LENS POLYTECHNIC, OFFA
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION
MAC 114: FOUNDATION OF MEDIA &
COMMUNICATION
ND 1 FIRST SEMESTER
LECTURER: GIDADO OPEYEMI
COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, or feelings between
individuals or groups through various mediums (such as speech, writing, signals, or behavior) to
achieve understanding and mutual comprehension.
It can also be defined process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a
common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
The following are the seven types of communication discussed in this article:
1. Intrapersonal Communication
2. Dyadic and Interpersonal Communication
3. Small-Group Communication
4. Organizational Communication
5. Public Communication
6. Mass Communication
1. Intrapersonal Communication
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The process of intrapersonal communication takes place within a single person. In other words,
intrapersonal communication involves communicating with yourself. How we communicate
with ourselves is through our “inner voice” or thoughts.
Intrapersonal communication affects almost all of our interactions with others. One major driver
of our self-talk is our self-concept; how we perceive ourselves. Our self-esteem shapes the self-
concept. We may ask ourselves, “Am I making a fool of myself?” or “Am I doing a good job at
work?” How we perceive ourself and our biases toward others affects our self-talk and how we
communicate with other people.
As an exercise, consider the following scenarios and how you think about each situation. Your
thoughts — self-talk — guide your communication with the other person in each situation.
You are shopping and see a stranger you would like to approach and get to know better.
You’re asked to give a presentation at work in one hour.
You are having a serious conversation with your boss, and they yawn during your conversation.
Your significant other appears agitated lately, and you are uncertain if you are the cause of their
irritation.
Each scenario creates its own self-talk that decides how you will verbally and non-verbally
communicate with that person. Being aware of your self-talk can help you navigate
communication situations that may otherwise escalate.
Intrapersonal communication can help us work through varying scenarios before we engage in
verbal communication with other people. However, this type of communication can lead to
awkward or escalated types of conversations if we are not fully aware of our self-talk and
biased language.
2. Dyadic and Interpersonal Communication
Dyadic and interpersonal communication are similar, but not necessarily the same type of
communication. A dyad is something that consists of two elements or parts. Dyadic
communication — described by social scientists — is the communication between two people.
Interpersonal communication is a two-way interaction between people who are part of a close
and irreplaceable relationship. Thus, not all dyads are interpersonal and not all interpersonal
communication is dyadic.
Dyadic communication may include two passing strangers that engage in a brief small-talk
encounter, asking how one another is doing and exchanging other pleasantries. However, if two
close friends are engaged in a personal conversation, sharing personal information with one
another, we call this interpersonal communication.
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Interpersonal communication can be dyadic, whereas two close friends engage in personal
conversation. There can also be interpersonal communication between more than two close
people invested in each other and communicating personal information. A dyad will always
remain just two people communicating and not always communicating interpersonally.
3. Small-Group Communication
Chances are you took part in a small group activity either in school, at work, or during a family
gathering. Small-group communication is three or more people in a group where each person
can take part actively with other group members. Examples of small groups are:
Your family members
Athletic teams
Colleagues at work
Student groups working together on a project
A small group displays characteristics that differ from dyads. For example, small group
members are more likely to take risks than dyads. The majority of members in a small group
can outvote others, whereas in a dyad, this is not possible. Small groups, because of the
number of members, tend to be more creative than dyads. Leadership is prevalent in small
groups where leaders facilitate most of the communication, as opposed to a lack of leadership
in dyads.
4. Organizational Communication
Organizational communication involves a larger collection of people working collectively to
achieve goals. An organization may be commercial (like a corporation), nonprofit like the Red
Cross, political (local, state, or federal government) or health-related, such as hospitals.
Organizations develop their own cultures and traditions that influence how people behave and
communicate. Organizational communication involves specific roles, such as sales associates,
executives, supervisors, line managers, and general employees. These groups communicate
according to their organizational cultures and goals.
