TRANSFORMERS

POWE425
Single phase Transformers
Ossama Dankar

1
 OBJECTIVES
• Understand the purpose of a transformer in a power system.
• Know the voltage, current, and impedance relationships across the
windings of an ideal transformer.
• Understand how real transformers approximate the operation of an ideal
transformer.
• Use a transformer equivalent circuit to find the voltage and current
transformations across a transformer.
• Be able to calculate the losses and efficiency of a transformer.
• Be able to calculate the voltage regulation of a transformer.
• Understand three-phase transformers.
• Understand transformer ratings.

2
 Transformer : definition

A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one frequency and voltage level
to ac electric power at the same frequency and another voltage level through the action of a
magnetic field.

• It consists of two or more coils of wire

wrapped around a common ferromagnetic
core. These coils are (usually) not directly
connected. The only connection between the
coils is the common magnetic flux present
within the core.
• One of the transformer windings is
connected to a source of ac electric power
(primary winding) , and the second
transformer winding supplies electric power
to loads (secondary winding).

3
 Transformer applications
• Power transformers are given a variety of different names, depending on their
use in power systems. A transformer connected to the output of a generator and
used to step its voltage up to transmission levels (110 + kV) is sometimes
cal1ed a unit transformer.
• The transformer at the other end of the transmission line, which steps the
voltage down from transmission levels to distribution levels (from 2.3 to 34.5
kV), is called a substation transformer.
• Finally, the transformer that takes the distribution voltage and steps it down to
the final voltage at which the power is actually used (110, 208, 220 V, etc.) is
called a distribution transformer.

In addition to the various power transformers, two special-

purpose transformers are used to measure voltage and current
in electric machinery and power systems at high ratings
(current transformers and potential transformers)

4
 Ideal Transformer
We consider a lossless transformer
with an input (primary) winding Is
Ip
having Np turns and a secondary
winding of Ns turns.
The relationship between the voltage Vp Vs ZL
(current) applied to the primary winding
vp(t) and the voltage (current) produced
NP NS
on the secondary winding vs(t) is

v p (t ) Np i p (t ) 1
= =a =
vs (t ) Ns is (t ) a

Here a is the turn ratio of the transformer.

 Ideal Transformer
the power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit is: Pin = Vp I p cos  p

The power supplied to the output circuits is Pout = Vs I s cos  s

Since ideal transformers do not affect angles between voltages and currents:

 p = s = 
Both windings of an ideal transformer have the same power factor.

In the phasor notation: Is

Ip
+ +

Vp Ip 1
=a = Vp Vs ZL
Vs Is a
- -
NP NS

The phase angles of primary and secondary voltages are the same. The phase angles of
primary and secondary currents are the same also. The ideal transformer changes
magnitudes of voltages and currents but not their angles.
 Impedance transformation
The impedance is defined as a following ratio of phasors: Z L = VL I L

A transformer changes voltages and currents and, therefore, an apparent

impedance of the load that is given by
Z L = Vs I s
Is
The apparent impedance of the primary Ip
circuit is: Z ' = V I + +
L p p
ZL’ as seen by
the primary Vp Vs ZL

- -
Vp aVs 2 Vs NP NS
ZL ' = = =a = a2ZL
I p Is a Is + ZL’ +

Vp Vs

- -
It is possible to match magnitudes of impedances (load and a transmission line)
by selecting a transformer with the proper turn ratio.
 Analysis of circuits containing ideal
transformers
A simple method to analyze a circuit containing an ideal transformer
is by replacing the portion of the circuit on one side of the
transformer by an equivalent circuit with the same terminal
characteristics.

Next, we exclude the transformer from the circuit and solve it for
voltages and currents.

The solutions obtained for the portion of the circuit that was not
replaced will be the correct values of voltages and currents of the
original circuit.

