Lecture - 24

Moments-Skewness and Kurtosis --- old

Welcome to the next lecture on the course, descriptive aesthetics with R Software. You may recall that, in
the last two lectures, we had discussed the concept of movements. And we discussed the raw movements,
central movements and absolute movements. We also learned how to compute them, on R Software. Now,
I am, going to introduce here, the concept of skewness and courtesies, which are again, the two features
of a frequency curve and our objective is that, to understand firstly, what are these features? Secondly
how to quantify them? And thirdly how to compute them on the R Software? When we are trying to
quantify them, then you will see that, we will need the definition of the movements and in particularly the
central movements. And that was the reason, that I had, explained those concepts earlier. So now, let us
start this discussion.

Refer Slide Time :( 1:39)

And first we try to understand, what is the skewness? The dictionary or the literal meaning of the
skewness: is lack of symmetry. What does this mean? This symmetry is, talking about the symmetry of
the, frequency curve or the frequency density; you have seen that, how we have computed the frequency
table, from there we had drawn the frequency density curve. So, when we say that, this is the lack of
symmetry. Then what is symmetry? Symmetry here is like this, so this is the basic meaning of symmetry.
So now, I am saying that, this symmetry is lacking, when the symmetry is lacking, what will happen?
Means in, ideal situation if I say, suppose if I say this is my symmetric curve, then the symmetry is
disturbed mean, this curve will look like this or this curve will look like this. Now, what is the
interpretation of these curves? Suppose I try to take an example, where we are counting, the number of
persons passing through a place, where many, many offices are located. So, we know, what is the
phenomena? The phenomena is like this; that usually the office will start at, nine o'clock, ten o'clock, in
the morning. The traffic at that point will be very less say around 7 a.m., 8 a.m., in the morning. And then,
the traffic will start increasing and then, it will increase say up to 10 o'clock 10:30 or say 11 o clock in the
morning and after that the traffic will decrease.
So, in case if I want to, show this phenomena through a curve, this curve will look like this, suppose if I
say, this is the time here, I'd say here, 10 a.m.. And this is the time here, somewhere here say, 7 a.m... And
this is that time here, up to here, say here 3 p.m. to 10:00 a.m., 11 a.m. and so on. And here is the number
of persons passing through that point. So, I can say here that from 7 a.m. this frequency or the number of
persons, this is very small, it starts increasing and then it keeps on increasing up to say 10 o clock and
then after that everybody comes in the office and then, there are less number of people, who are coming
to office and then finally, see if you come up to here, 3 p.m. this number will decrease. Now, on the other
hand, the opposite happens in the third case, suppose if I try to mark these points, as here I said 12:00
p.m. ,1 p.m. ,I'm up to here sometime here, say here 6 p.m. and then here 7 p.m. and say here 9 p.m. and
here we try to count the, same did, same record, the same data that is the number of person, which is
denoting the frequency. So now, what will happen once the office starts and offices from say 9:00 to 5:00
or say 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. or so, so usually in that marketplace are in the that place, where there are many,
many offices, people will be working inside the office and then, in the evening when the office hours,
closes then they will leave the office. So what will happen? Say from say 12 clock or 1 o clock, the
number of person passing through that point will be very less. And this number will start increasing say
from, 4 p.m. 5 p.m. and it will be maximum say, between say 5 p.m. and 6 p.m. and once everybody has,
left the office, then the number of person passing through that point will, sharply decrease and say at 7
p.m., 8 p.m. the number will be very, very less. So, now how to denote this phenomena through a curve,
so this type of phenomena can be expressed by, this curve. So, initially at 12 o clock the number is very,
very less. And then, say around 5 p.m., 6 p.m., the number is increasing and then it is decreasing after, say
7 p.m. or so on. In both these cases, what is happening, you can see here, more data is concentrated here
and the first figure and more data is concentrated on the right-hand side, in the last figure.
So, these are the areas in red color, where more data is concentrated. Now, if you try to take that third
figure, you can see here in this case, the curve is symmetric around the mid value. If you try to break the
curve into two parts, from this point and if you try to fold it and if you keep it or dis thing, then this will
look symmetrical. So what I'm going to say? Suppose the curve is like this and if I try to break it in the
mid and if I fold it, then the curve will look the same. So, this is what we mean by symmetry. And this
feature is missing in the, first and last curve. That if you try to break the first curve add to this point and
the last curve at this point, where I am moving my pin, then this will not be symmetric. So, the objective
here is, how to study this departure from symmetry, on the basis of given set of data, I would like to
know, on the basis or given set of data. That whether the data is concentrated, on the left hand side more
or more concentrated on the right hand side of the frequency curve. So, this feature is called as,
‘Skewness’. And in order to quantify it, we have a coefficient of skewness. So now, I can say that here is
skewness gives us an idea about the, shape of the curve which is obtained by the frequency distribution or
the frequency curve of the data. And it indicates us, the nature and concentration of observation towards,
higher or lower values of the variable.

