meganucleus and a micronucleus.
 Conjugation in paramecium

EVALUATION
1. Describe binary fission in amoeba.
2. Describe sexual reproduction in paramecium.

REPRODUCTION IN SPIROGYRA
Spirogyra reproduces asexually by fragmentation and sexually by conjugation.
In fragmentation, when a filament reaches a certain length, parts of it break away and grow
into new filaments
In conjugation
1. The cells of two filaments come to lie side by side and a conjugation tube is formed
between them.
2. the cells in one filament act as the male gamete while the other act as the female
3. The male gamete passes through the conjugation tube to meet the female gamete and
fuses to form a zygote.
4. The zygote secretes a resistant wall around itself and form a zygospore.
5. After a period of rest and favourable condition, the outer coats burst and a young
filament grows out.

REPRODUCTION IN EARTHWORM
Earthworms are hermaphrodites i. e. each has both male and female sex organs and therefore
produces both male and female gametes.reproduction is by sexual means.

Process of Copulation
Two worms to be engaged in copulation come to lie close together with their ventral surfaces
touching. Copulation takes place at night outside the burrows. The reproductive organs of
earthworms are anteriorly located. The worms lie in such position that the segments 9-15 of
one worm are opposite the clitellum (segments 32-37) of the other and are held firmly by
chaetae during copulation.

After copulation, the two worm separate. After few days eggs are laid and fertilized in a cocoon
secreted by the clitellum. The development of the embryo takes place inside the cocoon and
one worm hatches from a batch of eggs in one cocoon.

EVALUATION
1. Describe conjugation in a named alga.
2. What is hermaphroditism?
3. Describe the process of copulation in earthworm.

REPRODUCTION IN COCKROACH
Sexual reproduction takes place in cockroaches and fertilization is internal. Male and female
cockroaches mates and the male introduces sperm into the genital opening of the female. The
sperms are then stored in the sperm pouch until the eggs are released from the two ovaries. As
the eggs are released, they are fertilized by the stored sperm. Fertilized eggs are laid (about 10–
16 eggs) in a horny egg case (ootheca) which the female carries in her abdominal pouch for
some time and later deposit it in a safe dark place. After 30 – 100 days, the eggs hatch into
nymphs which are wingless, small and whitish in colour.

The nymphs feed, grow, and become brown, moult about 13 times to become adults.
In the process of moulting, the wings first appear as wing pad and later develop into full grown
wings. Cockroaches require 11 – 20 months to develop from eggs to imagos. Metamorphosis is
incomplete.

REPRODUCTION IN HOUSEFLY
Adult male and female mates and within two to three days fertilized eggs are laid. The laying of
eggs takes place in the day light. Housefly undergoes complete metamorphosis.
2 – 7 batches of eggs (100 – 150 eggs in a batch) are laid by the female housefly in a moist dirty
environment. The eggs hatch into white larvae in about 8 – 24 hours.
The larva called maggot has a segmented body. The head bears a pair of hook for tearing food
and drawing the larva along. On the ventral surface of the segmented body lie spiny pads for
movement. It has two pairs of spiracles for breathing. The larva moults several times and lasts
for about 5 – 14 days after which it moves to a dry place to begin the pupal stage.
The maggot shortens; its skin becomes hard and brown forming the pupal case (puparium). It
does not feed or move. Internal re-organisation takes place at this stage. In about 3 – 10 days,
the young adult hatches out of the puparium.
The adult housefly called imago emerges from the puparium using a sac-like organ (ptilinum) to
break it open. It moves to the surface of the dirt and flies away when the wings are dry.

REPRODUCTION IN SNAIL
Reproduction in land snails is hermaphroditic and fertilization internal. The female snail has a
fertilization pouch for sperm to travel into. The snails will transfer their spermatophores to a
place called epiphallus. The epiphallus is part of the sperm duct to the penis to help put the
spermatophores into place by using their flagellum. From here, sperm is travelled to the bursa
duct where fertilization takes place. During snail development, there is a 180 o twist of the
visceral mass that brings the anus and the mantle cavity forward to a position above the head.
This process is known as torsion.

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between metamorphosis in housefly and cockroach.
2. Describe fertilization in snails.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. What is conjugation?
 2. Describe conjugation in a named fungi.
3. Differentiate between complete and incomplete metamorphosis.
4. Describe sexual reproduction in tapeworm.
5. Mention five structural parts of a earthworm involved in reproduction.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Conjugation occurs in the following organisms except A. spirogyra B. paramecium
C. mucor D. hydra
2. The possession of the male and female reproductive parts by a single organism is
termed A. oviparous B. meiosis C. hermaphroditism D. parthenogenesis
3. Internal fertilization takes place in the following organisms except A. earthworm
B. tapeworm C. butterfly D. toad
4. The zygote of spirogyra secretes a resistant wall around itself known as A. membrane
B. cyst C. clot D. zygospore
5. Paramecium reproduces asexually by A. binary fission B. meiosis C. mitosis D. budding

THEORY
1. Describe sexual reproduction in tapeworm.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction?

WEEK TWO AND THREE

TISSUE AND SUPPORTING SYSTEM

Contents
 Introduction
 Forms of Skeleton
 Types of Skeleton
 Functions of Skeleton
 Support in Vertebrates
 Axial and Appendicular Skeleton
 Supporting Tissues in Plants
INTRODUCTION
To carry out life processes, all organisms (plants and animals) need tissues. Tissues are group of
similar cells that carry out specific functions. Skeleton is the framework of the body which
provides support, shape and protection to the soft tissues and organs in animals. It forms the
central core of human body and it is covered by muscles and blood vessels and skin.

FORMS OF SKELETAL MATERIALS

There are 3 forms of skeletal materials found in animals .These are
1. Chitin
2. Cartilage
3. Bones

CHITIN
It is a tough non-living material present in arthropods (invertebrates). It acts as a hard outer
covering to the animal and is made up of series of plates covering or surrounding organisms.
Chitin is very tough, light and flexible. However, it can be strengthened by impregnation with
‘tanned’ proteins and particularly in the aquatic crustaceans like crabs, by calcium carbonate.

CARTILAGE
This is a tissue present in skeleton of complex vertebrates. Cartilage consists of a hard matrix
penetrated by numerous connective tissue fibres. The matrix is secreted by living cells called
chondroblasts. These later become enclosed in spaces (lacunae) scattered throughout the
matrix. In this condition the cells are termed chondrocytes. It acts as a shock absorber in
between bones during movement because it is tough and flexible with a great tensile strength.
It is found predominantly in mammals and cartilaginous fishes e.g. shark.

EVALUATION
1. What is skeleton?
2. (a) State two main components of skeleton. (b) Differentiate between cartilage and
chitin.

TYPES OF CARTILAGE
Cartilages are of three main types in mammals and they are

HYALINE CARTILAGE
This contains a dense meshwork is the most common type and can be found on surface of
moveable joint, trachea and bronchi (for ease of respiration) and also in protruding parts of the
nose.

WHITE FIBROUS CARTILAGE

Tougher than the hyaline cartilage and can be found in the intervertebral disc of vertebral
column.

YELLOW ELASTIC CARTILAGE

Found in the external ear (pinna) and epiglottis (*cartilaginous flap covering the trachea active
during food swallowing).

BONE
This is the major component of skeletal system and it consist of living cells (osteocytes), protein
fibers (collagen), and minerals such as calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. These
minerals (the non- living constituent) makes up two-third of a mass of bone .Hence, bone is
strong and very rigid unlike
cartilage .Bones are highly vascularised.

The skeleton of a young vertebrate embryo is made up of cartilage. As the embryo grows bone
cells (osteocyte) replaces cartilage cells.Hence, the cartilage tissue becomes hardened into
bone through the addition of minerals in a process called OSSIFICATION

Differences Between Bones and Cartilage

Bone Cartilage
1 Bones produce red and white blood Cartilages do not
cells
2 Made up of both living cells and dead Made up of mainly living cells.
cells
3 Bones are often rigid Cartilage are often flexible
4 They are made up mainly of mineral Mineral substance are absent
substance such as calcium
5 Can never be replaced by cartilage Can be replaced by bones
6 Flexible only in young ones Cartilage both in young ones and adult is
flexible.
EVALUATION
1. With examples differentiate between hyaline and elastic cartilage.
2. Distinguish between bone and cartilage.

TYPES OF SKELETON
The three main types of skeleton in animals are
1. Hydrostatic skeleton: Thisis the type present in soft bodied animals e.g. earthworm, sea
anemones etc. Such animal use pressure to support itself. They also have a muscular
body wall which is filled with fluid. The fluid presses against the muscular wall causing
them to contract and exerting force against the fluid.
2. Exoskeleton: This is the outer skeleton present in arthropods. It is secreted by the cells
covering the body of the animals and the main component is chitin (non
livingsubstance). Exoskeleton also supports animals against gravity and enables them to
move about. Animals with these skeleton types periodically shed the old skeleton; grow
rapidly in size when the new exoskeleton is still soft and extensible. The shedding
process is called MOULTING or ECDYSIS.
 3. Endoskeleton:This is an internal skeleton present in all vertebrates. Endoskeleton of
vertebrates are composed mainly of bones and the bones grow steadily as the animal
grows (hence no need for moulting). Bones of many sizes and shapes make up the
endoskeleton of vertebrates. These bones are attached together as moveable joints by
tough flexible fibers called ligaments hence the skeleton is flexible. Muscles are also
attached to the bones usually bytendons to provide posture and bring about body
movement.

FUNCTION OF SKELETON
 It supports the body of organisms.
 Skeleton acts as the framework of the body
 Protection of delicate organs e.g. heart, brain, etc.
 Used for locomotion through the limbs in action.
 Important component of respiration e.g. breathing involve active movement of the ribs.
 Production of blood via bone marrows.

EVALUATION
1. Mention the three types of skeleton.
2. Differentiate between internal and external skeleton.

SUPPORT IN VERTEBRATES
The skeleton of vertebrate such as fish, frog, lizard, bird and man consist of bones and
cartilages. It can be classified into two.
1. AXIAL SKELETON- which consists of the skull, ribs, sternum and the vertebral column.
2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON - it is made up of limb girdles (pectoral and pelvic girdles),
and the limbs (the fore and hind limbs).
AXIAL SKELETON
The Skull
The Skull is made up of flat bones joined together by suture joint which has three parts:
Cranium (brain-box), facial skeleton and the jaws; including maxilla (upper) and mandible.

Functions
 It protects the brain.
 Also protects the olfactory organ, eyes, middle and inner ear.
 Gives shape to the head.
 Bears the teeth.
The vertebral column
It forms the back bone, protecting the spinal cord. It is made up of 5 groups of bones called
the vertebrate each of which is built on similar basic pattern. The vertebrate are held
together with strong ligament and comprehensible cartilage pads called into intervertibratal
disc.
Types of Vertebrae and Location
Vertebrae Location Rat Rabbit Cat Cow Humans
Cervical Neck 7 7 7 7 7
Thoracic Chest 13 12-13 13 13 12
Lumber Upper trunk 6 6-7 7 6 5
Sacral Lower trunk 4 4 3 5 5
Caudal Tail 30± 16 18-25 18-20 4

A TYPICAL VERTIBRA
A typical vertebra has the following structural features
 Neural canal which is for the passage of the spinal cord.
 Neural spine which projects upward and backward for the attachment of muscle.
 Transverse processes for the attachment of muscles and ligaments.
 Centrum; a solid bony pieces below the neural canal
 Zygapophyses are the particular surfaces for joining together of successive
vertebrate.
This could be pre-zygapophysis (facing inward and upwards) or post-zygapophysis (facing
outward and downwards

Cervical Vertebrae
The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas while the second is called the axis.
The Atlas It has a large neural canal, flat and broad transverse processes, short neural spine
which could be absent at times. It also has a vertebrarterial canal for the passage of blood
vessels. Centrum is absent.

EVALUATION
1. Give two classes of skeleton.
2. List types of vertebrae.

Function of Atlas
Permits the nodding of the head.

The Axis
It has a broad and flat Centrum, a large and flat neural spine, reduce transverse processesand a
vertebrarterialcanal. It articulates with the atlas through odontoid process

Functions
 It permits the turning or twisting of the head.
 Forms pivot joint with the atlas.
Thoracic Vertebra
Have a long and prominent neural spine, a pair of short transverse processes, a large neural
canal and neural arc and large cylindrical centrums .They also have particular surfaces for
attachment of the ribs.

Function
 Aids attachment of ribs
 Assist in breathing
 Attachment of muscles at the shoulder and back

Lumbar Vertebrae
Each has large and flat transverse processes, broad and flat neural spine, large and thick
centrums and well developed zygapophyses.It has extra paired projections namely
1. anapophysis
2. metapophysis

Functions of Lumbar
 It provides attachment for abdominal muscles
 It bears considerable weight of the body

Sacral Vertebrae
This fuse together to form a singular bony mass called sacrum. Each sacral vertebrate has a
narrow neural canal, reduced neural spine and large centrums. The first differs from the
remaining four by
1. Having a pair of transverse processes which is large and wing-like while the others are
attached to the muscles of the back.
2. Presence of a small neural canal which generally becomes narrower in the lower four
vertebrae.