Finally, the voltages and currents on the other side of the

transformer (in the original circuit) can be found by considering the
transformer’s turn ratio.
This process is called referring of transformer’s sides.
 Example:
A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator that is
connected to the load Zload = 4 + j3  through the transmission line with
Zline = 0.18 + j0.24 .
a) What is the voltage at the load? What are the transmission line losses?
b) If a 1:10 step up transformer and a 10:1 step down transformer are placed at
the generator and the load ends of the transmission line respectively, what
are the new load voltage and the new transmission line losses?
Solution
a) I = I = I = V
Zline + Zload
G line load

4800
=
0.18 + j 0.24 + 4 + j 3
4800
= = 90.8 − 37.8 A
5.2937.8
Vload = Iload Zload = ( 90.8 − 37.8) (4 + j3) = ( 90.8 − 37.8)(536.9) = 454 − 0.9 V
The line losses are: Ploss = I line
2
Rline = 90.82  0.18 = 1484 W
b) We will eliminate transformer T2 by referring the load over to the transmission line’s
voltage level. Eliminate transformer T1 by referring the transmission line’s
 2
 10 
'
Zload = a22 Zload =   ( 4 + j 3) = 400 + j 300
1
The total impedance on Z eq = Zline + Zload
'

the transmission line level is

= 400.18 + j 300.24
= 500.336.88 
The total impedance is now referred 2
 1 
across T1 to the source’s Z 'eq = a12 Z eq =   ( 500.336.88 ) = 5.00336.88 
voltage level:  10 
V 4800
The generator’s current is IG = =
Z 'eq 5.00336.88
= 95.94 − 36.88 A
Iline = a1IG = 0.1 ( 95.94 − 36.88) = 9.594 − 36.88 A
Iload = a2Iline = 10  ( 9.594 − 36.88) = 95.94 − 36.88 A
Therefore, the load voltage is:
Vload = Iload Zload = ( 95.94 − 36.88)(5 − 36.87) = 479.7 − 0.01 V
The losses in the line are: Ploss = I line
2
Rline = 9.5942  0.18 = 16.7 W
 Theory of operation of real single-
phase transformers
Real transformers approximate ideal ones to some degree.
The basis transformer operation can be
derived from Faraday’s law:
d
eind =
dt
Here  is the flux linkage in the coil across
which the voltage is induced:
N
 =  i
i =1
where i is the flux passing through the ith turn in a coil – slightly different for different
turns. However, we may use an average flux per turn in the coil having N turns:
− −
 =  .N   =  / N
Therefore: d
eind = N
dt
 Theory of operation
A portion of the flux produced in the primary
coil passes through the secondary coil
(mutual flux); the rest is lost (leakage flux):

 p = m + Lp
average primary flux mutual flux

Similarly, for the secondary coil:

s = m + Ls
Average secondary flux

The primary and secondary voltages due to the mutual flux are:

d d
es (t ) = N s m
e p (t ) dm es (t )
e p (t ) = N p m = =
dt dt Np dt Ns

e p (t ) Np
= =a
es (t ) Ns
 The magnetization current (Real)

Even when no load is connected to the secondary coil of the transformer, a current will
flow in the primary coil. This current consists of:
1. The magnetization current im needed to produce the flux in the core;
2. The core-loss current ih+e hysteresis and eddy current losses.
 The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
When an ac power source is connected to the primary, a current flows
in its primary circuit, even when there is no current in the secondary.
The transformer is said to be on no-load. If the secondary current is
zero, the primary current should be zero too. However, when the
transformer is on no-load, excitation current flows in the primary
because of the core losses and the finite permeability of the core.
Ic
E1
Excitation current, Io o
Magnetization current IM
(current required to IM
produce flux in the core) Io

Core-loss current Ih+e
(current required to make IM is proportional to the flux 
up for hysteresis and eddy Ic = Ih+e = Core loss/E1
current losses)
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
Cooper losses are modeled by
the resistors Rp and Rs.
Leakage flux in a primary
winding produces the voltage:
dLp
eLp (t ) = N p
dt

Since much of the leakage flux pass through air, and air has a constant reluctance that is
much higher than the core reluctance, the primary coil’s leakage flux is:

The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.