Refer Slide Time :( 9:03)

So, you can see here, I have plotted here, three figures. I can call it; say head figure 1, figure 2 and here
that this is a figure 3. So, I will call this figure number three, as bell-shaped curve, why this is called bell-
shaped? Have you ever seen a bell, the bell is like this and then, there is here is a ring. Right? So, you can
see the structure of this curve here, this is symmetric, so that is why this structure shape in the figure 3 is
called as, ‘Bell Shaped Curve’. So, the bell shaped curve I will say, this is a symmetric curve. Now, when
the symmetricity is lacking, then the frequency curve will look like, as in Figure 1 of Figure 2. So, the
curve is or the frequency curve is, more stressed towards right or towards left, this is indicating that more
values are concentrated in this region, in Figure 1 and more values are concentrated in the, in this region
in the figure 2. In these cases, we say that the curves are skewed. So, our frequency distribution is said to
be skewed, if the frequency curve of the distribution is not the bell shaped curve and it is stress more on,
one side then to the other. Now, how to identify it, because now we have two types of lack of symmetry,
one in Figure 1 and 1 in Figure 2. So, we try to give it here a name.

Refer Slide Time :( 11:01)

 So let me rename the figure, this is Figure 1, this is Figure 2 and this is figure 3, from the last slide. So,
now in the figure 1 you can see that the curve is more stress on the right hand side. So, when the curve is
more stress on the right-hand side, this is called as, ‘Positively Skewed Curve’. And similarly if the curve
is more staged on the left-hand side, then this is called as a, ‘Negatively Skewed Curve’. And in case of a
symmetric curve, we assume that the curve is symmetric and we say that it has got, zero skewness. When
we want to discuss the property of his skewness, we try to write whether the frequency curve is positively
skewed, negatively skewed or it is symmetric. And this is how we try to express the, finding from the
data. But, definitely there will be one thing, suppose if I try to take here, two curves, like this and like
this, both the curves are, positively skewed. So, the finnex coefficient is both the curves are positively
skewed, but their structure is different, one curve is lacking the symmetry more than the others. But, just
by saying, less or more it will not help us we need to quantify it. So, our next objective is that, how to
quantify this lack of symmetry. And in order to understand this thing, we have a concept of coefficient of
skewness.

Refer Slide Time :( 13:02)

And the definition of coefficient of skewness depends on, the second and third central movements of the
data. So, you may recall that, we had denoted the second central moment by mu-2 and third central
moment by mu three. So now, the coefficient of skewness is denoted by beta one. And this is defined as,
the square of third central moment, divided by the cube of second central moment. And this is called the,
‘Coefficient of Skewness’. There is another coefficient of skewness, which is defined as, the square root
of this beta one and this is denoted by gamma 1. Now, what is the difference between the two measures of
coefficient of skewness that is beta 1 and gamma 1? You can see here that in the case of beta 1, mu 3 can
be positive or Mu 3 can be negative. But, mu 3 square will always be positive. And similarly, mu 2 will
always be positive, so mu 2 Q will always be positive. So, this beta 1 will always be positive. So, this will
give us the information, on the magnitude of the skewness or the magnitude of the lack of symmetry. But,
this beta 1 will, not be able to inform us, whether the, the skewness is positive or negative. Where is,
when we are trying to use the, next coefficient gamma 1, then what we try to do here: that gamma 1 will
also give us information about the sign. And when I try to combine, the information obtained by beta 1,
then this gamma 1 will, give us the information on the magnitude, as well as, the sign. Sign can be
positive; sign can be negative, indicating the positive or negative say skewness. So, this is the basic
difference between the two measures, beta 1 and gamma 1. And you will see that in the R Software, R
Software provides the value of gamma 1. And one thing now you have to notice here and I can explain
you on this slide itself ,that I have defined here, beta 1 + gamma 1, this is for the population. But, what
happens to us,