FUNCTION
 Joins the pelvic girdle to provide support,rigidity and strength.

Caudal vertebrae
These are joined together to form a singular bony mass called coccyx. Each has no neural spine,
no neural canal and no transverse process. It appears as a solid rectangular mass of bone

Functions
 Supports the tail
 Provides attachment for tail muscle

Evaluation
1. List the structural features of a typical vertebrate
2. Using the location, structural features and functions, differentiate between atlas and
axis.
The Appendicular Skeleton
Pectoral girdle: found around the shoulder in man and it consists of two halves which are held
by muscles. Each halve is made up of 3three bones
 Scapula
 Clavicle
 Coracoids
The scapula and coracoids are fixed together as the scapula is flat and triangular with a hollow
called GLENOID CAVITY at its tip. This cavity articulates or joins with the head of humerus to
form the shoulder joint.The clavicle is a small rod of bone attached to a ligament joining the
sternum to the scapula

Functions
 The pectoral girdle gives attachment to muscles and ligaments.
 It provides firm support to the fore limbs.

Pelvic girdle: found around the waist in man and it consists of two halves which are joined to
each other ventrally and to the sacrum dorsally. Each halve of the pelvic girdle is made up of
3threebones. They are
 Illium
 Ischium
 Pubis
These three bones form a depression (on their outer surface) called ACETABULUM which
articulates with the head of the femur to form the hip joint.

Evaluation
1. describe the limb girdle found in the shoulder region of the human body
2. Differentiate between pectoral and pelvic girdle.

LIMBS
The limbs include the fore (upper) and the hind (lower) limbs. In most vertebrates, both limbs
have the same basic plan i.e. each limb has a long bone followed by a pair of two long bones
next to this is a set of small bones terminating with five digits.

The fore limbs- This is made up of an upper arm bone called humerus which joins with two
other long bones at its lower end (radius and ulna) to form the elbow joints. Radius and ulna
(the ulna is longer) are the bones of the fore arm, next are the wrist bones called carpals which
are a small bones. These are followed by the digit bones called metacarpals which terminate in
the phalanges (finger bones). In man, each digit has three phalanges except the thumb which
has two phalanges.
The hind limbs-This is made up of thigh bones called femur (which is the largest and longest
bone in the body). Its round upper end is the end that terminates at two rounded projections
called condyles which forms the knee joint together with tibia. A small flat bone called patella
is found in front of the knee joint.Next to the femur are tibia and fibula-Tibia is longer and
larger. These are followed by bones of the ankle called tarsals. The lower limb terminates as at
the digit bone metatarsals and each digit is made up of three phalanges

Evaluation
1. on what formation plan are the upper and lower limb based
2. Differentiate between the long bones of the arm and that of the thigh.

The ribs
These are long semi circular rods which connects the thoracic vertebrates to the sternum. They
are found in the chest region of the body. In man, they are 12 pairs

Function
 They form a cage protecting the lungs and the heart
 They assist in breathing.

A TYPICAL RIB
A typical rib has a head, a neck and a body.The first sevenribs are connected directly to the
sternum through coastal cartilages. They are therefore called true ribs. The next five are called
false ribs. The eighth to tenth ribs have a common articulation to the sternum, each one
attached to the coastal cartilage to the one above .The eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs are
called floatingribs because they have no connection to the sternum.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the bone connecting the thoracic vertebra to the sternum.
2. Classify the twelve types of ribs.
WEEK 4
SUPPORTING TISSUES IN PLANTS
The needs for supporting tisues in plant are for:
1. definite shape;
2. strength;
3. rigidity;
4. resistance against external force such as wind and water.

Types of Supporting Tissues

 Parenchyma tissues
 Collenchyma tissues
 Sclerechyma tissues
 Xylem tissues
 Phloem tissues

Parenchyma Tissues
They are made up living cells with cellulose and many air spaces between within them. This is
the most common and abundant plant tissue.

Functions
 It gives firms and turgidity to the stems of hibiscus
 stores food and water
 takes part in food synthesis in leaf mesophyll

Collenchyma Tissues
Made up of living cells which are elongated and thickened at the corners.

Functions
 Provides strength and support in young growing plant.
 Gives flexibility and resilience to plant.

Schlerenchyma Tissues
They are made up of thick cells containing cellulose and ligion.The tissues are rich in fibers.

Functions
 gives flexibility to plant
 provides strength, rigidity ,hardness and support to plant

Xylem
Xylem tissues are found in vascular tissues of stems,roots and leaves
Functions
 provides support strength and shape to the plant
 Helps to conduct water and mineral salt from the roots to leaves.

Phloem Tissues
Also located in the vascular bundles of all plants in their roots, stems and leaves

Functions
 Conduction of manufactured food from site of production to site of consumption and
storage.
 Assist to provide support to the entire plant.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Describe the structural features of a typical vertebra
2. Define ossification.
3. What is moulting?
4. State four reasons for presence of supporting tissues in plant
5. List supporting tissues found in plant and state their functions.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
SECTION A
1. …………. is a non living skeletal material
A. chondroblasts B. osteocyte C. elastic cartilage D. chitin
2. The articulating surface for joining together successive vertebrates is called
A. neural spine B. zygapophyses C. transverse processes D. neural canal
3. The canal for the passage of blood vessels in vertebrae is called
A. neural canal B. cervical canal C. vertebraterial canal D. zygaphosis
4. Endo- skeleton is present in the following animals except
A. dog B. snake C. shark D. lizard
5. The most abundant supporting tissue in plants is
A. sclerenchyma B. parenchyma C. xylem D. phloem

SECTION B
1. (a) What is ecdysis? (b) Mention two animals in which it occurs
2. Differentiate between (a) Bone and cartilage (b) Atlas and axis vertebrae
WEEK 5
TOPIC: NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
CONTENT
 Animal Nutrition
 Classes of Food
 Balance Diet and its Importance
 Digestive Enzymes
ANIMAL NUTRITION
Animals generally cannot manufacture their food. Rather, they depend directly or indirectly on
plants for their food. Hence they are called heterotrophs. Based on their food types, animals
are grouped into three:
a. Carnivores which feed on flesh or other animals e.g. lion.
b. Herbivores which feed on plants e.g goat.
c. Omnivores, which feed on both plants and animals e.g man.

CLASSES OF FOOD SUBTANNCES

Foods eaten by animals are generally classified into seven i. e.
a. Carbohydrate
b. Proteins
c. Fat and oil
d. Mineral Salt
e. Vitamins
f. Water
g. Roughages

CARBOHYDRATE
This is got from food like bread, yam rice etc. It basically consists of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. Carbohydrates are of three types:
a. Monosaccharides (Simple sugars) which include glucose, fructose and galactose
b. Disaccharides (Reducing sugars) which include maltose, sucrose and lactose.
c. Polysaccharides (Complex sugars) e.g starch, cellulose, chitin under the action of
enzymes like ptyalin, maltase, lactase etc, and starch yields glucose as product of its
digestion. Excess carbohydrate is stored in the body in form of glycogen in muscles and
liver. This can be reconverted to glucose during starvation.

Importance of Carbohydrates
a. It gives animals energy.
b. It provides heat needed to maintain body temperature
c. It can be used for lubrication e.g mucus.
d. It provides the body with a strong framework e.g. exoskeleton in insects.
PROTEINS
These are complex molecules made up of smaller units called amino acids. Protein is made up
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes phosphorus and sulphur. Food like egg,
meat, fish, beans etc gives you protein. Proteins are broken down into amino acids under the
action of enzymes like pepsin, rennin, trypsin and erepsin.

Importance of Proteins
a. Growth in young ones.
b. Repair of worn-out tissues.
c. Production of enzymes.
d. Production of hormones.
e. It supports reproduction.
f. It is for tissue and all formation i.e body building.

FATS & OIL (LIPIDS)

Fats are solid lipids at room temperature while oil is the liquid. Fat and oil consist of carbon,
hydrogen and little oxygen. When digested, it gives rise to fatty acids and glycerol. Foods like
palm oil, groundnut, Soya beans give fat and oil. Lipids are broken down to fatty acids and
glycerol when acted upon by lipase enzymes.

Importance of Fat and Oil

a. It gives you energy even more than carbohydrates
b. It supplies essential fatty acids to the body.
c. It helps in the maintenance of body temperature
d. It provides the body with fat-soluble vitamins

MINERAL SALT
These are usually taken in very small quantity in the food we eat except sodium chloride (table
salt) and iron tablet, which can be taken directly by man. The lack of these salts results in
nutritional deficiency. The minerals include calcium, magnesium, potassium, Phosphorus,
sulphur, chlorine, iron, Iodine, fluorine, manganese, copper, cobalt and sodium.

Importance of Mineral Salts

a. Regulate body metabolisms
b. Components of bones and teeth
c. Aids blood formation
d. Control chemical reactions in the body
e. Aids the formation of enzymes and pigment
VITAMINS
These are organic food substances needed by man and other animals in small quantity for
normal growth and development. Lack of or inadequate supply of any of these vitamins results
in nutritional deficiency.
Vitamins can be grouped into two:
a. Water-soluble vitamins
b. Fat – soluble vitamins
The water-soluble vitamins include: vitamins B complex and vitamin C. Vitamin B complex
include vitamin, B2, B3 , B5, B6 and B12
Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K.

VITAMINS, SOURCE FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

SOURCE FUNCTION DEFICIENCY
SYMPTOMS
Vitamin A Liver, eggs, fish (i) Normal growth of (i) Night blindness
milk, palm oil, fish body cells and skin (ii) Reduced resistance
Vegetables (ii) Proper vision of the eye to disease

Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, beans, (i) Normal growth Beri-beri (wasting of

Ground nut (ii) Proper functioning of heart Muscles), paralysis
and nervous system
Vitamin B2 Yeast, soya beans, (i) Growth, proper functioning (i) Slow growth
egg, milk, green of the eye (ii) Dermatitis
Vegetables (ii) Formation of co-enzymes
Vitamin B3 Yeast, beans, milk, Formation of co-enzymes for Pellagra
Vegetables cellular respiration
Vitamin B12 Kidney, liver, fish Formation of red blood Pernicious
Milk Cells Anaemia
Vitamin C Fresh fruits and (i) Aids wound healing Scurvy
Green vegetables (ii) Helps to resist infection
Vitamin D Fish, milk, egg, (i) Increases absorption Ricket;
Liver, sun’s Of calcium and phosphorus. Osteomalacia
Ultraviolet rays (ii) Calcification and hardening
Of bones
Vitamin E Green vegetables, Promotion of fertility Sterility
Egg, butter, liver In animals Premature abortion
Vitamin K Fresh green Aids blood clotting Hemorrhage
vegetables, liver

WATER
This is of utmost importance to all organisms and it is made up of two elements, hydrogen and
oxygen. Water can be got from food, river, stream, pond etc. water makes up 75% of the
human body.
IMPORTANCE OF WATER
a. Metabolic activities of the body of animals.
b. Digestion of food.
c. Maintenance of body temperature.
d. It is a medium of transportation for all nutrients.
e. It helps to maintain the osmotic balance in body tissues.
f. It helps in excretion of metabolic waste from the body e.g urine.

ROUGHAGES
These are indigestible fibrous materials got from vegetables, fruit, carbohydrates and proteins.
Roughages aid digestion, lack of which can lead to constipation.

EVALUATION
1. State three importance of; A. Carbohydrate B. Protein C. Lipids.
2. Mention five disease that may result from the deficiency of vitamins.

BALANCED DIET
Balanced diet is a diet containing a correct proportion of all the food substances. On a general
note, a balanced diet contains 15% protein, 15% fat and oil, 10% vitamin, minerals and water
and 60% carbohydrate. Once a food is taken at these proportions, there is a normal growth and
development in the body.

FUNCTIONS OF BALANCED DIET

a. It makes us healthy.
b. It gives ability to be resistant to diseases
c. It makes available energy needed to carry out all biological activities.
d. It prevents malnutrition and deficiency symptoms. For examples, a diet that lacks
protein results into a nutritional disease called kwashiokor in children.

The protein deficient child has the following features

a. Retarded growth.
b. Loss of weight.
c. Swollen legs effect (oedema).
d. Cracked / split stomach and thin legs e.t.c.