The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across
the primary voltage source.
The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC connected across the
primary voltage source.
 The exact equivalent circuit of a real
transformer

The transformer’s
equivalent circuit
However, the exact circuit is not very
practical.

Therefore, the equivalent circuit is usually referred

to the primary side or the secondary side of the
transformer.

Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred

to its primary side.

Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred

to its secondary side.
 Approximate equivalent circuit of a
transformer
For many practical applications,
approximate models of transformers
are used.

Referred to the primary side.

Referred to the secondary side.

Without an excitation branch

referred to the primary side.

The values of components of the

transformer model can be determined Without an excitation branch
experimentally by an open-circuit test or by referred to the secondary side.
a short-circuit test.
 Voltage regulation and efficiency
Since a real transformer contains series impedances, the transformer’s output voltage
varies with the load even if the input voltage is constant. To compare transformers in this
respect, the quantity called a full-load voltage regulation (VR) is defined as follows:

Vs ,nl − Vs , fl V p a − Vs , fl
VR = 100% = 100%
Vs , fl Vs , fl

Where Vs,nl and Vs,fl are the secondary no load and full load voltages.

Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero.

 The transformer phasor diagram
To determine the VR of a transformer, it is necessary to understand the voltage drops within
it. Usually, the effects of the excitation branch on transformer can be ignored and, therefore,
only the series impedances need to be considered. The VR depends on the magnitude of the
impedances and on the current phase angle.
A phasor diagram is often used in the VR determinations. The phasor voltage Vs is assumed
to be at 00 and all other voltages and currents are compared to it.

Considering the diagram and by applying the Kirchhoff’s

voltage law, the primary voltage is:
Vp
= Vs + Req I s + jX eq I s
a
A transformer phasor diagram is a graphical representation
of this equation.
 The transformer phasor diagram
A transformer operating at a lagging power factor:

It is seen that Vp/a > Vs, VR > 0

A transformer operating at a
unity power factor:
It is seen that VR > 0

A transformer operating at a leading

power factor:
If the secondary current is leading, the
secondary voltage can be higher than
the referred primary voltage; VR < 0.
 The transformer efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:

Pout Pout
= 100% = 100%
Pin Pout + Ploss
Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators.
Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of losses:
1. Copper (I2R) losses – are accounted for by the series resistance
2. Hysteresis losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.

Since the output power is Pout = Vs I s cos  s

The transformer efficiency is
Vs I s cos 
= 100%
PCu + Pcore + Vs I s cos 
 Example
Example 4.5: A 15 kVA, 2300/230 V Transformer has an equivalent circuit with it’s values
referred to the secondary as shown in figure

a) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, at 1.0 power
factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor. Draw the phasor diagram
b) Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to full load at power
factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
c) What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8
lagging?
a. The full-load current on the secondary
side of the transformer is

Srated 15 000
I S , rated = = = 65.2 A
VS , rated 230

Vp
= VS + Req I S + jX eq I S
a
At PF = 0.8 lagging, current
I s = 65.2 − cos −1 (0.8) = 65.2 − 36.9 A
Vp
and = 2300 + 0.0445  ( 65.2 − 36.9 ) + j 0.0645  ( 65.2 − 36.9 ) = 234.850.40 V
a
The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore: V p a − VS , fl
VR = 100%
VS , fl
234.85 − 230
= 100%
230
= 2.1%
 At PF = 1.0, current I s = 65.2 cos −1 (1.0) = 65.20 A
Vp
and = 2300 + 0.0445  ( 65.20 ) + j 0.0645  ( 65.20 ) = 232.941.04 V
a
The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:
V p a − VS , fl 232.94 − 230
VR = 100% = 100% = 1.28%
VS , fl 230