5. Public Communication
Public communication occurs when groups are too large for everyone to contribute. Additionally,
they are characterized by an unequal amount of speaking and limited verbal feedback. Even in
situations where feedback occurs — especially online — the speakers are still in control and do
most of the communicating.
Examples of public communication are political rallies where you have just a few people
speaking to the audience, with very little to no feedback. Business seminars where a speaker
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presents their program and may solicit feedback in limited amounts.
Public communication may also take place as part of organizational communication, where the
CEO of the corporation may address a large group of employees, sharing with them their
progress toward the organization’s goal.
6. Mass Communication
Mass communication is the process of sharing information with a large audience through a
medium like television, radio, or social media. It can be used for entertainment, education, or
political propaganda.
This type of communication occurs when the audience is extremely large, often spread out
across cities or nations.
Mass communication includes information transmitted through media channels such as
television, internet channels, magazines, newspapers, movies, or other forms of mass media.
Impact of Mass Communication
Mass communication can shape cultural norms and values, and affect how people perceive the
world. It can also impact buying habits, styles, schedules, and health.
Examples Of Mass Communication
Journalism: The process of gathering, compiling, and presenting news
Public Relations: The process of managing how information about a company or person is
shared with the public
Social Media: The use of websites and apps to share information, ideas, and videos
The downside to this type of communication is that it lacks personal contact between the
sender and the receiver. Think of a news program you are watching or a magazine article you
read. Both communicate to a large audience, but you cannot provide any feedback to the
originator of the communication.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication has many functions, including social interaction, information sharing,
motivation, emotional expression, and control.
1. Social interaction
Involves connecting with others through talking, laughing, and conversing. Satisfies the human
need for social connection and entertainment.
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Rules of social interaction can vary across cultures, communities, and physical environments
2. Information Sharing
Involves transmitting ideas, feelings, or facts from one person to another
Can be verbal or non-verbal
3. Motivation
Involves stimulating desire in others to change opinions, attitudes, or behaviors
Can include appreciation, recognition, and support
4. Emotional Expression
Involves communicating internal states to others
Can include behavioral, nonverbal, and/or verbal expressions
Can be beneficial when adaptive and fit to a given situation.
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
The communication process is the steps involved in sharing information between a sender and
a receiver.
Steps In The Communication Process
Sender Develops an Idea: The sender decides what they want to share and how they will
express it.
Encoding: The sender puts their idea into a message.
Selecting a Channel: The sender chooses how they will send the message, such as writing or
speaking.
Transmission: The message is sent through the chosen channel.
Reception: The receiver receives the message.
Decoding: The receiver tries to understand the message.
Feedback: The receiver may send a response back to the sender.
Factors That Militate Against Effective Communication
Noise: Anything that interferes with communication, such as distractions, physical barriers, or
differences in language
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Channel: The method used to send the message can affect how well it's understood
Timing: When the message is sent can affect whether it's received and acted upon
Effective Communication
Successful communication happens when the receiver understands the sender's intended
meaning. Feedback can help the sender improve their communication.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Communication barriers are obstacles that can make it difficult to understand or convey
information.
These barriers can be physical, emotional, psychological, cultural, or perceptual.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Language barriers: Differences in language or dialect can make it hard to understand or convey
messages.
Physical barriers: Environmental conditions can make it difficult to see gestures and body
language.
Emotional barriers: Stressful situations can make it hard to listen actively or lead to
misunderstandings.
Psychological barriers: The mental state of the sender or receiver can impact how messages
are understood.
Cultural barriers: Ignorance of other cultures can make people shy about expressing
themselves.
Perceptual barriers: Personal biases, stereotypes, or misunderstandings can make it hard to
understand information.
Interpersonal barriers: Personal traits or failings can make it hard to communicate effectively.
Other communication barriers include: Time zone and geography, Distractions and other
priorities, Work environment, and People's attitudes.
MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
A communication model is a framework that describes how information is exchanged between
a sender and a receiver. There are many models of communication, including the Shannon-
Weaver model, the transactional model, and the SMCR model.