EVALUATION
1. State two importance each of A. protein B. carbohydrates C. vitamins
2. State three importance of balanced diet
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Enzymes are organic (protein) catalysts produced by living cells which help to speed up and
slow down the rate of chemical reactions. Digestive enzymes aid the breaking down of complex
food substances into simple, soluble and diffusible form. Enzymes have the following
characteristics.
a. Enzymes are soluble
b. Enzymes are protein
c. They are specific in their actions
d. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature i. e. they work best between 35 oC to 40oC
e. Enzymes are PH specific
f. Enzymes brings about reversible reactions
g. Enzymes needs co-enzymes to activate them and can be inactivated by inhibitors such
as mercury and cyanide

CLASSES AND FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

Digestive enzymes are classified based on the type of food they act upon. These include
a. Proteases e. g. pepsin, rennin, trypsin and erepsin. They act on protein.
b. Amylases e. g. ptyalin, lactase, maltase, sucrose. They act on carbohydrates
c. Lipases which act on lipids (fats and oils)
EVALUATION
o What are enzymes?
o Outline five characteristics of enzymes
GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS
1. State two food items each that supply A. Protein B. Lipids C. Mineral salts
2. List two functions each for protein and lipids.
3. State the functions of A. Chlorine B. Magnesium C. Iodine.
4. What are the diseases resulting from deficiency of: A. Sodium B. Calcium C. Iron
5. State the functions and deficiency symptoms of all the water soluble vitamins
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Vitamins are organic food substances required by animals in ____ quantity A. no B. small
C. large D. high
2. The following except one are fat-soluble vitamins A. vitamin A B. Vitamin B C. Vitamin K
D. Vitamin E
3. One of the following food substances is indigestible in man A. protein B. lipids
C. roughages D. carbohydrates
4. The highest source of energy is from _______ A. carbohydrate B. proteins C. lipids
D. vitamins
5. Rickets (poor bone formation) in children is a deficiency symptom of ____ A. potassium
B. calcium C. chlorine D. manganese.
THEORY
1. Make a table of food tests showing the column of food, the test, observation &
inference.
 2. Make a table of important mineral elements in animals, their functions and deficiency
symptoms

WEEK SIX
BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
CONTENT
 Definition and Branches of Ecology
 Ecological Terms ( Environment, Biosphere, Habitat, Ecological Niche, Population,
Community, Ecological System, Biome)
 Components of an Ecosystem
BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
DEFINITION OF ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of plant and animals (as well as microorganism) in relation to their
environment. As a practical science, ecological studies involve:-
 Studying the distribution of living organisms
 Finding out how living organisms depend on themselves and their non-living
environment for survival.
 Measuring factors affecting the environment.

BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY
Depending on whether the organisms are studied alone or in groups, ecology is divided into
two:
i. AUTECOLOGY: This is the study of an individual organism or a single species of organism
and its environment e.g. the study of a student and his school environment.
ii. SYNECOLOGY: This involves studying the inter-relationships between groups of
organisms or different species of organism living together in an area e.g. study of fish,
crabs, seaweeds, etc in a pond.

EVALUATION
1. Define ecology.
2. Differentiate between the two branches of ecology.

ECOLOGICAL TERMS
The various concepts closely associated with ecology include;
 ENVIRONMENT
This includes external and internal factors, living or nonliving which affects an organism or a
group of organisms. These include the habitat (with its peculiar physical conditions e.g. light,
food, water, air), the animals preying on other animals or the diseases affecting the organism.
 BIOSPHERE (ECOSPHERE)
This is the zone of the earth occupied by living organisms so as to carry out their biochemical
activities.
The ecosphere consists of 3 major portions:-
 - Lithosphere:- this is the solid portion (the outer-most zone) of the earth which is made
up of rocks and minerals. This zone forms 30% of the earth surface and it is the basis of
human settlement.
- Hydrosphere:- this is the liquid (aquatic) part of the biosphere. It covers about 70% of
the earth’s crust. It consist of water in various forms; solid, liquid or gas (water vapour),
hydrosphere includes lakes, pools, spring, oceans, ponds, rivers, etc.
- Atmosphere: - this is the gaseous portion of the earth. It consists of three main gases;
nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and carbon (iv) oxide (0.03%). There are also 0.77% rare
gases.

 HABITAT
This is a place where an organism is naturally found. Habitat is always affected by
environmental factors. Habitat can be divided into three:-
- Aquatic habitat: this is where plants and animals (as well as micro organisms) live in
water e.g. Sea, ocean, lagoons, streams, etc.
- Terrestrial habitat: this is where the organisms live on land e.g. forests, grassland,
(savanna), desert etc.
- Arboreal habitat: These include tree trunks and tree tops where some organisms
(usually animals) are naturally found.
 ECOLOGICAL NICHE
This refers to the habitat and the entire habit (behavioural, feeding, breeding) of an organism. It
is the physical space occupied by an organism and its functional role in the community.
 POPULATION
This is the total number of organisms of the same species living together in a habitat e.g.
population of cockroaches in Biology laboratory.
 COMMUNITY
This is made up of all the populations of living organisms that exists together in a habitat e.g. a
community of decomposer, insects and birds on a decaying log of wood.
 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM (ECOSYSTEM)
This refers to the basic functional unit in nature, which consists of all living factors and their
interaction with non-living factors of the environment. An ecosystem can be natural or artificial.
 BIOMES
This is a large natural terrestrial ecosystem. It is a plant and animal community produced and
maintained by the climate.

EVALUATION
 Define the following A. Community B. Population C. Ecosystem
 Differentiate between Biosphere and Ecosystem.

COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Biosphere comprises of various ecosystems. There are two main components of the ecosystem,
the abiotic and the biotic components.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
These are non-living components and they are basic elements and compounds of the
environment in which an organism lives.

Abiotic components include organic substances (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins),
inorganic substances (e.g. CO2, H2O), climatic factors (e.g. light, temperature, rainfall) as well as
edaphic factors (e.g. soil types, texture, topography etc).

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
These are the living things in the ecosystem. These include the producers, the consumers and
the decomposers.
a. Producer: These are autotrophs in that they synthesize their food from simple inorganic
substances e. g. green plants, protophytes and chemosynthetic bacteria.
b. Consumers: These are heterotrophs which feed on the producers or one another. They
0may be primary, secondary or tertiary consumers e.g. non-green plants, animals
protozoa and some bacteria
c. Decomposers: These are saprophytes. They break down remains of plants and animals
and release usable nutrients to the soil. These nutrients are used by plants to make food
e.g. fungi and some bacteria
Generally living things influence other living things in many ways such as in feeding (parasitism),
shading from sunlight, pollination and dispersal of seeds, competition. Some of these factors
are favourable while others are unfavourable.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. Write a short note on ecosphere.
2. Differentiate between a habitat and ecological niche.
3. With two example each, state three subdivisions of habitat.
4. What is a population?
5. How is population related to the community?
6. Differentiate between ecosystem and biomes.
7. State the two major components of an ecosystem with two examples each.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of the following is not classified as a terrestrial habitat? A. forest B. guinea
savanna C. literal zone D. desert
2. The activities of an organism which affect the survival of another organism in a habitat
can be described as A. biotic factors. B. Abiotic factors C. climatic factor D. edaphic
factors.
3. The number of individuals of the same species interacting in a habitat at a particular
time is best described as A. community B. ecosystem C. population D. biome.
4. A biotic community with its physical environment (abiotic factors) defines A. ecosystem
B. population C. habitat D. biosphere.
 5. The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is A. oxygen B. nitrogen C. carbon
dioxide D. a rare gas.
THEORY
 Define i) Biotic community ii) habitat iii) an ecosystem
 Write short notes on the three major portions of ecosphere.

BIOMES
Biomes are large natural terrestrial ecosystem, identified by their dominant vegetation. They
are terrestrial because plants form the bulk of the community in any ecosystem e.g. a forest
biome has densely packed tall trees while grasses and few scattered shrubs are found in a
savanna biome. Climatic factors determine the type of vegetation in a biome. These factors may
include rainfall, relative humidity, temperature, wind and light.

EVALUATION
1. What is a biome?
2. Mention four factors that determine the vegetation of a biome.

LOCAL BIOMES
The local biomes particular to Nigeria include the following:
- mangrove swamp
- tropical rain forest
- savanna (northern and southern Guinea savanna, Sudan savanna and sahel savanna)
a. MANGROVE SWAMPS
These are found in the tropics along coastal region and river mouths. Mangrove swamps are
forest of small, evergreen, broad-leaved trees growing in shallow, brackish water or wet soil.
Many mangrove trees have pop roots and breathing roots called pneumatophores. The climate
here is hot and wet, with total annual rain fall of above 250cm and temperature of about 26 0c.
In Nigeria, mangrove swamps are found in the delta region of Lagos, Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa and
Cross rivers states.
b. TROPICAL RAIN FOREST:
This occurs in the region that is between the equator and latitude 50-100N and S. It has the
following characteristics:
- The forest are mainly lowland.
- The climate is hot and wet.
- It consists of broad leaved trees that are mostly ever green; the leaves are gradually
shed throughout the year and replaced by new ones.
- The trees form canopy strata with their interior having low light intensity, high
humidity and damp floor.
- The trees possess thin bark.
- The forest is rich in epiphytes and wood climbers.
- The annual rainfall and temperature are 200cm and 270c respectively.
In Nigeria, tropical rainfall is found in Edo, Delta, Ondo, Imo, Lagos, Rivers state e.t.c.
 c. SAVANNA
These are tropical grassland in Africa. They are usually flat for miles at a stretch and made up
mainly of grasses. The savanna region has a hot and wet seasons (290c) which alternate with a
cool and dry season (180c). The total annual rainfall around 50cm-150cm. During the dry
season, the grasses are usually dry and brown and bush fire is common occurrences.
South Guinea savanna (the largest of all the biomes in Nigeria) has tall grasses with scattered,
deciduous trees. It is found in Enugu, Kogi, Benue, Kwara, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti State etc.
Northern Guinea Savanna has scattered, deciduous trees, sometimes with thorns and tick
barks. Grasses are short and numerous. it is found in plateau, Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Kano,
Adamawa states etc.

Sudan savanna has the shorter grasses fewer trees which are more scattered. It is found in
Kano and parts of Borno, Sokoto, Niger, Bauchi states e.t.c

Sahel savanna has high temperature and low rainfall with short and scanty grasses as well as
short and tough shrubs or trees. The plants are drought-resistant. It is found in Borno, Kastina,
Sokoto, Yobe, Kano, Jigawa states etc.

EVALUATION
1. In a tabular form, distinguish between the three major biomes in Nigeria using the
following
a. Total annual rainfall
b. Temperature
c. Regions found
2. List five characteristics of savanna.

WORLD BIOMES
Of all abiotic factors affecting ecological system, temperature and rainfall determine the world
biomes. The biomes include: tropical rain forest, temperate forest, coniferous forest, temperate
shrubland, savanna, temperate grassland, desert, and tundra and mountain vegetation.
a. TEMPERATE FORESTS
These are forests with the following characteristics they are
- Mainly of broad leaved deciduous trees which shed their leaves during winter.
- Possession of moderately wet climate with a dry or cold season.
b. CONIFEROUS FORESTS
These are characterized by
- Needle-leaved evergreen conifers such as pines, firs.
- Possessing few trees.
- Possessing tall tree forming upper storey.
- The forest floor being covered with a thick layer or conifer needles.
- Possessing cool temperature climate with light rainfall and snow.
 c. TEMPERATE SHRUBLAND
This is forest with the following characteristics
- It consists of drought-resistant shrub plants and dwarf trees, often fire-resistant e.g.
marquis.
- It has temperate climate with low rainfall.
d. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
This is characterized by:
- perennial grasses grow on very fertile soil to support herds of grazing mammals
- It has moderately dry climate with a cold winter and a hot summer
e. SAVANNA
This is a tropical grassland with:
- scattered trees and often infertile soil
- moderately dry climate with a warm dry season and a hot rainy season
f. DESERT
This has:
- very sparse vegetation, with succulent perennials that have deep root systems.
- tropical temperate and afro-alpine regions with less than 25 cm annual rainfall.
g. TUNDRA
This is characterized by:
- treeless marshy vegetation composed mainly of dwarf shrubs, grasses, lichen and moss
with very few plant trees.
- cold climate with long icy winter and very short summer with an average temperature of
100c.
h. MOUNTANE VEGETATION
This has:
- evergreen rainforest on slopes of mountain, these forest are less luxuriant than the
tropical rainforest.
- Afro alpine vegetation occurs at heights above 3000m on mountain, vegetation consists
mainly of heath, grasses and sedges.

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the term biome?
2. State the local biomes found in Nigeria.
3. State the four savannas present in Nigeria.
4. What are the two factors that determine the world biomes?
5. State four of the world biomes with two characteristics each.
6. Using their characteristics, differentiate between savanna and desert.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. How is savanna plants protected from bush fires? They have A. sunken stomata B. thorn
bark C. thick barks D. soft leaves
2. Which of the following limiting resources is competed for by organisms in the desert?
 A. Light B. oxygen C. temperature D. water
3. Which of these is not a true characteristic of the tropical rain forest? A. Vegetation
consists predominantly of tall tree with thick canopy B. forest is rich in epiphytes and
climbers C. annual rainfall is less than 100 cm D. annual temperature is 27 0c
4. Which of the following does not describe the coniferous forest? A. needle leaved
evergreen conifers B. broad leaved evergreen conifers C. possessing few trees
D. possessing cool temperate climate
5. Montane vegetation is described by the following except A. treeless marshy vegetation
B. evergreen rainforest on slopes of mountain C. forest are less luxuriant than tropical
rain forest D. afro alpine vegetation at heights above 300m on mountain

THEORY
1. Outline the properties of the savanna as a world biome.
2. State four characteristic features of vegetation found in A. savanna B. tropical
rainforest C. desert.