Refer slide time :( 15:55)

We have got a, data set say X 1, X 2 and here see here X n in this case, what we try to do? We try to
compute the value of mu2 and mu3, on the basis of data x1, x2, xn or they are called as,’ Sample
Movements’. So, we try to compute the sample movements, of order 2 & 3 and we try to replace, mu2
and mu3 by their sample movements. So, in this case, this beta 1 I am trying to denote it by beta 1 s that
means beta 1 based on the sample values, becomes like this. So, that is the same thing, I simply have
computed, the second and third, central movements and I have replaced him at in the definition of beta 1.
Next the coefficient of gamma 1, now I am denoting by gamma 1 s, s means sample, this becomes here,
this square root of beta 1, s and it is given by here like this simply, the square root of the beta 1 s. So, now
this will give us the information, on the magnitude and sign and where this beta 1 will, give us
information only on the magnitude.

Refer slide time :( 17:20)

Now what is the interpretation? The interpretation goes like this. So, I'm trying to divide the
interpretation, based on gamma 1 and gamma 1 s and both are actually the same? So, the first case is if I
say gamma 1 is equal to 0, this means the distribution is symmetric, when I say gamma 1 is greater than 0
that is positive, then the distribution is also said to be positively skewed. And if gamma 1 is negative, then
the distribution is negatively skewed. And the same continues, for the definition of gamma 1 s, gamma 1
s, s is 0, this means symmetry, if gamma 1 is positive that means that distribution is positively skewed, if
gamma 1 is negative then the distribution is negatively skewed. So, you can see here, now that having the
coefficient of skewness, it is not difficult to know, the feature of the frequency curve with respect to the
symmetry and I can see whether my distribution is symmetric or not if not symmetric then it is positively
skewed or negatively skewed. Now a simple question comes, what happens to, you’re here mean median
and mode in these different types of distributions, when that transmission is symmetric or positively or
say negatively skewed. So, now I try to give you a brief information,

Refer slide time :( 18:49)

when we have a positively skewed distribution, in this case gamma 1 will be equal to 0. Now if you recall
what will be the hair mode, mode will be somewhere here, which is the maximum frequency value. So,
corresponding to maximum frequency this will give me the value of your mode, median is the value
which will try to divide the entire area under this curve into two parts. So, this will be somewhere here
and the mean, will be somewhere here, yeah. So, in the case of positively skewed distribution, mode will
have the highest value followed, by median and mean. So, mode will be smaller than median and median
will be smaller than mean, the opposite will happen, when we have the negatively skewed distribution, in
this case, the mode will be somewhere here, corresponding to this frequency. So, mode will be
somewhere here, corresponding to X and similarly the median, will be corresponding, to this frequency
and median will be somewhere here and the mean will be somewhere here. So, in this case, when we have
with a negatively skewed distribution, then mode will be greater than median and median will be greater
than mean. Well in the case of symmetric, distribution all the values of mean median and mode they are
going to be the same see here and in this case gamma 1 is equal to 0 and median mean median mode will
be somewhere here.

Refer slide time :( 20:19)

There are some more, coefficients of skewness, which have been given in the literature so, I will just
briefly give you an idea. So, one measure of coefficient of skewness or one coefficient of skewness is
based on, the mean and mode, which is given by mean - more divided by standard deviation. So, Sigma X
is giving the value of standard deviation. So, this is essentially the value, of say s what we have used in
the earlier lecture. But I'm using here is say Sigma X, to denote it that this is standard deviation, because
there's a standard notation in many, many books. And this is the same as this quantity, which is based on
the mean and median because you may recall that we have a relationship that X bar – mode, is
approximately equal to 3 times X bar - median under certain conditions. So, these two measures lie
between minus 3 and plus 3 and we say that if these coefficients are greater than 0 that means the curve is
positively skewed, if they are negative that means the curve is negatively skewed. And if this coefficient
is 0 that means the curve is symmetric.
Refer slide time :( 21:40)
And similarly, we have two more measures, which are based on the definitions of quartiles and percentile.
So, the coefficient of skewness based on quartiles, is given by like this q3, minus Q 2, minus Q 2, minus
Q 1 and divided by q3 minus Q 2, plus Q 2, minus Q 1. And similarly the coefficient based on percentile,
is given by this formula and both this coefficient, they lie between minus 1 and plus 1 and they have the
same interpretation, as earlier means, positive value of this coefficient will indicate positively skewed,
code negative value will indicate the negatively skewed, code and 0 value will indicate the symmetric
curve.