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COMMUNICATION MODELS
Shannon-Weaver model: A popular model that was originally designed to help transmit
information over phone lines
Transactional model: A two-way model that involves the simultaneous sending and receiving of
messages
SMCR model: Also known as the Berlo model, this is a basic model that identifies the parts of
communication
Dance's Helical model: A model that views communication as a continuous process that
evolves over time
Aristotle model of communication
The Aristotle model of communication has five main elements: speaker, speech, occasion,
target audience, and effect.
ANALYSIS OF COMMUNICATION MODELS
1. Shannon weaver model is a model consisting of basic elements such as a source, encoder,
medium, decoder, receiver, and noise. It describes the way in which information flows from a
sender to a receiver. In contrast, a transaction is a model which describes both the sender and
the receiver engaging simultaneously.
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MEDIA
Media is a term that refers to the means of communication that reach or influence people
widely.
The term medium (the singular form of media) is defined as "one of the means or channels of
general communication, information, or entertainment in society, as newspapers, radio, or
television.
Media of Communication is the way information is delivered and received, such as through
radio, television, the internet, or mobile networks. Media can also refer to the organizations that
produce and distribute information.
TYPES OF MEDIA
Oral: The exchange of ideas and information through spoken word, such as in conversations,
interviews, or presentations
Mass Media is a way to reach a large audience, such as through newspapers, radio, television,
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or the internet
Print Media is related to that media which is in form of physical appearance or paper or print e.g.
Newspaper, magazines, pamphlets, brochure and books.
Broadcast Media is any information or content distributed through radio or television.
Digital Media: This is the use of the internet and mobile devices to communicate, such as
through email, social media, and websites
Interactive Media: This is the use of digital tools to engage with others in real-time, such as
through collaboration or immersive experiences
Motion Picture & Sound Recording: This involves the technology and process of creating and
distributing moving images and sound. It includes the use of cameras, projectors, and other
equipment.
New Media: Thi is a term for media that is created and shared using computers and the internet.
It includes a wide range of content, such as websites, videos, podcasts, and virtual reality.
Examples of new media: Websites.Video and streaming services.Podcasts and blogs.Online
courses.Video games.Mobile apps. Ebooks.Virtual reality.
NATURE OF MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
Broad Reach: Media communication can reach a vast and geographically dispersed audience
simultaneously, unlike interpersonal communication.
One-Way Communication: Traditionally, media communication has been considered a one-way
process with limited direct feedback from the audience.
Diverse Content: Media can convey information through various formats like text, audio, video,
and images, catering to different audiences and interests.
Influential Power: Due to its reach, media can significantly shape public opinion, agenda setting,
and social norms.
Technological Dependence: Media communication is heavily reliant on technological
advancements, constantly evolving with new platforms and distribution methods.
Potential for Manipulation: The ability to reach large audiences can be used to spread
misinformation or propaganda.
Interactive Potential: With the rise of digital media, audience engagement and feedback are
becoming increasingly interactive.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF BROADCAST MEDIA
Mass reach: Broadcast media can reach a very large audience across a wide geographic area at
the same time.
Limited Sensory Channel: There is a limit to what you can draw; hear and or see on television
and or radio.
Delayed Feedback: The nature of broadcast production does not give room for immediate
feedback unless there is a phone-in segment.
Personal Versus Impersonal: The broadcast media audiences are always unknown to the
broadcaster and vice versa.
Immediacy: Broadcast news can deliver breaking information as it happens, providing real-time
updates.
Accessibility: Most people have access to broadcast media like radio and television, making it a
readily available source of information.
One-to-many communication: Broadcasters send information to a large audience without direct
interaction with each individual receiver.
Audiovisual capabilities: Television utilizes both sound and visuals to convey information, while
radio uses only audio.
Ephemeral nature: Broadcast content is often temporary and fleeting, unlike print media which
can be revisited at any time.
Regulation: Broadcast media is often subject to government regulations regarding content and
broadcasting standards.