WEEK SEVEN
POPULATION STUDIES
CONTENT
 Population Characteristics
 Population Studies
 Factors that Affect Population
 Simple Measurement of Ecological Factors.
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
These include population size, density, frequency, percentage cover and distribution.
a. Population size: - this is the number of organisms of the same species living together in
a given area at a particular time.
b. Population density: - this is the number of a particular species per unit area or volume of
the habitat. Therefore
Population density = population size / area of habitat.
c. Population frequency: - this is the number of times an organism occurs within a given
area or habitat.
d. Percentage cover: - this refers to how much space or area an organism occupies its
habitat.
e. Population growth rate: - this refers to the net result of the influence of natality (birth
rate) and mortality (death rate) of organism in a given habitat.
f. Population distribution: - this refers to the ways in which individuals of the same species
are arranged in a given habitat, either randomly, evenly or clumped.

EVALUATION
 1. Define the following terms: (i) Percentage cover (ii) Population size (iii) Population
frequency (iv) Population density.
2. Mention two methods of determining population size.

POPULATION STUDIES
a. Choose the habitat.
b. Select the sampling method to be used.
c. Collect, count and record the different types of organisms present. Sampling using a
quadrant or transcent using a tape can be adopted.
d. Identify the dominant species i. e. the species that has greater influence on the other
members of the community.
e. Repeat the population studies at intervals.
f. Determine the population characteristics.

EVALUATION
1. How do you determine the population density of insect on a piece of land?
2. How do you determine the population of grasses in a piece of land?

FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

a. Natality; Ability of organisms to reproduce to increase its population
b. Mortality; Death rate.
c. Immigration; Movement of organisms from different habitats into a new habitat and
this increases the population of the new area, decreasing the population of the former
habitat.
d. Emigration; Movement of organisms out of a habitat due to unfavourable conditions
e.g. food scarcity etc. This reduces the population of the habitat.
e. Availability of food; Animals tend to migrate to where there is plenty of food, thereby
increasing the population of such places.
f. Seasonal climatic changes; whether the change is favourable or not determines the stay
or migration of organisms into or out of a habitat.
g. Breeding season; some organisms move out of their habitats during this season (e.g.
fishes); hence the population drops.
h. Natural disasters; Like fire, drought, floods, earthquakes etc lead to a decrease in
population through the death of organisms out of such habitat

MEASUREMENT OF ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

These factors can be measured using some instruments as shown below.
INSTRUMENTS USES
a. Photometer Light intensity
b. Hydrometer Light intensity in water
c. Wind vane Direction of wind
d. Anemometer Speed of wind
 e. Rainguage Amount of rainfall
f. Hygrometer Relative humidity
g. Barometer Pressure
h. Glass thermometer Temperature
i. Colorimeter or pH scale Acidity / Alkalinity
j. Secchi disc Turbidity
k. Sweep insect net Catching insects

EVALUATION
1. State three factors that: a) increase the population of a habitat b) decrease the
population of a habitat.
2. Explain the effect of bush burning on the population.
3. List five ecological instruments and their uses

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. State the two components of an ecosystem
2. With two examples each, discuss the various biotic components in an ecosystem
3. State three factors that: a) increase the population of a habitat b) decrease the population
of a habitat.
4. State five effects of over population in a community
5. State two Abiotic factors unique to: a) aquatic habitat b) terrestrial habitat.
6. List five measurable ecological factors.
7. State the ecological instruments used in measuring the factors listed above.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Climatic factors in an ecosystem include the following except
A. light B. wind C. temperature D. Oxygen.
2. Organic part of abiotic component of an ecosystem includes the following except
A. water B. carbohydrate C. Protein d) Lipids
3. The ratio of population size to the area of the habitat is called A. population size
B. population density C. population frequency D. population cover.
4. Habitat factors include all the following except A. biotic B. abiotic C. edaphic D. nature.
5. The total number of organisms of the same species in a habitat at a particular time is
called A. population B. community C. census D. all of the above

THEORY
1. List five ecological instruments and state their uses.
2. State five factors affecting a population size.
WEEK EIGHT
FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM
CONTENT
 Feeding Relationship
 Trophic Levels
 Food Chain and Food Web
 Energy Flow and Ecological Pyramids
 Energy Transformation in Nature
 Laws of Thermodynamics

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
Since all living organisms must obtain energy and nutrients from the environment in order to
remain alive, they are into feeding relationships. This makes an ecosystem a functional unit. All
organisms fall into one of the three major groups of biotic community, namely: producers
(autotrophs), consumer (heterotrophs) and decomposers
a. The autotrophs provide food for other organism in the habitat. In terrestrial habitat,
they include grasses, trees and shrubs while aquatic autotrophs include phytoplankton,
seaweeds etc
b. The heterotrophic include: (i) herbivores (called primary consumers) feeding on plants,
carnivores (called secondary consumers) feeding on primary consumers and omnivores
is other animals called (tertiary consumers) that feed on secondary consumer or on
both. Terrestrial heterotrophs include cow, dog, lion, man etc while water fleas,
tadpoles, larvae of insect and fishes are aquatic heterotrophs
c. Decomposers like termites, larvae of housefly (maggot), bacteria and fungi break down
dead organic matter to release simple chemical compounds which can be absorb and
use again.
Of all the three biotic groups, consumers have better chance of survival than any other in an
ecosystem.

EVALUATION
1. State two examples each of the following in both terrestrial and aquatic habitat
A. Autotrophs B. heterotrophs C. Decomposers.
2. How do the three groups of organisms in one above relate?
WEEK TEN
TROPHIC LEVELS
In an ecosystem, energy and nutrients are transferred step by step among organisms along a
feeding path way. The feeding pathway in all ecosystems follows a similar pattern which is as
follows:
a. It begins with a producer e.g green plant like grass.
b. The producer is eaten by a primary consumer e.g Zebra , goat.
c. The primary consumer is eaten by a secondary consumer e.g. lion.
d. Decomposers convert the remains of dead producers and consumers into simple
inorganic substance which return to the non –living environment. The difference in the
feeding pathways within an ecosystem or between different ecosystems is the
termination of the pathway. Some may end at the primary consumer step or may go on
to secondary consumer, tertiary consumer etc.

Trophic (feeding) level: is each step along a feeding pathway. The order in which the trophic
levels are arranged gives the path of energy (food) flow among the functional groups of
organisms. The trophic levels are numbered in ascending order, starting from one to indicate
the path of energy flow.

Trophic level 1 always consists of producers or autotrophs, trophic level 2 always consists of
primary consumers. Above trophic level 2, consumers could be carnivores, parasitic organisms
and scavengers. The final consumers eventually die and are fed upon by decomposers.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the pattern that feeding pathway follow in all ecosystems.
2. What do you understand by feeding level?

FOOD CHAIN FOOD WEB

This is the feeding relationship involving the transfer of energy through food from producers to
consumers in a linear form.

Examples of food chain in terrestrial habitats are:

Grass zebra lion
(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer)

Guinea grass grasshopper toad snake hawk

(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

In aquatic habitats are:

Spirogyra tadpoles crabs kingfish
(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)
Diatoms mosquito larva Tilapia fish whale
(producer) (primary consumer) (secondary consumer) (tertiary consumer)

Therefore, in a food chain, food energy is transferred from one organism to another in a linear
form. Most food chains begin with producers but few of them start with dead plants or animals
e.g
Humus earthworm domestic fowl man

Numerous food chains present in an ecosystem produce a food web.

FOOD WEB: - is a complex feeding relationship among organisms in the same environment
with two or more interrelated food chains. Food webs therefore contain more organisms than
food chains. A single plant could be fed upon by more than one or two organisms
In an ecosystem, a consumer has a better chance of survival because it feeds on different types
of plants or animals in a food web.

ENERGY FLOW AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Pyramids are diagrammatic representations used in ecology. They include pyramid of number,
pyramid of energy and pyramid of biomass.
1. PYRAMID OF NUMBER: this refers to the numbers of individual organisms at each trophic
level, decreasing from the first to the last level in a food chain.
Pyramid of number has the following defects: The individual organisms is given the same status,
though they varied greatly in size e. g. grass and trees grouped together as producer and is not
drawn to scale.

2. PYRAMID OF ENERGY: This is the amount of energy present in the living organisms at
different trophic level of a food chain, which decreases from the first to the last i. e. from
the base of the pyramid to the apex.
3. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: Biomass refers to the size and numbers of living organisms. It
represents the total wet or dry mass of the organisms in each trophic level. This gives a
more accurate picture of the relationship between the organisms at various trophic levels in
a food chain than the pyramid of numbers.

ENERGY LOSS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Energy is the ability to do work. All living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat. The
food is produced by green plants and other organisms depend on them. As energy is passed
from one organism to another along the food chain, it is progressively lost due to respiration
(energy used for various metabolic activities) and as heat. In most ecosystems, only about 1 -
10% of the solar energy may be available to photosynthetic producers.

EVALUATION
1. What is a pyramid? State three types of ecological pyramids.
2. State the similarities between pyramid of numbers and pyramid of energy.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics simply means heat change. Heat as a form of energy that is subject to change
in living organisms is governed by two laws
a. First law of thermodynamics which states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, although it can be changed from one form to another. E.g. chemical energy
in food is converted to kinetic energy and heat energy in our muscles when we walk or
run.
b. Second law of thermodynamics which state that in any conversion of energy from one
form to another, there is always a decrease in the amount of useful energy i. e. no
transformation of energy from one state to another is ever 100 percent efficient.
During metabolic activities, some chemical energy is constantly lost as heat energy from the
body of an organism. As energy is converted from one form to another, there will always be a
loss.

FOOD CHAIN AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: in a food chain, energy from the sun is transferred from the
producer to the final consumer and the sum total of the energy remains constant.
 (ii) Using the second law: as the energy is transformed from one trophic level to
another, part of it is converted into heat it is lost, among a progressive drop in
energy in successive trophic levels.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY & LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: The energy of the producers at the base of the pyramid is higher and
it is gradually transformed to other trophic levels.
(ii) Using the second law: As energy is transferred from one trophic level to another, part of
the energy is converted to heat.

ENERGY FLOW AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: Energy flows from producers to 1 0 consumers, then to 20 consumers
and finally to 30 consumers in a food chain. The energy flow in a food chain is therefore
in one direction only.
(ii) Using the Second law: Energy transfer between trophic levels is not 100%. Successive
levels have less useful energy and so can only support fewer organisms. Produce (green
plants) have the highest amount of energy. When herbivores feed on the plants, the
energy level is reduced. When carnivores consume the herbivores, the energy level is
reduced.

EVALUATION
1. State the laws of thermodynamics and explain.
2. Explain pyramid of energy and food chain using the laws of thermodynamics.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is a food chain?
2. Explain the role of the following in a food chain (i) Producer (ii) Consumer (iii)
Decomposer.
3. A.Draw a food chain involving four trophic levels in a marine habitat.
B.Explain (i) the flow of energy through the food chain drawn in 3C
(ii) how energy in the chain is lost to the environment.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The ultimate source of energy in nature is A. green plants B. moon C. star D. sun
2. The usable form of energy in animals is A. chemical energy B. kinetic energy
C. potential energy D. ATP
3. Available to photosynthetic plants is ________ of the solar energy. A. 1-5% B. 2-5%
C. 5-15% D. 1-10%
4. The study of the relationship between heat energy and other forms of energy is
called_____________. A. thermodynamics B. thermocouple C. thermosetting D. all of
the above
 5. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be changed from one form to
another This refers to the A. first law of thermodynamics B. second law of
thermodynamics C. third law of thermodynamics D. none of the above
THEORY
1. State the first and second law of thermodynamics.
2. In a tabular format, state four differences between food chain and food web.
THIRD TERM SCHEME

Week Topic contents

1 Energy transformation in nature - Energy loss in ecosystem
- Laws of thermodynamics
- Application of the laws
2 Relevance of biology to agriculture - Botanical, agricultural and
morphological classification of plants
3 Effects of agricultural activities on - Effects of buh burning, agro- chemical
ecological system application and different types of
farming methods on the ecosystem
4 Pests and diseases of agricultural - Definition, types, life cycle and control
importance of pests
5 Food production and storage - Role of food in agricultural production
- Factors affectinf food production and
storage
- Ways of improving crop yield
- Cause of wastage
- Methods of preserving and storing
food
6 Population growth and food - Relationship between availability of
supply food and human population
- Effects of food shortage
- Government effort to increase food
production
7 Microorganisms around us - Classification, carriers, beneficial
/chapter 10 cambridge effects and harmful effects
- Control and prevention
8 Aquatic and terrestrial habitats - Definition, types and characteristics of
habitats
- Food chain and food web in habitats
9 Classification of plants - Seed bearing and non-seed bearing
plants
- Classification of plants into cereals
and legumes
10 Digestive system - Types
 - Description
- Diagram
11 Revision
12 Examination

THIRD TERM BIOLOGY SS1 E-

NOTE
WEEK ONE
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN NATURE
ENERGY FLOW AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
Pyramids are diagrammatic representations used in ecology. They include pyramid of number,
pyramid of energy and pyramid of biomass.
4. PYRAMID OF NUMBER: this refers to the numbers of individual organisms at each trophic
level, decreasing from the first to the last level in a food chain.