Refer slide time :( 22:22)

Now after this I come on the next aspect, which is called,’ Kurtosis’, please try to observe here, in this
picture, I have made here three curves, duck car in the sail let me call it here's curve, one two and here
three, I request used to you please try to observe, the hump of the curve, where is the hump of the curve,
which is here I'm making my yellow color, this and by looking at these three curves, can we really say
that what is the feature related to the peak of the curve? The peak of the curve 3, this is the highest,
followed by the peak of the curve number 2 and followed by the peak of car number 1. So, the question
is, is how to show this property of Peaks and how to quantify it? So, this property of kurtosis, this
describes the wickedness or flatness of a frequency curve, flatness means, how flat is the curve at the
peak. Now after this you can see here, from this curve that one of the curve has more peak and other
curves have are, less Peaks. But how to compare it, what is more and what is less? So, what we try to do
here, we try to measure the peakedness, with respect to the peakedness of normal distribution, what is the
normal distribution? In statistics we have a probability density function, what will what we call as normal
distribution or sometime it is called as,’ Gaussian Distribution’. So, before I try to give you an idea about,
this peakedness let me try to give you the idea of normal distribution.

Refer slide time :( 24:38)

So, the probability density function, of our normal distribution function, is given by like this. And this
property density function is controlled by two parameters, mu and Sigma square. So, we denote this
function, as say here n, which P is normal and the two parameters mu and Sigma square, which are the
parameters of this, density function, here this mu is indicating, the mean and Sigma square is indicating
the variance. So, if I try to draw this curve, this will look here like this. So, this value is indicating here,
the mean and this is spread here, I don't the mean this is giving us the value of Sigma Square. And this
curve is actually, symmetric around mean. So, we try to compute, the coefficient of skewness and kurtosis
in the case of normal distribution. And in this case the coefficient of skewness comes out to be zero and
coefficient of kurtosis comes out to be zero. And this was the reason that we were trying to, conclude on
the basis of coefficient of skewness, being zero positive or negative. And similarly we are going to do,
with the case of kurtosis. So, now the curve of the normal distribution will have zero kurtosis. So, now we
can compare the peaks, of other curves, with respect to the normal curve. And this is what we are doing in
this picture,

Refer slide time :( 26:21)

here if you try to see, the curve in the mid, curve number here tow this is the curve of normal distribution.
And we are trying to compare the flatness or peakedness, with respect to the curve number two. So, now
you can see here, first into the curve number three, this is here, which is here, the curve number three has
got, more peak, then that curve number two. And similarly if you try to look in the curve number one,
then curve number one has got a smaller peak, than the curve number two. So, what we try to do here?
That all those curves which have got higher Peaks than the normal curve, they are called as,’ Leptokurtic’,
the peakedness of the normal distribution, is called as,’ Mesokurtic’. And the peakedness of those curves,
which have got, lower peak than that of normal curve, this is called,’ Platykurtic’. And this is how we try
to; characterize the less or more peakedness, with respect to the wickedness of the, normal distribution or
the majority curve.

Refer slide time :( 27:46)

So, now I can explain you that the shape of the hump, which is the middle part of the curve or the
frequency distribution, of the normal distribution, has been accepted as a standard one. And this kurtosis
the property of kurtosis examines the humpable or the flatness of the given frequency curve or
distribution, with respect to the hump or flatness of the normal distribution, which we have just
understood.

Refer slide time :( 28:15)

And those curves, which have got the hump, like a normal distribution they are called ,’Mesokurtic’, with
greater peakedness or say less flatness, then that of normal distribution curve, they are called as,’
Leptokurtic’, curves and those curves, which have got less peakedness or say greater flatness, then that of
normal distribution, they are called as,’ Platykurtic’, curves.