Examples of broadcast media: Television news channels, Radio stations, Live sports
broadcasts, and Public service announcements.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRINT MEDIA
Print media has several characteristics, including being physical, credible, and long lasting.
Physical
Tangible: Print media is a physical object that can be held, touched, and experienced.
Portable: Print media is lightweight and can be carried around.
Credible
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Trusted: Print media is considered a legitimate and credible source of information.
Accurate: Articles in newspapers are edited to ensure accuracy before publication.
Long-lasting
Permanency: Print media messages have longer lifespan because of its nature.
Lingers in the mind: Print media can linger in the minds of consumers for a long time.
Concrete: Once purchased, print media is a concrete source of information that can't be erased.
Other characteristics
Establishes brands: Print media allows brands to establish recognition through the use of color,
font, images, and texture.
Targets demographics: Print media is good at targeting specific demographics, both locally and
nationally.
Promotes sales: Print media can increase brand sales by enhancing the consumer experience.
Examples of print media include books, newspapers, magazines, and newsletters.
Key Points About The Downsides Of Broadcast Media:
High Cost: Securing airtime on television or radio, particularly during prime time, can be very
expensive.
Limited Targeting: Broadcast media reaches a broad audience, making it difficult to precisely
target specific demographics or interests.
Audience Fragmentation: With the rise of streaming services and online content, viewers are
increasingly fragmented across different platforms, reducing the reach of traditional broadcast
media.
Ad Avoidance: Viewers can easily skip or avoid commercials on television, reducing the
effectiveness of advertising.
Difficulty Measuring ROI: Precisely measuring the return on investment from broadcast
advertising can be challenging.
Less Interactive: Unlike digital media, broadcast media offers limited opportunities for audience
engagement and interaction.
Short Attention Spans: The fast-paced nature of television can lead to viewers paying less
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attention to content.
Competition from Digital Media: The growing popularity of online platforms like social media
and streaming services pose a significant threat to traditional broadcast media.
Key Points About The Disadvantages Of Print Media:
Limited reach: Print media struggles to reach a global audience as effectively as digital
platforms.
High cost: Printing and distributing physical materials can be expensive, especially for large
audiences.
Slow updates: Unlike digital media, updating content in print media requires a longer lead time.
Audience targeting challenges: Reaching specific demographics with print media can be
difficult.
Environmental concerns: Paper production and consumption contribute to environmental
issues.
Lack of interactivity: Print media lacks interactive features like videos, links, or clickable ads
found in digital formats.
Competition for attention: Print media faces stiff competition from other print materials and
digital platforms.
Lower engagement: Readers might not engage with print content as deeply as they do with
interactive digital content.
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIAL FORCE
Media of communication as a social force" refers to the idea that the various channels through
which information is shared, like television, radio, newspapers, and social media, can
significantly influence and shape public opinion, social norms, and behaviors, acting as a
powerful tool to drive social change and interaction within a community or society at large.
It is a social force that brings us together regardless of physical barriers.
Key Points About Media As A Social Force:
Information dissemination: Media platforms distribute information widely, allowing individuals
to access news, ideas, and perspectives from diverse sources, potentially influencing their
understanding of issues and shaping public discourse.
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Socialization: Media can contribute to the process of socialization by providing individuals with
information about societal norms, values, and behaviors, potentially shaping their identities and
perspectives.
Agenda setting: By highlighting certain topics and issues, media can influence what people
consider important and discuss, setting the agenda for public debate.
Mobilization and activism: Media can facilitate social movements by enabling rapid
communication and coordination among activists, raising awareness about important causes,
and mobilizing people to take action.
Political influence: Media coverage can significantly impact political campaigns, public
perception of politicians, and political discourse, potentially influencing election outcomes.
Examples of Media As A Social Force:
Social media campaigns: Movements like #MeToo and Black Lives Matter gained widespread
attention and sparked social change through viral campaigns on social media platforms.
News reporting: Extensive media coverage of a natural disaster can lead to increased public
awareness and mobilization of relief efforts.
Propaganda: Authoritarian regimes often use media to control information and manipulate
public opinion.