HAWKS
2
Decre
LIZARDS 5
asing
numbe
r of
GRASSHOPPERS 12 ograni
sms
GRASSES 40

Pyramid of number has the following defects: The individual organisms is given the same status,
though they varied greatly in size e. g. grass and trees grouped together as producer and is not
drawn to scale.

5. PYRAMID OF ENERGY: This is the amount of energy present in the living organisms at
different trophic level of a food chain, which decreases from the first to the last i. e. from
the base of the pyramid to the apex.
6. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: Biomass refers to the size and numbers of living organisms. It
represents the total wet or dry mass of the organisms in each trophic level. This gives a
more accurate picture of the relationship between the organisms at various trophic levels in
a food chain than the pyramid of numbers.

ENERGY LOSS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Energy is the ability to do work. All living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat. The
food is produced by green plants and other organisms depend on them. As energy is passed
from one organism to another along the food chain, it is progressively lost due to respiration
(energy used for various metabolic activities) and as heat. In most ecosystems, only about 1 -
10% of the solar energy may be available to photosynthetic producers.
EVALUATION
3. What is a pyramid? State three types of ecological pyramids.
4. State the similarities between pyramid of numbers and pyramid of energy.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics simply means heat change. Heat as a form of energy that is subject to change
in living organisms is governed by two laws
c. First law of thermodynamics which states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, although it can be changed from one form to another. E.g. chemical energy
in food is converted to kinetic energy and heat energy in our muscles when we walk or
run.
d. Second law of thermodynamics which state that in any conversion of energy from one
form to another, there is always a decrease in the amount of useful energy i. e. no
transformation of energy from one state to another is ever 100 percent efficient.
During metabolic activities, some chemical energy is constantly lost as heat energy from the
body of an organism. As energy is converted from one form to another, there will always be a
loss.

FOOD CHAIN AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(iii) Using the first law: in a food chain, energy from the sun is transferred from the
producer to the final consumer and the sum total of the energy remains constant.
(iv) Using the second law: as the energy is transformed from one trophic level to
another, part of it is converted into heat it is lost, among a progressive drop in
energy in successive trophic levels.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY & LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: The energy of the producers at the base of the pyramid is higher and
it is gradually transformed to other trophic levels.
(ii) Using the second law: As energy is transferred from one trophic level to another, part of
the energy is converted to heat.

ENERGY FLOW AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: Energy flows from producers to 1 0 consumers, then to 20 consumers
and finally to 30 consumers in a food chain. The energy flow in a food chain is therefore
in one direction only.
(ii) Using the Second law: Energy transfer between trophic levels is not 100%. Successive
levels have less useful energy and so can only support fewer organisms. Produce (green
plants) have the highest amount of energy. When herbivores feed on the plants, the
energy level is reduced. When carnivores consume the herbivores, the energy level is
reduced.
EVALUATION
3. State the laws of thermodynamics and explain.
4. Explain pyramid of energy and food chain using the laws of thermodynamics.

GENERAL EVALUATION
4. What is a food chain?
5. Explain the role of the following in a food chain (i) Producer (ii) Consumer (iii)
Decomposer.
6. A.Draw a food chain involving four trophic levels in a marine habitat.
B.Explain (i) the flow of energy through the food chain drawn in 3C
(ii) how energy in the chain is lost to the environment.

WEEK TWO TO FOUR

RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE
CONTENT
- Classification of plants
- Botanical classification
- Agricultural Classification
- Classification based on life cycle
- Classification based on size
- Effects of agricultural practices on ecological systems

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
Plants exists in various forms and types hence, the need for classification. Plants can be
classified on the following bases
i. Botanical classification
ii. Agricultural classification
iii. Classification based on life cycle
iv. Classification based on size
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
The concept of binomial nomenclature has it that plant kingdom can be subdivided into
divisions, classes, orders, families, general and species. This is based on their structures,
functions and evolutionary trends. Plants are then generally classified into three brand groups
- Thallophytes (A)
- Bryophytes (B)
- Tracheophytes (C)
Tracheophytes are further grouped into pteridophytes (D) and spermatophytes (E). The
Spermatophytes can also be grouped into gymnosperms (F) and angiosperms (G). The
angiosperms are subdivided into dicot (H) and Monocot (I)
A & B are non- vascular plants, C refers to vascular plants. D refers to non-flowering plants; E
refers to seed plants while G refers to flowering plants proper.
EVALUATION
1. Outline the criteria (bases) for classifying plants
2. List the three factors upon which botanical classification is based

AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION
Agricultural classification of plants is based on:.
(v) The product obtained from the plants

(vi) The parts of the plant that is useful

(vii) The economic importance of the plants

Plants are therefore classified agriculturally into the following

6. CROPS AND WEEDS: - plants that are needed on the farm are called crops while other
unwanted are called weeds.
7. FOOD CROPS AND CASH CROPS: - crops grown mainly for human consumption are
called food crops e.g. maize, yam etc. Those grown mainly to earn money are cash
crops e.g. cocoa, coffee
8. ROOT CROPS: - are plants which store mainly starch in edible underground stems or
roots e.g. yam, cassava etc.
9. CEREAL CROPS: - these are monocotyledonous plants of grass family, whose grains are
eaten e.g. maize, millet, guinea corn, rice, wheat, etc. They are rich in carbohydrates.
10. FRUITS CROPS:- are rich in vitamins and minerals. Fruits are also rich in sugar. These
include oranges, mangoes, avocado peers, cashew etc. whose fruits are eaten
11. VEGETABLE CROPS: - are herbaceous plants whose vegetable (leafy) parts are eaten.
They include spinach, lettuce, carrots, cabbage, okro, tomato, onion, pepper etc. They
are also rich in vitamins and minerals.
12. LEGUMES: - are plants of beans family such as cowpea and groundnuts whose seeds
are eaten. They are rich in proteins
13. SPICES: Are plants whose parts are used for seasoning food such as pepper, curry,
thyme and ginger.
14. LATEX PLANTS: Are plants that are grown for their useful latex (a milky fluid) e.g.
rubber plants used for making natural rubber in the tropical countries
15. FIBRE PLANTS: Are plants which produce fibre for the purpose of rope making, textile
and bags production e.g. cotton, hemp etc.
16. BEVERAGE AND DRUG PLANTS: - Are plants whose parts are taken as stimulants or
drugs e.g. tea, coffee, cocoa and kola nut, quinine tree for medicine.
 17. OIL PLANT: - Produce oil of economic value e.g. oil palm, sheanut, groundnut,
coconut, castor oil plant and melon.

EVALUATION:
3. What are the factors considered in agricultural classification of plants?
4. Differentiate between fruits crops and vegetable crops

PLANT CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LIFE CYCLE AND SIZE

Based on life cycle (period or existence) plant can be classified as
a. ANNUALS: - These are plants which complete their life cycle within one growing
season or within a year e.g. Maize, Yam, Melon, cowpea, tomato etc.
b. BIENIALS: - These complete their life cycle within two years e.g. Banana, plantain,
pineapple etc.
c. PERENNIALS: - These persist over (more than) two years producing their yields every
season e.g. orange, mango, oil palm cocoa etc.

Plant based on size fall into three categories

e. Herbs are small plants with fleshy stem e.g. Spinach, waterleaf etc.
f. Shrubs are medium – sized plants with woody stem branch very close to the ground
(soil) e.g. hibiscus
g. Trees are big plants with woody trunk, which branch at the top e.g. Iroko, Mahogany,
Cashew, and Coffee etc.

EVALUATION
h. Classify the following plants based on their life cycle (a) Vegetable (b) Pineapple (c)
almond tree
i. Give two examples each of herbs, shrubs and tree crops

EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

The following agricultural or farming practices carried out by farmers have some consequences
on the ecological system. These agricultural practices and their effects include;

a. Bush Burning: Bush burning involves the setting of fire in the bush to clear out the
vegetation.Effects of bush burning include
- Destruction of the organic matter in the soil
- Atmosphere is polluted with smoke.
- Many of the micro-organisms are killed
- exposes the soil to erosion and leaching
- reduces the water holding capacity of the soil
 - Bush burning leads to the extinction of some animals
- The ash produced by bush burning gives the soil a slightly alkaline nature
b. Overgrazing: Overgrazing is a situation where more animals than what can be supported
on a particular pasture are put there to graze. It is a way of exceeding the carrying
capacity of the soil. Overgrazing
 removes the vegetative cover of the soil
 exposes the soil to erosion
 destroys the soil structure
 More faeces are dropped on the soil which could improve the fertility of the soil.
 Weeds can eradicated from such lands
 It leads to compactness of the soil resulting from continuous trampling of
animals.
 causes poor growth and regenerative capacity of vegetation
c. Tillage: Tillage is defined as the working, digging or breaking up of the soil in preparation
for the planting of crops. Tillage encourages leaching
3. helps to loosen the soil
4. it enhances proper aeration of the soil
5. tillage exposes the soil organisms and may kill some
6. it changes the structure and texture of the soil
7. tillage leads to changes in the ecology of the land
8. Intensive tillage can lead to loss of soil fertility.
9. It exposes the soil to erosion.
d. Deforestation: Deforestation is the continuous removal of forest stand (trees) either by
bush burning or indiscriminate felling without replacing them. Deforestation
- It reduces water percolation due to absence of humus and dead leaves on the
soil
- It reduces the amount of rainfall in the area
- Deforestation hinders micro-organisms activities in the soil
- It results in loss of nutrients through leaching and erosion
- It reduces wildlife population in the area concerned
- It reduces the humus content of the soil
e. Fertilizer application: This involves the application of certain chemicals or substances
into the soil to improve its fertility. Effects of fertilizer application include
3. It brings about the loss of organic matter or humus
4. It deteriorates the structure of the soil
5. Fertilizer increases the porosity of the soil
6. It supplements nutrient content of the soil
7. Excessive application of fertilizer can cause soil acidity
8. The productive capacity of the soil is enhanced by the application of fertilizer
9. It stimulates vegetative growth, hence it reduces soil erosion
 f. Application of pesticides/herbicides: Pesticides are chemical substances which are used
to destroy or kill pests while herbicides are also chemical substances in form of solution
or gases capable of destroying weeds. Effects of pesticides application include
- It causes pollution of the environment.
- It affects or destroys other useful plants and animals.
- It reduces the population of the target insects or plants.
- Pesticides may leave undesirable residue in the environment.
- When such chemicals are washed into rivers or lakes, they can cause death of
aquatic animals.

EVALUATION
 State three effects of fertilizer application, tillage and bush burning on the ecosystem.
 Explain with reason the most ecologically friendly agricultural practice.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Based on size, classify water leaf, hibiscus and oil palm
2. Differentiate between shrubs and trees
3. Discuss the botanical classification (using example where appropriate)
4. In what ways are fruits and vegetable crops similar
5. Differentiate between root and cereals crops
6. Differentiate between annual and perennial crops giving two examples each.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of the following is not an example of classification of plants (a) Herbs and shrubs
(b) annual and perennials (c) Graminae and enphorbinosae (d) monocot and dicot
2. Plants can be classified based on all these except (a) botanical (b) size (c) agricultural
use (d) planting season
3. Fruits crops are rich in (a) Vitamin and Minerals (b) Vitamins and protein (c) Mineral and
carbohydrate (d) protein and carbohydrate
4. Spices include (a) Pepper and ginger (b) Palm oil and ginger (c) Lettuce and carrot
(d) yam and maize
5. Which of these does not have negative effect on the ecological system (a) fertilizer
application (b) crop rotation (c) tillage (d) bush burning

THEORY
- State three effects each of the following farm practices on the ecosystem

3. Bush clearing
4. Shifting cultivation
5. monocropping

PEST AND DISEASES OF CROPS AND LIVESTOCK

CONTENT
  Definition
 Group of Crop Pests
 Life Cycle of Selected Pests
 Pests of Crops, Effects and Control
 Pests of Livestock, Effects and Control
 Economic Importance of Pests
 Diseases of Crops, Effects and Control
 Livestock Diseases, Effects and Control
 General Effects of Pests and Diseases (Economic Importance)
 Prevention and Control of Pests & Diseases

