SYLLABUS

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB (R22APH1127)

B.Tech. I Year L T P C
0 0 3 1.5

List of Experiments:

1. Determination of work function and Planck‟s constant using photoelectric effect.

2. Determination of Hall co-efficient and carrier concentration of a given semiconductor.

3. Characteristics of series and parallel LCR circuits.

4. V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode and Zener diode

5. Input and output characteristics of BJT (CE, CB & CC configurations).

6. a) V-I and L-I characteristics of light emitting diode (LED),b) V-I Characteristics of
solar cell.

7. Determination of Energy gap of a semiconductor.

8. Determination of the resistivity of semiconductor by two probe method

(Demonstration).

9. Study B-H curve of a magnetic material.

10. Determination of dielectric constant of a given material (Demonstration).

11. a) Determination of the beam divergence of the given LASER beam, b)

Determination of Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture of an optical fiber.

12. Understanding the method of least squares – torsional pendulum as an example.

Note: Any 8 experiments are to be performed

 EXPERIMENT-1
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

AIM

i) To determine Planck’s constant ‘h’ from the stopping potential measured at different
frequencies (wavelengths) of light.

ii) To determine the work function “ϕ” of a metal.

APPARATUS:

The experiment set up consists of:

1. Main unit
2. Vacuum Photo tubes
3. Light source
4. Color filters

FORMULA:

VO = (h/e) (υ) – (ϕ +A)

ϕ = (h/e) (υ) – V0 – A (eV)

Where ϕ – work function (eV)

h – planck’s constant (h = 6.626 x10-34 j-s)
e – Charge of electron (1.602 x 10-19 coulombs)
υ – Frequency of particular color filter
V0 – Stopping potential for particular color
A – Contact potential (filter)
Contact potential A for this photo tube is = 0.5 V
THEORY:

It was observed as early as 1905 that most metals under influence of radiation, emit electrons.

This phenomenon was termed as photoelectric emission. The detailed study of it has shown

1. That the emission process depends strongly on frequency of radiation.

2. For each metal there exists a critical frequency such that light of lower frequency is unable to

liberate electrons, while light of higher frequency always does.

 3. The emission of electron occurs within a very short time interval after arrival of the radiation

and number of electrons is strictly proportional to the intensity of this radiation.

The experimental facts given above are among the strongest evidence that the electromagnetic

field is quantified and the field consists of quanta of energy E= hυ, where is υ the frequency of the

radiation and h is the Planck’s constant. These quanta are called photons.

Further it is assumed that electrons are bound inside the metal surface with an energy eϕ , where ϕ

is called the work function. It then follows that if the frequency of the light is such that hυ > eϕ, it

will be possible to eject photoelectron, while if hυ < eϕ, it would be impossible.

In the former case, the excess energy of photon appears as kinetic energy of the electron, so that

hυ = mv2 + eϕ ......(1) or mv2 = hυ - eϕ

which is the famous photoelectric equation formulated by Einstein in 1905.

If we apply a retarding potential V0 so as to stop the photo electrons completely, it is known as

stopping potential Vs. At that instant

mv2 = eVs or eVs = hυ – eϕ

Or Vs =

So when we plot a graph V0 as a function of υ, the slope of the straight line yields and the intercept

of extrapolated point at υ = 0 gives work function ϕ .

CIRCUIT DIGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:

(Hz)

PROCEDURE:

PLANK’S CONSTANT:

1. Make the connection as shown in fig 1 and switch on the main unit
2. Keep voltage control knob to its minimum position.
3. Arrange the light source and photo tube in such a way that light falls on
the photo tube. The distance between photo tube and light source is
adjusted such that there is sufficient flow of current in digital micro
ammeter.
4. Now place a color filter in the path light (slot is given to place filter).
5. After placing the filter there will be some reading in micro ammeter this
is calledphoto current at zero anode potential.
6. Now slowly increase the voltage till current in micro ammeter becomes
zero, this voltage is called as stopping potential V0 . Wait for some time
and note down thisreading in the space provided
7. Repeat the experiment with different color filters and note down their
stopping potential values
8. Plot the graph by taking stopping potential on Y- axis, frequency on X-
axis and calculate the slope.
9. Calculate plank’s constant by using the formula: h = slope x e.
OBSERVATIONS AND TABULATIONS:

Table 1: Specifications of filters:

Color Blue Green Orange Red

Frequency (Hz) 6.15 x1014 5.5 x 1014 4.95 x 1014 4.7 x 1014

Table 2:

Filter Frequency (Hz) Stopping potential (V0) Work function (ϕ)

Red 4.7 x 1014
Orange 4.95 x 1014
Green 5.5 x 1014
Blue 6.15 x 1014

Applications of Photoelectric effect

1. The photoelectric effect is used in the photoelectric cell which

converts a lightenergy into electrical energy.
2. In cinematography photoelectric effect has a application of reproducing the sound.
3. Photoelectric effect also has an application in street lights for automatic
switch onand off.
4. Traffic signals are using this effect for automatic controls and for
count themachines.
5. Working of burglar alarm uses this photoelectric effect.
6. Television transmission is one of the applications of this photoelectric effect.