Refer slide time :( 28:46)

Now the Pearson’s is how to quantify it. So, we have a coefficient of kurtosis and there are different
types of coefficient of kurtosis, but here we are first going to consider, the Karl Pearson's coefficient of
kurtosis, which is denoted by beta - that is the standard notation. And similar to the coefficient of
skewness you can see here that this beta 2 is also depending on the mu 2 and mu 4, what are this mu 2 and
mu 4? Mu 2 is the second central movement and mu 4 is the 4th central movement. And the coefficient of
kurtosis is defined as the 4th central movement, divided by the square of second central moment, the value
of beta 2 for a normal distribution; this comes out to be 3. So, what we try to do? That we try to define
another measure, which is be tied to minus 3 and we denoted by here gamma 2. Now the advantage of
gamma 2 is that that just by looking at the value of gamma 2, we will get the idea of the magnitude and if
this is greater than 0, is smaller than 0 or equal to 0, will give us the idea about the, nature of hump. So,
that is why we have two coefficient of kurtosis and in R software, this gamma 2 is produce in the
outcome.

Refer slide time :( 31:27)

So, now you can see here the same thing. So, I can see here for a normal distribution beta 2 is equal to 3
and gamma 2 equal to 0 and if beta 2 is greater than 3 or gamma 2 is greater than 0, then we say that the
curve is leptokurtic, if beta 2 is equal to 3 and or equivalently the gamma 2 is equal to 0, then we say the
frequency distribution or the frequency curve is Mesokurtic. And if beta 2 is smaller than 3 and gamma 2
is smaller than 0, then we say that the distribution is platykurtic. So, you can see here that in the same
figure that we had drawn, for the curves leptokurtic, we have this 4 major critique we have this and for
platykurtic, we have this. So, this is about the coefficient of kurtosis.

Refer Slide Time :( 31: 19)

Some properties, which I'm not going to prove here, it is just trying to say that beta 2, the coefficient of
kurtosis will always, be greater than or equal to one and coefficient of kurtosis beta 2, will always be
greater than the coefficient of skewness, beta 1 and this beta 2 will always, be greater than or equal to beta
1 plus 1, these are some properties just for your information, I'm not going to use it here.

Refer Slide Time :( 31: 46)

And but, I would try to define the sample based coefficient of kurtosis, because there in the beta 2 and
gamma 2, I simply use the population values. So now, I know, I don't have to do anything, I need here two
central moments, mu 2 and mu 4, I will try to compute the sample based movements: that mean the value
of mu 2 and mu 4, on the bases or given set of data and I will simply replace, them in the coefficient of
kurtosis and I am denoting this coefficient of kurtosis, as beta 2's, right, as means sample and similarly,
the coefficient of kurtosis, gamma 2 is now transformed to gamma 2 s and this is the same thing beta 2, s
minus 3 and they have the same, interpretation as we have the case, in the beta 2 and gamma 2, for
leptokurtic distribution, beta 2 s and gamma will be greater than 3 and gamma 2, s will be greater than 0,
similarly beta 2 s will be 3 or gamma 2 s will be 0 in case of Mesokurtic and beta 2 s will be smaller than
3 or gamma 2 s will be smaller than 0, in case of platykurtic distribution. Right?

Refer Slide Time :( 32: 57)

So now, we have a fair idea: that how to measure two types of characteristics, in a frequency curve, what
is the symmetry and other is the peakedness and they are going to be quantified, by coefficients of
skewness and kurtosis. So now, the next question is how to, compute them, in the R software. So, as we
have seen: that in the case of, computing the movements, we need a package movements, so obviously, in
order to compute the coefficients of kurtosis and coefficient of skewness, we need the information on the
movements, mu 2, mu 3,and mu 4. So, we first need to install the package, movements and then based on
that, we can compute the coefficient of skewness and coefficient of kurtosis. So, we try to understand it
here. So, in order to compute the coefficient of skewness and kurtosis in R, first you need to install the
package, movements by this command, install dot packages, inside the arguments, you have to write
moments and then you have to load, this package movements. Right? And now, the sample-based
coefficient of kurtosis, which was our gamma 1 s, this will be computed by the expression, a skewness,
SKEWNESS and the data vector here X and yeah! If you want to use, the na dot RM, which means for
the missing value, you are saying because here false: that means there are no, missing values and if there
are missing value, we will simply write na dot R M is equal to true and similarly the sample based,
coefficient of kurtosis, which we have defined as gamma 2 s, this will be computed by the command
kurtosis, KURTOSIS all in small letters and inside the argument, same thing, like the data vector, X and
if you do not have any missing value, then use na dot R M is equal to false and if there are missing values,
then use na dot R M is equal to true. Okay.