DEFINITION
A pest is an organism which harbors disease organism(s) or causes damage to other
organism(s). There are crop and livestock (animals) pests. Crop pests include insects such as
grasshoppers, mealy bugs, myriads, beetles, birds and mammals (such as rodents) while
livestock pests are ectoparasites such as ticks, mites and endoparasites such as liver flukes,
round worms and tapeworms. They can also be plant pests known as weeds or animal pests
such as insects, birds, rodents, monkeys, man or nematodes.
TYPES OF PEST
Insects pest: These are arthropods that carry diseases or cause damage to plant and animals.
Examples include: tick, lice, grasshoppers, cotton stainer etc.
Non insect pest: These are vertebrates and molluscs that common cause disease to plants and
animals or destroy crops. E.g rodents, worms, nematodes, monkeys etc.
GROUPS OF INSECT CROP PESTS
Stem Borers: Stem borers of cereal crops like maize are the larvae of certain moths. They lay
eggs at the junctions of leaf sheaths and stem of a maize plant which hatches after a week and
weakens the stem causing the maize plant to break even in slight wind.
Fruit and Seed Feeders: These include fruit-piercing moths, fruit flies, cotton strainers and
certain beetles. Examples are red boil-worm and the cotton stainer. Their host plant includes
tomato, millet, maize and okra.
Root Feeders: They may be insect larvae or adults. An example is the yam beetle which lives
mainly in the soil. They burrow into the ground and feed on yam tubers.
Leaf Feeders: Leaves of crops are eaten by snails, leaf-feeding beetles, caterpillars of various
moths and butterflies, grasshoppers and locusts.
Young Shoot Feeders: Insects like aphids and mealy bug pierce and suck juices
from young shoots of crop plants. They first settle on the apex and feed on the young tissue.
Many sucking pests also transmit disease-causing fungi, bacteria, and virus to the plants e.g.
cassava mosaic transmitted by white flies.
Examples of Pests of Crops, their Effects and Control (Summary)
PESTS EFFECTS CONTROL
 - Grasshopper Nymphs and adults feed on leaves and Spray with gammalin 20
shoots thereby reducing yield.
- Yam beetle Adults feed on yam tubers rendering Dust yam or yam sets with
the tubers valueless or causing poor aldrin before planting.
yield
- Cocoa Piercing and sucking insects that attack Spray cocoa farm with
myriads young shoots of cocoa introducing toxic kokotine or gammalin 20.
(capsids) saliva and viral diseases into the plants.
This may kill the plants, reduces the
growth and fruit yield.
- Mealy bug They suck sap of cassava which makes Dig cassava cuttings in 0.1%
the shoots to develop bunchy tops; the rogor before planting.
leaves die and drop resulting in low
root tubers.
- Beans weevils Field to store pests. Larvae feeds on Fumigating the store with
bean seed bore holes into them insecticides and early
thereby reducing the quantity and harvesting.
quality of the grains.
- Cotton Feeds on cotton seeds and stains lint. Spray suitable insecticides
strainers

- Mammals Destroy tubers, fruits and shoots of Trapping, shooting and

(monkeys, crops by feeding on them. clearing their hide out by
grass cutter, proper weeding.
squirrel)

- Birds Feed on grains, plantains and other Chasing away

crops

A parasite is an organism living in or on another organism called host having a harmful effect on
the host as a result of the association. Parasite which lives inside its host is called endoparasite
e.g. tapeworm, roundworm, liver fluke. Parasite which lives on or outside the host is called
ectoparasite e.g. ticks, lice and mite.
Economic Importance of Pests
 Reduction in yield and productivity of crops and plants.

 Reduction in quality of farm produce.

 Increase in cost of production in the course of controlling.

 Reduction in income of farmers.

 They render farm produce unattractive and unmarketable.

 They cause malformation in plants and animals.

  They cause death of plants and animals.

A disease is a change of the plant or animal from the normal state of health, presenting
marked symptom or outward visible signs in the organism. Disease pathogens are disease
causing organisms, which include bacteria, viruses, fungi, nematodes and protozoan.
General Effects of Pests & Diseases
a. Reduction in yield and productivity of crops and plants
b. Reduction in quality of farm produces
c. Increase in cost of production in the course of controlling them
d. Reduction in income of farmers
e. They render farm produce unattractive and un marketable
f. They cause malformation in plants and animals.
g. They cause death of plants and animals.

General Control of Pests & Diseases

2. Cultural control – use of farm practice to prevent or control pests and diseases e.g crop
rotation, regular weeding, early harvesting, and use of resistant varieties.
3. Biological control - The introduction of natural enemies of pests to control the pests.
4. Physical control - Physical removal of pest by hand – picking, setting traps, shooting or
fencing a farm with wire nets.
5. Chemical control - Use of chemicals called pesticides to control pests.

General Evaluation
e. List five general effects of pests and diseases on plant and animals.
f. State four ways of controlling pests and diseases.
g. Mention five examples of fungal disease.
h. Differentiate between a pest and a pathogen.
i. State five economic importance of pests
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of these is not a pest of crop? (a) Insect (b) Birds (c) Ticks (d) None of the above
2. The following are viral diseases except (a) under pest (b) coccidiosis (c) new castle
(d) none of the above
3. The following except one are cultural ways of controlling pests (a) Regular weeding (b)
early planting (c) crop rotation (d) use of lethal chemicals
4. Which of these is not an endoparasite? (a) Round worm (b) Louse (c) Liver fluke
(d) Tape worm
5. Neck twisting, paralysis and nervous disorder are marked symptoms of (a) rinder pest
(b) coccidiosis (c) new castle (d) ringworm
Theory
 1. Define the following terms (a) pest (b) parasite (c) diseases (d) resistant varieties
2. Discuss one plant and one animal disease each caused by (a) virus (b) bacteria (c)
protozoan

WEEK FIVE AND SIX

FOOD PRODUCTION AND STORAGE

CONTENT: -
Introduction
- Role of Government in Agricultural Food Production
- Environmental Factors Required for Food Production
- Ways of Improving Crop Production
- Effects of food shortage on population
- Methods of food preservation
- Effects of food storage over population
Introduction
Food production depends on the following
6. Role of government in agricultural production
7. Environmental factors required for food production
8. 3Ways of improving crop production

Role of Government in Agricultural production

2. The role of government in agricultural production include
3. Provision of agro-chemicals
4. Provision of financial assistance.
5. Provision of high quality planting materials
6. Provision of tractors and other implements
7. Provision of extension services
8. Establishment of river basin authorities
9. Provision of storage and processing facilities
10. Provision of effective transportation network
11. Efficient quarantine measures
12. Provision of research work
Environmental Factors Required for Food Production
Environmental factors affecting food production include the biotic and abiotic facto
Abiotic factors include: I. Rainfall II. Temperature III. Wind IV. Sunlight V. Relative humidity
VI. Solar radiation VII. Edaphic factor; soil pH, soil texture, and soil structure.
Biotic factors affecting food production include I. Soil organisms II. Pests III. Parasites
IV.Diseases V. Weeds VI. Predators
Ways of Improving Food Production
Food production can be improved by
d. crop improvement method,
e. proper timing of plant,
f. adoption of better cultivation methods,
g. control of weeds,
h. use of good crop varieties,
i. use of resistant variety,
j. use of manures and fertilizers,
VIII. control of pests of crops,
IX. control of diseases of crops.

Effects of Food Shortage on Population Size

There is a direct relationship between population size and food supply. As the population of
organisms increases, the quantity of food produced should increase accordingly. However,
when there is food shortage due to food wastage, the following result:-
(a) High cost of food making food unavailable to the common man.
(b) Competition: Situation in which the organisms in a population struggle for limited
available essential of life e.g. food. This results in survival of the fittest in the population.
(c) Cannibalism: This is an animals feeding on one another.
(d) Emigration: This is the outward movement of organisms from a particular population
when there is shortage of food.
(e) Increased death rate (which is called mortality): especially of organisms which could
not survive competition or migrate out.

Evaluation
d. What are the effects of food shortage on population size?
e. Define cannibalism.

Methods of Food Preservation (Storage)

The methods and principles of preserving food include
Salting: This involves coating of the food with table salt or common salt (NaCl).
Principle: The salt on the surface of the food dehydrates it i.e. it removes water from the food.
This form a highly concentrated solution which has osmotic pressure than the cytoplasm of the
micro organisms that cause decay. The salts inhibit the growth of the microbe or kill them. This
method can be used for fresh meat, fish etc.
Drying: Food such as vegetables, maize, cassava, fish, meat etc. can be preserved by drying
under the sun.
Principle: Drying reduces water content of the food thus making it unsuitable for the growth of
spoilage micro organisms due to increased osmotic concentration of food.
Smoking: Involves placing the food over naked fire to dry it. Food preserved this way includes
meat, fish, groundnut, plantain etc.
Principle: The smoke creates an oxygen deficient environment that kills micro organisms. The
smoke also contains chemicals that are poisonous to the organisms.
Evaluation
1) List three methods of preserving food.
2) What are the principles of the methods mentioned above?
Method of Food Preservation
1. Refrigeration/Freezing: This involves keeping food in the refrigerator or freezer at low
temperature. Such food includes fruit, vegetables, milk, bread, fish, meat etc. Low
temperature reduces the metabolic rate of microbes. Some can even be killed thus reducing
spoilage considerable.
2. Pasteurization: This is the heating of some food product to a very high temperature (72 OC)
for about 10 minutes and its immediate cooling for the purpose of storage. The high
temperature destroys the spoilage microbes. Milk, cheese, beef can be preserved this way.
Pasteurization usually precedes canning or bottling method of food preservation.
3. Canning/Bottling: This is the storage or sealing of processed and consumable food in cans or
bottle under special conditions for future consumption. This is used for food like fruit, meat,
fish, and beans. etc. Microbes are gradually killed, entrance of new ones is prevented and long
storage is ensured.
4. Irradiation: This is the subjection of some food e.g. Milk, Canned food, tubers, fruit juices etc,
to a high radiation such as ultraviolet rays. The irradiation kills the microbes in the food and
also prevents the entrance of new ones.
5. Chemicals: This is the addition of harmless chemicals to food e.g. soft drink, vegetables etc.
Principle: The chemical choke spoilage organisms in the food. It also dehydrates or toxicate the
microbes.
Evaluation
1. How is pasteurization related to canning or bottling method of preservation?
2. Food storage reduces the effect of natural disaster, explain.
Effects of Food Storage on Population
1. Prevention of hunger and famine: Hunger or famine that would have resulted from food
shortage is averted with preservation of food.
2. Maintenance of stable price: During harvest, food is cheap. However food storage ensure
the availability of food through out the year. This helps in the maintenance of stable price.
3. Reduce the effect of natural disaster, flood, earthquake, pest attack and even war cause farm
crop failure or destroy entrance farm activities. Food already stored etc. harvest will save
people from starvation in the period of scarcity.
4. Food storage provides employment for workers especially in food processing company.
Evaluation
1. What are the effects of food storage on population?
2. Highlight ways of improving food production.
3. Mention four abiotic factors that affect food production.
4. List the edaphic factors that affect food production.
5. What is pasteurization?
Weekend Assignment
1) The following except one results from food shortage (a)Competition (b) Reduced mortality
rate (c) Emigration (d) Increased mortality rate.
2) Food shortage makes the population size (a) increase (b) decrease (c) stabilize (d) fluctuate
3) Food storage results in (a) stability of price (b) Natural disaster (c) high natality rate (d)
overpopulation
4) These are methods of storing and preserving food except (a) Silos (b) barns (c) refrigeration
(d) Marketing.
5) The biggest factor that affects food production in Africa is (a) improper food storage (b)
drought (c) low utilization of land (d) static farming technology.
Theory
1 a. List three methods of preserving food.
b. Explain the principle involved in the method listed above.
2. State five ways of improving crop yield.

WEEK SEVEN
MICRO-ORGANISMS AROUND US
CONTENT
6. Description and Groupsof Microorganisms
7. Concept of Culturing
8. Identification of Microorganisms
9. Carriers of Microorganisms

DESCRIPTION AND GROUS OF MICROORGANISMS

Micro-organisms otherwise called microbes or germs can be defined as living things which
cannot be seen with unaided eye but by the use of microscopes.
They exist almost everywhere, in water, air, soil, surface of objects, as well as on and within
living organisms. They are carried by air currents from the earth’s surface to the upper
atmosphere. They occur most abundantly where there is food, moisture and adequate
temperature for their growth.
It was the invention of microscope that opened the gateway to the world of these minute living
organisms. The first person to discover microbes was a Dutch man called Anthony
Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). Using a simple microscope, he was astonished to discover that rain
water that had been collected from pools was full of little organisms.
GROUPS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
Micro-organisms include all viruses, bacteria and the protists. Others are the cyanobacteria,
certain fungi and algae.
a. BACTERIA: These are minute unicellular organisms or simple association of similar cells
which multiply by binary fission. Most bacteria cells range between 0.2 µ-2µ in diameter
and 0.0005mm-0.002mm long. Each bacterium cell has a cell wall with cytoplasm. There
is no well defined nucleus. Consequently, they are prokaryotic organisms.
There are different kinds of bacteria showing a range of shapes. Certain kinds of bacteria
have long thread-like structures called flagella which assist in locomotion. Bacteria with
spherical shape are referred to as cocci (singular-coccus). There are several forms as
shown on the next page.
Streplococci- These are arranged in chains. They cause sore throat.
Staphylococci- These stick together to form irregular bunches. They cause boils.
Diplococci- They occurs in pairs. e.g. pneumococci which causes pneumonia.
Bacilli- They is rod-shaped. They cause typhoid fever.
Spirilla (singular = spirillum)- These are rod-shaped bacteria twisted into a spiral shape.
Spirochaetes- These are also spiral in shape but are more flexible and slender with
helically coiled structure e.gTreponemapallidum which causes syphilis.
Vibrios- These are comma-shaped bacteria e.gVibriocholera which causes cholera.
b. VIRUSES: Viruses are a large group of pathogens whose presence is felt only when they
are in contact with living cells. They are very small and vary between 0.1µ-0.25 µ in
diameter. The largest virus is less than one-fourth the size of typhoid bacterium.
A virus consists of a nuclear material either DNA or RNA, enclosed within a protein coat.
Outside living organisms they are like complex chemicals.
c. PROTISTS: These are single-celled animals, mostofwhich are only visible by means of
microscope. They are common in fresh water and moist soils. Examples include Euglena,
Paramecium, Trypanosoma, Plasmodium, etc.
d. FUNGI: They are diversified in form. The blue and green growth on oranges, lemons,
cheese and the white/grey growth on bread are usually signs of fungal infections. Fungi
feed saprophytically. Examples of fungi include Mucor, Rhizopus, Penicillium, Aspergillus,
etc.
e. ALGAE: Most algae are unicellular and very small. They have chlorophyll. They occur
abundantly in water, moist soils, bark of trees, stones, etc. Free floating microscopic
algae are referred to as phytoplanktonsand they form the major food of aquatic animals.
Examples of unicellular algae include Chlamydomonas and Protococcus.
 Shapes of bacteria