At PF = 0.8 leading, current

I s = 65.2 cos −1 (0.8) = 65.236.9 A
Vp
and = 2300 + 0.0445  ( 65.236.9 ) + j 0.0645  ( 65.236.9 ) = 229.851.27 V
a
The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:
V p a − VS , fl 229.85 − 230
VR = 100% = 100% = −0.062%
VS , fl 230
Similar computations can be repeated
for different values of load current. As a
result, we can plot the voltage
regulation as a function of load current
for the three Power Factors.

e. To find the efficiency of the

transformer,
first calculate its losses.
The copper losses are:
PCu = I S2 Req = 65.22  0.0445 = 189 W
The core losses are:
(Vp a )
2
234.852
Pcore = = = 52.5 W
RC 1050
The output power of the transformer
Pout = VS I S cos  = 230  65.2  cos36.9 = 12 000 W
at the given Power Factor is:
the efficiency of the transformer is Pout
= 100% = 98.03%
PCu + Pcore + Pout
Per Unit System
In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other
electrical quantities are not measured in their usual SI units (volts, amperes, watts,
ohms, etc.). Instead, each electrical quantity is measured as a decimal fraction of
some base level. Any quantity can be expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation
Per Unit System
Example 2.3: A simple power system is shown in Figure . This system contains a
480-V generator connected to an ideal 1:10 step-up transformer, a transmission line,
an ideal 20:1 step-down transformer, and a load. The impedance of the transmission
line is 20 + j60 Ω, and the impedance of the load is 10<30°Ω. The base values for this
system are chosen to be 480 V and 10 kVA at the generator.
(a) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every point in
the power system.
(b) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.
(c) Find the power supplied to the load in this system.
(d) Find the power lost in the transmission line.
Per Unit System
Per Unit System
Per Unit System
 3-phase transformer connections
We assume that any single transformer in a 3-phase transformer (bank) behaves
exactly as a single-phase transformer. The impedance, voltage regulation, efficiency,
and other calculations for 3-phase transformers are done on a per-phase basis, using
the techniques studied previously for single-phase transformers.
Four possible connections for a 3-phase transformer bank are:
1. Y-Y
2. Y-
3. - 
4. -Y
 3-phase transformer connections
1. Y-Y connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of
the transformer is
VLP
V P =
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS = 3V S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP 3V P
= =a
VLS 3V S
 3-phase transformer connections
2. Y- connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of
the transformer is
VLP
V P =
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS = V S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP 3V P
= = 3a
VLS V S
 3-phase transformer connections
3.  -Y connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of
the transformer is

V P = VLP

The secondary phase voltage is

VLS = 3V S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP V P a
= =
VLS 3V S 3

The same advantages and the same

phase shift as the Y- connection.
 3-phase transformer connections
4.  -  connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of
the transformer is

V P = VLP

The secondary phase voltage is

VLS = V S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP V P
= =a
VLS V S

No phase shift, no problems with

unbalanced loads or harmonics.
Example:

A three-phase transformer is made from three single-phase ones, each-rated 10 kVA,

20 kV/200V; rated winding losses 100 W, core losses 50 W. The three-phase
transformer is connected in delta on the high voltage side and in star on the low
voltage side. What are the voltage ratings, current ratings, core loss (under rated
voltage), winding loss (under rated current) for the 3-phase transformer?

Each transformer is 10 kVA 20kV / 200V

Solution:
The high-voltage side is delta, thus the high-voltage side voltage rating is 20 kV
The high-voltage side current rating is 1.732*(10 kVA)/(20 kV) = 0.866 A.
the low-voltage side Y voltage rating is 1.732*200 V = 346 V
The low-voltage side current rating is (10 kVA)/(200 V) = 50 A.
The 3-phase transformer's core loss = 3 * 50 W = 150 W.
The 3-phase transformer's winding loss = 3 * 100 W = 300 W.