Refer Slide Time :( 35: 05)

So, you can see here, this is not a difficult thing. So, yeah! If you have missing value and if you try to
store those missing values inside the data vector X, NA then the command will become, skewness XN a
and NA dot R M is equal to true, for computing the coefficient of skewness and the coefficient of kurtosis,
in this case will be given by kurtosis, X dot na and na dot R M is equal to true. Right.

Refer Slide Time :( 35: 31)

Now, I would try to take an example and show you that, how to measure this is skewness and kurtosis, in
the data. So, I am going to use the same example, in which we had collected the timings of twenty
participants in a race and this data has been stored in Sider, variable check time. Now, after this, we
simply have to use the command SKEWNESS, skewness and inside the argument give the, data vector
and this is giving us the value, zero point, zero five seven five nine seven six two. So, this is indicating:
that the skewness is, greater than zero. So, the frequency curve, in this case is, positively skewed and
similarly you can see here, when you try to operate the kurtosis command, on the time vector, then it is
giving to the value, one point seven and which is greater than zero. So, this is indicating that, the curve is
leptokurtic, leptokurtic means, the hum, of this curve, is greater than the, hump of normal distribution.
Now, I will try to assure you it on R software,

Refer Slide Time :( 36: 56)

so you can see here, I have here that data on time, first I need to load the package, library, moments and I
already, have installed this package on my computer. So now, I will need, the skewness of time, this
comes out to be like this and kurtosis, of time. Right. You can see here, this is the same thing which you
have just obtained and this is the screenshot of the same operation: that I just did.

Refer Slide Time :( 37: 32)

I know, I will take one more example, where I will show you that, how to compute the coefficient of
skewness and kurtosis, when we have some data, missing. So, I will take the same example, in with the I
have just removed to first to observation and I have replace it by na, na that means the data is missing and
this data is stored in the data vector time dot, na and now, I will use the command skewness, on time dot
na with the option any dot R M is equal to true: that means, please remove the,na value and then you try
to compute the skewness. And similarly for the kurtosis, I will use the same command kurtosis, on the
time dot na with then option n a dot R M is equal to true and this will give me the value of coefficient of
kurtosis, when the two values are missing. So now, you can see here, the coefficient of skewness comes
out to be negative, this is less than zero. So that means, the frequency curve based on the, the remaining
observation, is now negatively, skewed. So, it this is indicating that, when the first two observations are
deleted, then the nature of the skewness has changed, similarly for the kurtosis, this value is 1 point 8 1,
which is greater than 0, this is again showing that, the curve is leptokurtic. So, this is indicating that, even
after removing the first two observation, the nature of the curve, remains the same. And now, I will try to
show you, this on the R software also,

Refer Slide Time :( 39: 21)

so I already have stored this data time dot na on my computer. This is her like this, now I want to compute
the skewness; this is coming out to be the same, what we have just observed? And if I try want to come
compute the coefficient of kurtosis, this is here like this.

Refer Slide Time :( 39: 39)

And then, the next slide is the screenshot of the same operation that we have done. Now, I would stop in
this lecture and you can see that, we have discussed the coefficient of skewness and kurtosis, which are
going to give you, two more pieces of information about your frequency curve, beside central tendency
and variation. Now, you know how to find the behavior of the frequency curve, with respect to central
tendency, variation, lack of symmetry and peakedness. And now you can see, just by looking the data, you
were not getting all these things, but now, you know: that how to quantify these things and how the
graphics in this case will look like, is if you try to plot the, frequency curves of the data, which I have
taken say time or say time dot na and try to see, whether the feature, of the curve is matching with the
information given by the coefficient of skewness and kurtosis or not? And you will see that, it is
matching. So, this is the advantage of these tools of descriptive statistics: that instead of looking at the
huge, data sets, you simply try to, look into these values graphically, as well as quantitative way. And they
will give you a very reliable information, but, you should know, how to use this information and how to
interpret that data. So now, up to now, from the beginning I have used the tools, when we have data, only
on one variable. So, we have discussed the univariate tools, of descriptive statistics. Now, from the next
lecture, I will take up the case when we have more than one variable and P and in particular I will
consider two variables. So, when we have the data on two variables, they also have some hidden,
properties and characteristics, so how to quantify them? And how to have the information graphically?
These are the topics which I will be taking from the next lecture. So, you practice these tools, try to
understand it and enjoy it. And I will see you in the next lecture. Till then. Good bye.