EVALUATION
3. What are microorganisms
4. List five groups of microorganisms with two examples each

CONCEPT OF CULTURING
A pre-requisite to studying microbes is their cultivation under laboratory conditions. Hence, it is
important to know the nutrients and physical conditions needed by the organisms.
It is easier to grow bacteria, fungi, and algae in appropriate media. The material on or in which
microbes grow in the laboratory is called culture medium. Some media are prepared from
complex extracts of plant or animal tissues. A culture is the population of organisms cultivated
in a medium.
If a culture contains only one living species of organism regardless of the number of individuals,
it is said to be a pure or axenic culture. A culture which contains two or more species growing
together is called a mixed culture.
An important medium used for growing microbes is agar. It is a dried polysaccharide extract of
red algae which is used as a solidifying agent. It is not broken down by microbes.
EVALUATION
5. What is a culture medium?
6. Differentiate between axenic and mixed culture

IDENTIFICATION OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
There are many ways of identifying micro-organisms around us. These include the use of
microscopes stains of different types, types of colonies formed by the microbes, their food
requirement and oxygen requirement of the organisms.
CARRIERS OF MICROORGANISM
Any agent that carries microbes from one place to another is called a carrier. Carriers can be
living or non-living things. Non-living carriers include air, water, and food while animals (e.g.
houseflies, mosquitoes, rats, cats, etc) are the living carriers. Animal vectors carry pathogens
either mechanically or biologically. In mechanical method, animals carry the pathogens on their
bodies where they cannot grow or multiply. In biological method, the vector becomes infected
by feeding on the body fluid of infected persons or animals.
Vector or Carrier Micro-organisms Disease caused
(i) Anopheles (female) Plasmodium Malaria fever
mosquito
(ii) Tse-tse fly Trypanosome Sleeping sickness
(iii) Housefly Vibro cholera Cholera and typhoid fever
(iv) Aedes mosquito Virus Yellow fever

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Give two examples each of the following microorganisms (i) fungi (ii) Bacteria (iii)
Algae (iv) Protozoa
2. What do you understand by the word ‘agar’
3. Describe ways by which microorganisms can be transmitted
4. State the vectors and the diseases caused by the following organisms (i) plasmodium
(ii) trypanosome (iii) vibro-cholerea

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
e. When bacteria are arranged in chains, they are called (a) spirilla(b) staphylococci (c)
streptococci (d) bacilli
f. Viruses are considered to be living organisms because they (a) possess transmittable
characters (b) move from one place to another (c) respond to stimulation (d)
ingest food materials
g. Which of the following is not a protozoan? (a) paramecium (b) plasmodium (c)
penicillium (d) Amoeba
h. Which of the following best describes a culture solution? (a) A population of micro-
organisms cultivated in a medium (b) A population of weeds cultivated in a medium
(c) Solution containing different chemicals (d) Solution containing dead organisms
i. Which of the following organisms is not a fungus? (a) Rhizopus (b) Plasmodium (c)
Mucor (d) Aspergillus

GROWTH OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission in which a single cell divides into two. This process is called
asexual reproduction. The time interval required for the cell to divide into two is called
generation time. This time varies from one organism to another. It strongly depends upon
nutrient availability, temperature, gaseous requirement and pH. There are different phases in
the growth of bacteria. These include the (i) lag phase (ii) logarithmic or exponential phase (iii)
the stationary phase and (iv) decline or death. The growth of micro-organisms can be
measured by using any of these methods:
 Turbidity method.
 Serial dilution method.
 Squared transparent paper or cellophane method.

BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL EFFECTS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS
6. Bacteria help to digest cellulose in herbivores.
7. In man, they synthesize vitamin K and B12
8. Bacteria and fungi are widely used in the synthesis of antibiotics
9. They are used to manufacture amino acids and vinegar
10. Bacteria are used to process milk into different tastes and flavours
11. They are used to decompose sewage into harmless inorganic compounds.
12. Microbial cultures are used to produce enzymes
13. Yeast is used as a leavening agent in baking industries.
14. Algae play important role in fertilizing the soil.
15. Bacteria are used to produce single-cells protein (SCP).

HARMFUL EFFECTS
b. Bacteria cause decay and spoilage of food items.
c. Materials like wood, paper, textiles, rubber and metals are destroyed by microbes.
d. They cause diseases of different types.
- The following diseases are caused by bacteria except (a) gonorrhea (b) AIDS (c)
syphilis (d) none of the above
- A disease characterized by high fevers, loss of weight, chronic diarrhea, wasting away
and final death is (a) gonorrhoea (b) AIDS (c) syphilis (d) none of the above
- Which of the following is not a sexually transmitted disease? (a) gonorrhea
(b) malaria (c) syphilis (d) AIDS
- Which of the following statements is wrong? (a) All STIs are caused by viruses (b) All
STIs are caused by bacteria (c) All STIs are caused by protozoans (d) All of the above
- A disease which displays symptoms which are similar to the symptoms of other diseases
is (a) syphilis (b) malaria (c) river blindness (d) none of the above

THEORY
1. State the causative organisms, five modes of infection and five ways of controlling AIDS.
2. Differentiate between HIV and AIDS.

WEEK EIGHT
AQUATIC HABITAT
CONTENT
 Habitat (Aquatic habitat)
 Marine Habitat
 Horizontal and Vertical Zonation of Marine Habitats
 Distribution of Organisms and Adaptations to Marine Habitat
 Estuarine Habitat
 Freshwater Habitat

HABITAT (AQUATIC HABITAT)

Habitat is a place where organisms (plants, microorganisms and animals) are naturally found e.
g. the habitat of tadpole is the bottom of fresh water ponds or streams
There are three main types of habitats, namely; aquatic habitat (in or around water), terrestrial
habitat (in or on land) and arboreal habitat (in or on trees)
There are three kinds of aquatic habitat;
i. marine/salt water habitat e.g. ocean, seas
ii. brackish water habitat (where salt and fresh water mix) e.g. delta, lagoon, bay
iii. Fresh water habitat (contain little or no salt) e.g. lakes, rivers, streams.

MARINE HABITATS
Characteristics of marine habitats are as follow:
1. The marine habitats constitute the largest habitat in the biosphere (70% of the earth’s
area)
2. They do not undergo sudden or rapid changes in physical factors such as temperature,
PH and specific gravity. Hence they show the greatest stability of all habitats.
3. Chemical composition :- marine water consists of many kinds of dissolved ions
including Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Pb43-, I-, NO3- e. t. c.
4. Hydrogen (H+) concentration (PH): - salt water is alkaline in nature with PH of about 8.0
– 9.0 near the surface.
5. Salinity (salt concentration of water). The seawater has a high salinity. The average
salinity of seawater is 35 parts per thousand.
6. Density of marine water is high. It is about 1.028 while that of fresh water is 1.0. This
allows many organisms to float in it.
7. The temperature of the sea changes less quickly than that of the land. However, the
temperature falls with increase in the depth of the sea.
8. Oxygen concentration is highest at the surface where the atmospheric oxygen
dissolved in water. The concentration of oxygen decreases with depth.
9. Waves are temporary movement of surface water of the sea which occurs in any
direction. They are caused by wind blowing against the surface of water. They also
bring about the mixing of seawater. Waves can also beat against the shore and
sometime caused it to be eroded.
 10. Tides are alternate rise and fall of the surface of the sea at least twice daily. Tides are
caused by water distribution resulting from the combined gravitational pull of the earth
by the sun and moon.

DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS AND ADAPTATION TO MARINE HABITAT

 Organisms of the splash zone include periwinkles; crustaceans e.g. ghost crab, seaweeds
and sargassum (algae).
 Those of intertidal zone include starfish, sea anemones, sponges, sea urchin, annelids,
mollusca and barnacles.
 In the subtidal zone are snails, crabs, lobsters and crayfish.
 The benthic zone is unfavourable for life. The producers are absent, only few
saprophytic animals are present.
 The neritic zone house plankton (microscopic floating organisms e.g. diatom, algae,
protozoa, crustacean and worms) and nekton (e.g. fishes, crabs, prawns and whales).
 Oceanic water house sharks, croaker, sea cat fish, mackerel, bonga fish e.t.c.

ADAPTATION OF ANIMALS TO MARINE HABITAT

Animals including barnacles, fishes, crustaceans e.t.c. found surviving in marine habitat do so
with the following adaptive features;
 Barnacles have i. protection mantle for attachment to rock shore and water retention ii.
Cilia for feeding. Iii. Shell that prevents dessication (drying up)
 Fishes possess i. reduced or no kidney to retain urea in their body to cope with high
salinity e.g. cartilaginous fishes like shark, dogfish etc. ii. Salt secreting glands in their
gills or eyes for maintaining osmoregulation (salt balance) e.g. bony fishes like tilapia,
herring etc. iii. Tube feet which enable them to hold on to rock shores and hard shell to
prevent desiccation e.g. starfish, whales.
 Whale has i. fins for stability in water ii. An organ in front of the nostril for detecting
pressure changes in water. Iii. A thick layer of dermal fat insulation or food reservoir.
 Shrimps possess powerful claws for holding food or prey.
 Periwinkles possess lungs for breathing and foot for attachment.
 Crabs burrow fast into the mud to protect them against predators, strong waves or hide.

ADAPTATION OF PLANTS TO MARINE HABITAT

Plants such as seaweeds, algae, sesuvium and diatoms are naturally found in marine habitat
with the following adaptive features;
 Seaweeds have i. hold–fast for attachment. ii. mucillagenous cover to prevent
desiccation. iii. Divided leaves or floating devices for buoyancy.
 Algae (e.g sargassum) have i. chlorophyll for photosynthesis. ii. Small size or large
surface area for floating in water.
 Planktons (e.g. diatoms) possess; i. air space in their tissues ii. Rhizoid for attachment to
rocks iii. Air bladder for buoyancy (floating).
Examples of food chain in a marine habitat include
i. Diatom → crabs → tilapia
 ii. Diatom →zooplankton → tilapia →shark

ESTUARINE HABITATS (BRACKISH WATER HABITATS)

An estuary is a body of water formed at the coast where fresh water flowing towards the sea
mixes with sea (salt water) flowing inland. Estuarine habitats include deltas, lagoons and bays.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ESTUARINES
1. The salinity fluctuates.
2. The specific gravity is less than that of the sea.
3. They have high turbidity due to frequent disturbances. Hence rate of photosynthesis
and respiration by organisms reduces.
4. The water is shallow.
5. They have low diversity of species compared to marine habitat.
6. They have high level of nutrients
7. They have low oxygen content, hence anaerobic activities are common.

PLANTS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION IN ESTUARINES

Plants found in estuaries include planktons, algae, red and white mangrove and they have the
following adaptive features;
 Planktons (diatoms) have; i. air spaces in their tissues ii. Rhizoid for the attachment to
rock shores iii. Air bladder for buoyancy
 Algae have: i. chlorophyll for photosynthesis ii. small size or large surface area for
floating in water
 Red mangrove has; i. stilt roots with rootlets that have air-spaces for air conduction to
the root tissues and support to prevent washing away of the plant by the tide ii. Seeds
which germinate while they are still on the parent plant, thus preventing the carrying
away of the seedlings by water current.
 White mangrove has pneumatophores (breathing roots) for gaseous exchange.

ANIMALS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION

Animals including mosquitoes, crustaceans, mollusca, worms, fishes e.t.c. found in estuaries
survive possessing the following features;
 Mosquito larvae and pupae possess breathing trumpets for gaseous exchange
 Crustaceans and water snails burrow into the mud against predators, strong waves or
tides.
 Worms have strong protective and impermeable covering against high salinity.
 Mudskippers have fins for crawling on land and swimming in water.
 Fishes have fins for movement and swimming bladder for buoyancy.