Important considerations:
Media bias: The perspective and framing of information presented by media can influence
public perception and potentially create biased viewpoints.
Digital divide: Unequal access to technology and the internet can limit individuals' ability to
participate in online discourse and be informed.
Consumer agency: Individuals can actively engage with media by critically evaluating
information and seeking diverse perspectives.
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION
Media of communication as a social institution refers to the idea that mass media, like
television, radio, newspapers, and the internet, plays a significant role in shaping social norms,
values, and behaviors, acting as a powerful force in society similar to other institutions like
family, education, or government, influencing how people perceive and interact with the world
around them; essentially, it's a structured system that provides information and shapes public
opinion on a large scale.
Key points about media as a social institution:
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Impact on social norms: Media can promote certain values, beliefs, and behaviors through the
content it produces, potentially influencing societal attitudes on various issues.
Information dissemination: Media acts as a primary source of information for many people,
shaping their understanding of current events and social issues.
Social cohesion or division: Media can contribute to social cohesion by providing shared
experiences and narratives, but can also exacerbate social divisions by promoting biased or
divisive content.
Power dynamics: Media organizations can have significant power to influence public opinion,
sometimes raising concerns about media bias and manipulation.
Examples of how media acts as a social institution:
Political campaigns: Media plays a crucial role in shaping public perception of political
candidates and influencing election outcomes.
News reporting: The way news stories are presented can significantly impact public
understanding of events.
Entertainment media: Movies, TV shows, and music can shape cultural values and social norms
by depicting certain lifestyles and behaviors.
Social media: Platforms like Facebook and Twitter have become significant avenues for
communication and information sharing, impacting social interactions and public discourse.
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION AS A SOCIAL CHANGE
Media of communication acts as a powerful agent for social change by disseminating
information, raising awareness about critical issues, influencing public opinion, mobilizing
people to take action, and ultimately shaping societal norms and values, thereby driving positive
transformations within a community or society at large; however, it can also hinder change by
spreading misinformation or promoting the status quo depending on its usage.
Key Points About Media As A Social Change:
Information dissemination:
Media platforms like news channels, social media, and newspapers provide access to
information about social issues, allowing people to become informed and engaged citizens.
Social movements mobilization:
Media can be utilized to organize protests, rallies, and campaigns, bringing people together to
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advocate for social change.
Policy influence:
By highlighting social issues, media can put pressure on policymakers to implement necessary
changes.
Raising awareness: Media platforms like news, documentaries, and social media can bring
attention to critical social issues, injustices, and inequalities, prompting public discussion and
debate.
Mobilization and activism: By sharing information about protests, campaigns, and events,
media can encourage people to participate in social movements and advocate for change.
Shaping public opinion: Through its coverage and framing of issues, media can influence how
people perceive social problems and potentially sway public opinion towards a particular stance.
Empowering marginalized voices: Media can provide a platform for marginalized communities
to share their experiences and perspectives, leading to greater social understanding and
advocacy.
Promoting social norms: By highlighting positive social behaviors and challenging negative
ones, media can contribute to the evolution of societal norms.
Examples Of Media Driving Social Change:
Civil rights movements: Television coverage of protests and demonstrations played a crucial
role in raising awareness and public support for civil rights movements.
Environmental activism: Social media campaigns have been effective in mobilizing people
around environmental issues like climate change.
Gender equality movements: Media campaigns have been instrumental in challenging gender
stereotypes and promoting gender equality.
Challenges associated with media and social change:
Misinformation and Propaganda: The spread of false information on media platforms can
undermine social change efforts and create confusion.
Media bias: Biased reporting can reinforce existing power structures and limit the
representation of diverse perspectives.
Access to media: Unequal access to media technology can limit the ability of marginalized
communities to participate in social change discussions.
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AUDIENCE
The people who read or listen to something: The people who watch, read, or listen to something,
such as a book, film, or radio or television program.
The people who give attention to something: The general public who give attention to
something said, done, or written.