FOOD CHAIN IN ESTUARINE HABITATS

1. Detritus → worms → snails → birds
2. Diatoms → shrimps →fishes
 3. Diatoms → small fish → sharks → man

EVALUATION
1. What is estuarine?
2. List five characteristics of estuarines

FRESH WATER HABITATS

This is a body of water formed mainly from inland waters and it contain very low or no salt.
Fresh water is of two types based on its mobility;
a. Lotic fresh waters: - These are running waters flowing continuously in a specific
direction e.g. rivers, springs, streams
b. Lentic fresh waters: - These are stagnant waters which do not flow e.g. lakes, ponds,
puddles, swamps and dams

CHARACTERISTICS OF FRESH WATER HABITATS

1. It contains little or no salt. Salinity is 5 parts per thousand i.e. 0.5%.
2. It is small in size.
3. Oxygen concentration is high, being available in all parts of the water body, especially at
the surface.
4. The water is shallow, hence sunlight penetrate to the bottom.
5. The temperature varies with seasons and depth.
6. It has seasonal variation; decreasing or drying up in dry season and increasing in rainy
season
7. Water currents affect distribution of organisms, salts and gases, especially in lotic fresh
waters

PLANTS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION IN FRESH WATER

Plants of fresh water include water lily, spirogyra, water lettuce, water weeds e.t.c. and they
have the following adaptive features;
 Water lily has i. air bladder ii. Expanded tips and light weight which keep it afloat.
 Spirogyra has mucillagenous cover for protection
 Water lettuce has hairs in leaves to trap air and keep it afloat
 Water weed (elodea) has a long and flexible petiole for swinging with water currents.

ANIMALS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION

Animals of fresh water habitats include protozoa, duck, pondskatters, hydra, fishes e.t.c. their
adaptive features include
 Protozoa have contractile vacuole for osmoregulation in water.
 Duck has webbed feet for locomotion and serrated beak for sieving food in water into
its mouth.
 Hydra has slippery surface, hooks and suckers for attachment to water particles.
 Pondskatters has long legs for skating on water surface
 Fishes have swim bladders for buoyancy and gills for respiration
FOOD CHAIN IN FRESH WATER HABITATS
1. Diatoms → fish fry →tilapia
2. Spirogyra → tad poles → carps → king fish
3. Algae → mosquito larva → small fish

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Give two examples of food chain in marine habitats
2. How do organisms adapt to life in estuary?
3. What is a fresh water habitat?
4. Differentiate between lotic and lentic fresh water habitats
5. Differentiate between waves and tides.
6. According to light penetration, zone marine habitat.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Buoyancy in salt water is ensured by the following except A. divided leaves B.
chlorophyll C. floating devices D. air bladder
2. The mucilaginous cover in sea weed and spirogyra is mainly for A. protection B.
osmoregulation C. avoiding desiccation D. feeding
3. Which of the following is not a fresh water habitat? A. puddle B. swamp C. stream D.
sea
4. Which of these is not an adaptive feature in a marine habitat? A. bladder for floating
B. hold fast for attachment C. fur to prevent water loss D. rhizoid for
attachment to rock
5. The following are characteristics of fresh water habitats except A. low salt content B.
high salinity C. shallow water D. can be stagnant or running water

WEEK NINE
TERRESTRIAL HABITATS
CONTENT
 Terrestrial Habitats
 Marsh
 Forest
 Grassland
 Arid land

TERRESTRIAL HABITATS
Organisms of the land are called terrestrial organisms. They include plants and animals that are
found living on the ground and under the ground.
Basically, terrestrial habitat is subdivided into four main parts, namely;
i. marsh
ii. forest
 iii. grassland/ savanna
iv. arid land/ desert

EVALUATION
1. What are terrestrial organisms?
2. List four types of terrestrial habitats

MARSH
Marsh is a low land, flooded in rainy season and usually waterlogged because of poor drainage.
The vegetation is predominantly of grasses and shrubs. When trees grow in a marsh, it is called
a swamp. Marsh is a transition between the aquatic habitat and terrestrial habitat.

FORMATION OF A MARSH
Marshes develop as a result of water overflowing its banks to accumulate on the adjoining
coastal or low land area such as flood plains of rivers. This can be enhanced with extensive
rainfall.
When ponds and lakes are filled up with soil and organic debris of plants, marshes can also be
formed. Marshes formation is therefore a gradual process. Marshes can either be fresh water
or salt water marshes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A MARSH
1. A marsh is lowland.
2. It is always flooded, wet and waterlogged.
3. It sometimes has pool of standing water.
4. It has a high relative humidity
5. Its water sometimes contain much decaying organisms
6. The water has a foul smell

ORGANISMS OF THE MARSH

There are various plants and animals in this habitat. The plants include algae, grasses, water
lettuce, water lilies, white and red mangrove, raphia palms e.t.c.
Animals found in the marsh include mangrove crabs, lagoon crabs, hermit crabs, mud-skippers,
fishes, frogs, snakes, crocodiles, mammal e.t.c.
Adaptive features of organisms of the marsh include
a. They must be able to tolerate the salinity of the soil or water
b. They have to tolerate low oxygen concentration in the soil or water

Plants of fresh water marsh have other adaptive features similar to those of fresh water
habitat. Likewise the plants of salt water marsh.
Saprophytic organisms (e.g. bacteria) which live on dead organic matter in marshes have to
adapt to anaerobic condition.
FOOD CHAINS IN MARSHES
1. Flowering plants → insects → frogs → crocodiles
2. Humus → earthworms → frogs → snakes

EVALUATION
1. How is a marsh formed
2. State four characteristics of a marsh
3. List four plants and animals found in the marsh

FORESTS
A forest is a community of plants in which trees species are dominant. There are different kinds
of forest whose distribution is determined mainly by climatic factors such as temperature,
rainfall and at times by soil elevation and man’s activities such as farming, lumbering, bush
burning, construction of roads and building.
The major type of forest in Nigeria is the rain forest

CHARACTERISTICS OF A FOREST
1. The forest is rich in epiphytes and climbers
2. The interior of the forest has high humidity, low light intensity and damp floor.
3. Presence of tall trees with canopies and existing in layers (stratified).
4. Trees are mesophytes with broad leaves.
5. The trees have buttress roots to support their heavy weight and height.
6. The trees have thin barks for gaseous exchange and transpiration.

PLANTS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION

Forest plants (trees) include African walnut, mahogany, teak, obeche, iroko, oil palm, ferns
(pteridophytes), bryophytes (mosses and liverwort), epiphytes (orchid), fungi and mistletoe
e.t.c. these plants adapt to life in the forest in the following ways;
 Possession of strong tap root systems and buttress roots.
 Possession of tall unbranched trunks
 Possession of broad leaves
 Epiphytes have mechanism (the aerial roots) storing water and absorbing moisture from
air while growing on tree branches.
 Mistletoe (plant parasite) develops root system that can penetrate the stem of a plant
withdrawing manufactured food directly from phloem vessels of the host plant.

ANIMALS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION

Most forest animals are arboreal (living on trees) and these include bats, monkeys, snakes,
squirrels, birds, tree frogs, chameleons. Some live in the soil e.g. earthworms and beetles while
others live among the litters on the ground e.g. millipedes, ants, snails.
These animals adapt to the forest in the following ways
  Monkeys have prehensile tails and long limbs for climbing and jumping.
 Bats modify their limbs into wings for flight
 Green snakes have protective colouration to camouflage
 Chameleon has prehensile tail and opposable digits for grasping as well as protective
colouration to camouflage
 Apes moves in groups for protection, with high sense of sight
 Earthworms and snails have water permeable cuticle to reduce water loss and prevent
desiccation.
 Birds have powerful wings for flight

FOOD CHAINS IN A FOREST

1. Green plants → grasshoppers → toads →hawks
2. Green plants → monkeys → lions
EVALUATION
1. Describe a forest habitat using its characteristics
2. Give two examples of food chain in a forest

GRASSLAND [SAVANNA]
This is a plant community in which grass species are dominant, but trees and shrubs may be
present.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GRASSLAND
1. Temperature is usually high and sunshine is intense.
2. The relative humidity is low and rainfall scanty (60 – 150cm annual rainfall).
3. Abundant grassland with few short trees sparsely distributed
4. Bush fire is frequent and trees are fire resistant
5. Deciduous plants (plants that shed their leaves in dry seasons) are present.
6. Plants possess underground stems and deep roots to search out for water
7. Trees have modified leaves for adaptation to the environment

TYPES OF SAVANNA
Basically, there are four major types of savanna in Nigeria, namely;
a. Southern guinea savanna
b. Northern guinea savanna
c. Sudan savanna
d. Sahel savanna
Southern guinea savanna is the largest biome in Nigeria

PLANTS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION IN GRASSLANDS

The grassland plants include acacia, elephant grass, guinea grass, spear grass, palms, baobab
trees e.t.c. their adaptive features include
 Trees have thick corky barks to resist severe fire
  Grasses with underground stems to escape fire and drought
 Leaves with waxy surface in addition to cuticle covering to reduce transpiration
 Reduced or small leaves to reduce transpiration
 Presence of curly leaves to conserve water
 Leaves fall (deciduous) in drying season to conserve water
 Baobab trees have broad and succulent leaves to conserve water

ANIMALS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION IN A FOREST

Animals found in the forest include antelopes, elephants, giraffes, zebras, goats, cattle,
grasshoppers, lizards, birds, lions, tigers, leopards, rats, snakes, grass cutters, kangaroos e.t.c.
They adapt to this habitat in the following ways
 Termites lived in air conditioned nests called anthills for cooling the animals.
 Rats burrow into the soil to avoid excessive heat and fire
 Zebras and giraffes can camouflage using their colours.
 Lions, tigers and leopards have powerful claws and teeth for attacking animals.
 Kangaroos have long legs to help them escape from danger and also have pocket of
flesh to shield their young ones from hot weather and attack.
 Elephants and lion move in groups or herds to achieve strength in number

FOOD CHAINS IN GRASSLAND

There are several food chains due to numerous animals
1. Grass → grasshoppers→ lizards → snakes
2. Grass → grasshoppers → toads → birds
3. Grass → zebras → lions
EVALUATION
1. Describe a grassland
2. State four characteristics of a grassland
3. List 4 plants and 4 animals of the grassland and explain how each adapt to this habitat
ARID LANDS [DESERTS]
These are areas of very low rainfall and high evaporation rate. They are the driest habitats,
receiving less than 25cm annual rainfall. Arid lands are of two types;
 Hot deserts e.g. Sahara desert (North Africa), Kalahari desert (South Africa)
 Cold deserts e.g. desert in North America
CHARACTERISTICS OF A DESERT
1. Water is very scarce
2. Temperature is very high by the day and very low by the night
3. Vegetation is very scanty
4. The soils are sandy or rocky
5. Strong winds occur frequently and sunshine very intense
6. Presence of drought resistance plants (xerophytes)

PLANTS DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION IN DESERTS

Deserts plants include thorny bushes, cacti, scattered dwarf acacia, date palm, wiring grasses,
baobab trees and euphorbia species. They adapt to this habitat in the following ways;
 Plants have thin leaves to reduce transpiration
 Cacti leafless have thorns to reduce transpiration and thick succulent stem to store
water
 Acacia (drought resistant) has deep roots which absorb underground water
 Baobab tree has waxy leaves which can be hairy or needle shaped to reduce the rate of
transpiration
 Wiring grass has narrow and slender leaves to reduce transpiration.

ANIMAL DISTRIBUTION AND ADAPTATION IN DSERTS

The deserts animals include camel, rodents, lizards, snakes, zebras, desert tortoise,
grasshoppers, wasps, ants e.t.c. They survive in the following ways;
 Most desert animals excrete solid wastes to conserve water.
 Kangaroos, rats remain in burrows during the day to avoid excessive heat
 Reptiles have scales to reduce water loss
 Camels can survive several days without drinking water. They can withstand a wide
range of body temperature up to 40oc.
 Locusts have water-proof bodies and impervious cuticles

FOOD CHAINS IN ARID LANDS

1. Plants → desert rats → snakes
2. Plants → ants → scorpions → snakes

EVALUATION
1. Describe the desert
2. State four characteristics of tropical arid land
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. List the two types of arid land with examples.
2. Mention four plants and four animals of the desert and explain how they adapt to life in
this habitat.
3. List four characteristics each of (i) Trees of the tropical rain forest (ii) Trees / shrubs of
the savanna.
4. State five adaptive features of animals that climb forest trees.
5. Mention four characteristics of a desert.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Marsh is a ……… flooded and waterlogged (a) highland (b) lowland (c) island (d)
mountain
2. Marsh is described as a ……… when trees grow there (a) swamp (b) forest
(c) puddle (d) desert
3. Dominant plants in the forest are (a) grasses (b) shrubs (c) trees (d) vegetables
 4. An examples of forest plants’ parasite is (a) orchid (b) mosses (c) liverwort
(d) mistletoe
5. The plants of the forests are described as (a) hydrophytes (b) mesophytes
(c) xerophytes (d) neophytes

THEORY
1. What is a marsh? State two types of a marsh
2. State five unique features of a forest