Audience can also be called listeners, spectators, onlookers, assembly, congregation, and house.
MEDIA & COMMUNICATION AUDIENCE
A "media and communication audience" refers to the group of people who receive and engage
with a particular media message, whether it be through television, radio, newspapers, online
platforms, or any other communication channel; essentially, they are the "receivers" of the
information being communicated.
Examples of Media Audiences:
Television viewers watching a news program
Radio listeners tuned into a morning show
Website visitors reading articles on a news site
Social media followers engaging with a brand's posts.
Types of Communication Audiences:
Mass Audience: A large, diverse group of people reached through mass media like television
news or popular magazines
Niche Audience: A smaller, more focused group with specific interests or demographics, often
targeted by specialized magazines, websites, or online communities.
Active Audience: Engaged audience that actively interprets and interacts with media content
Passive Audience: An audience that passively consumes media without critical engagement.
Target Audience: The specific group of people a media product is intentionally designed to
reach, based on detailed demographic and psychographic information.
Primary Audience: The core group of consumers a media product is primarily aimed at,
receiving the most attention in marketing strategies.
The primary audience is the audience that receives information directly from the media. The
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primary audience broadcasts information received from the media for those who have not had
direct contact with the media. This creates a secondary audience.
Secondary Audience: A secondary group of consumers who may also be interested in the
media content, although not the primary focus.
Specialized Audience: A group defined by a particular interest, profession, or lifestyle, like
gamers, fitness enthusiasts, or medical professionals.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEDIA AUDIENCE
Media audiences can be examined based on the following characteristics.
1) Numbers: Most media audiences are largely perceived in terms of numbers. Being
technologically mediated and involving large capital investments to reach them, audiences
inevitably were looked at as 'numbers'. With the advent of multiple media outlets and
distribution mechanisms, the physical number of audience still matter to the 'sender' media
institution. But in academic discourses, audiences do not only refer to 'number' but also to the
'social' context. So, audience is not mere quantity but has qualities as well.
2) Anonymity: The audience members do not know each other. Their nature varies depending
upon the medium. There is no face to the audience. At times the audience gets appropriated
and at times rejects messages that sender would have thought would succeed. Public knows
everything but the senders do not know them.
3) Heterogeneity: Media audiences vary in their primary characteristics as individuals. They
could be people of different age, gender, political ideology having differential social and
economic standing. They are not organised and self-acting.
4) Geography/Place: Usually in the world prior to the Internet, transnational television and
satellite radio, audiences were geographically constituted. In concerts and lecture halls,
audiences are face-to-face but media audiences. are most often not. Cinema halls and early
television changed locatedness" of print media readers. With new media technologies, both
time and place of audiences became much more anonymous, large and passive.
5) Time: The audiences are also defined in terms of 'daytime', 'prime time", 'first telecast', and
'repeat show', 'regular" or "one-time' and so on. Prime time audiences are usually assumed to be
working people whereas afternoon shows are for home makers. With newer technologies like
Video on Demand. recording of live telecast and digital media, the notion of real-time audiences
need to be further studied.
6) Medium/Channel/Content: Media organisations try to define those they attempt to reach out
as their audiences. The type of medium by its very nature also defines broad characteristics of
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its audiences. For example, newspapers are usually for literates whereas radio programming
language will define its intended listeners.
7) Expectations: Audience has certain expectations from media to address their information,
entertainment and education needs. Media makers also attempt to address audience
expectations. Print and electronic media continue to 'measure' their audiences as precisely as
possible so as to change their message content in line with audience expectations. Filmmakers
often visit cinema halls to assess viewers' response to their films.
8) Longevity: Audiences for any given medium may or may not be fixed for a continuous period
of time, depending upon the medium; audience may change their preferences or shift away.
Even in a medium like television, the audience for a given programme may vary as people move
in and out of channel or programme using remote control.
As student of mass communication, you need to be aware that media audiences are rooted in
the society's social and cultural systems and techno-economic base. Members of the audience
produce, reproduce, develop and distribute culture through media.
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