RESULT:

Plank’s constant h =………………………………………… J-s

Work function of a metal ϕ =………………….eV

 Experiment – 4

V - I Characteristics of PN junction Diode .

AIM: -

To study the V-I characteristics of a semiconductor diode.

MICRO BOARD CONSISTS OF: -

Two dual range meters internally connected for both forward and reverse bias, switch
selectable and dual positive going power supply. 0-3v& 0-30v.

THEORY:

A PN junction diode is a two terminal junction device. It conducts only in one direction
(only on forward biasing).

FORWARD BIAS:

On forward biasing, initially no current flows due to barrier potential. As the applied
potential exceeds the barrier potential the charge carriers gain sufficient energy to cross the
potential barrier and hence enter the other region. The holes, which are majority carriers in the P-
region, become minority carriers on entering the N-regions, and electrons, which are the majority
carriers in the N-region, become minority carriers on entering the P-region. This injection of
Minority carriers results in the current flow, opposite to the direction of electron movement.

REVERSE BIAS:

On reverse biasing, the majority charge carriers are attracted towards the terminals due to
the applied potential resulting in the widening of the depletion region. Since the charge carriers
are pushed towards the terminals no current flows in the device due to majority charge carriers.
There will be some current in the device due to the thermally generated minority carriers. The
generation of such carriers is independent of the applied potential and hence the current is constant
for all increasing reverse potential. This current is referred to as Reverse Saturation Current (IO)
and it increases with temperature. When the applied reverse voltage is increased beyond thecertain
limit, it results in breakdown. During breakdown, the diode current increases tremendously.

PROCEDURE:

Forward bias: -

When external voltage is applied to the PN – Junction in such a direction it cancels the
potential barriers, the permitting current flow, it is called forwardbiasing.

Connections are made as shown in Fig 1.

Flip the DPDT switch towards 1.5v and 30mA.

Connect the power supply and keep the voltage control knobs at minimumposition.
 Switch ‘ON’ the power supply, by slowly increasing the voltage in steps, note down the
readings of Voltmeter & Ammeter.

Plot the graph values of Voltage & Current on a graph sheet.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

Figure 1 (Forward Bias)

Reverse bias: -

When a external voltage is applied to a PN – junction diode, in such a direction that

potential barrier is increased, (at this junction current does not flow) it is called reverse biasing.

Connections are made as shown in Fig 2.

Flip the DPDT switch towards 30v and 30mA.
Connect the power supply, keep the voltage control knobs at minimum position.
Switch ‘ON’ the power supply, by slowly increasing the voltage in steps, note down the readings of
Voltage and Ammeter.
Plot the values of Voltage & Current on a graph sheet.

Figure 2 (Reverse Bias)

Table 1

Forward biased Reverse biased

S.No.
1. Voltage(V) Current(mA) Voltage(V) Current(μA)

2.

3.

4.

5.

MODEL GRAPH:

(mA)

(V) (V)

(A)

PRECAUSTIONS:

Make sure that the connections are tight.

Take care to apply suitable forward and reverse voltages across the diode so that suitable
forward and reverse currents flow through the diode. Otherwise the diode may be damaged.
RESULT:

Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the PN junction diode was Studied

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is PN junction diode?

2. What is the working of diode?
3. How PN junction is formed?
4. How do you forward bias on a diode?
5. What happens when a PN junction diode is reverse biased?
6. What is the difference between forward bias and reverse bias?
7. Why does the depletion layer increase in reverse biasing?
8. What are Semiconductors? Give examples?
9. What are the types of Semiconductor?
10. What is Intrinsic Semiconductor?
11. .What is Extrinsic Semiconductor?
12. What are the types of Extrinsic Semiconductor?
13. What is P-type Semiconductor?
14. What is N-type Semiconductor?
15. What is doping?
16. Why N - type or pentavalent impurities are called as Donor impurities?
17. Why P– type or trivalent impurities are called as acceptor impurity?
18. Define drift current?
19. Define the term diffusion current?
20. What is application of PN junction diode?
21. What is forward bias in a PN junction?
22. What is reverse bias in a PN junction?
23. What is Reverse saturation current?
24. Experimentally find out whether the given diode is made of Germanium or Silicon.?
 Experiment no - 2
(b) V-I characteristic of Zener Diode
Aim:

To draw the V-I characteristic of Zener diode and to determine Zener breakdown voltage.
Apparatus used:
Zener diode, voltmeter (0-2volt), voltmeter (0-30 volt), mili-ammeter, micro- ammeter,
variable source (0-2 volt and 0-30 volt).
Theory:
Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode. Due to heavily doped, its depletion
layer is very thin and is order of micrometer. The forward bias characteristic of Zener diode is
same as the normal PN junction diode but in reverse bias it has different characteristic.
Initially, a negligible constant current flow through the zener diode in its reverse bias but
at certain voltage, the current becomes abruptly large. This voltage is called as zener voltage.
This sudden and sharp increase in zener current is called as zener breakdown.
Circuit diagramme:

Fig 1: Zener Diode in FB

Fig 2: Zener Diode in RB

observation:

1. Least count of voltmeter (0-2volt) =0.02 volt

2. Least count of voltmeter (0-30volt) =0.5 volt
3. Least count of miliammeter =0.2 mA
4. Least count of micro-ammeter =5 A
5. VF and IF for PN junction Diode in FB
6. VR and IR for PN junction diode in RB

Precautions:
The connection should be tight otherwise fluctuation in voltage and current will happen.
At the turning point of curve, more reading should be taken.
For the plot of Graph, current should be taken mA for both forward and reverse biased diode.
The reading should be in multiple of least count.

Table:1 Forward bias Table: 2 Reverse bias

S.No Voltage (V) Current(mA) S.No Voltage (V) Current(A)

1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0.1 0 2 1 0
3 0.2 0 3 2 0
4 0.3 0 4 3 0
5 0.4 0 5 4 0
6 0.5 0 6 5 0
7 0.6 0.2 7 6 0
8 0.62 0.2 8 7 0
9 0.64 0.4 9 8 0
10 0.66 0.6 10 8.8 0.2
11 0.68 0.8 11 9 0.4
12 0.70 1.2 12 9.2 3.0
13 0.72 2.2
14 0.74 3.2
15 0.76 5.2
16 0.78 7.0
17 0.80 9.4
Model graph:

Result:
V-I characteristic of Zener diode indicates that characteristic of Zener diode in
forward bias is same as PN junction diode. In reverse bias, a negligible constant current
flow through the zener diode but the current becomes abruptly large at certain voltage.
This voltage is called as zener voltage. This sudden and sharp increase in zener current is
called as zener breakdown. Vknee=0.7 volt and VZ= 9 volt.
 EXPERIMENT-3
HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT
AIM:

To determine Hall Coefficient, Nature of charge carriers, Carrier Density & Carrier
Mobility (Lorentz Force) of a semiconductor crystal.

APPARATUS:

I.C regulated power supply, Electromagnets, Constant current power supply, Hall
Sensor& Semiconductor Crystal.

THEORY:

When a transverse magnetic field (B) is applied to a semiconductor carrying current

(I), an voltage is induced in the direction perpendicular to both current (I) & magnetic field
(B) this phenomenon is known as Hall Effect. If the sign of Hall Coefficient is positive the
Semiconductors of P-type & if the sign of Hall Coefficient is negative the Semiconductor is
of n-type.

Experiment 1: Hall current vs. Hall Voltage at constant Magnetic field.

Procedure:

Connect the IC regulated power supply terminals to Electromagnetic coils in their

respective sockets.
1. Connect Hall probe to Gauss meter. Switch “ON” the Gauss meter, set the Gauss
meter reading to “0.00” by adjusting the knob.
2. Now place the Hall probe in the magnetic field exactly at the center of the
electromagnet cores. Set the Gauss meter reading to 1KG magnetic field .This is
achieved by applying suitable current to electromagnets & simultaneously positioning
the electromagnet cores by turning the knobs.
3. Connect the crystal mounted PCB to constant current power supply to their respective
sockets.
4. Remove Hall probe from the magnetic field and place crystal in the same position
without disturbing the position of magnetic cores.
5. Switch “ON” the constant current power supply & apply current in steps of
0.1mA,rotate the crystal till it becomes perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage
will be maximum in this adjustment, note the corresponding hall voltage at constant
magnetic field.
6. Plot the graph between current (I) and hall voltage (vH) which is a straight line & find
the slope.
7. Repeat the above steps from 3 to 7 for magnetic field of 2KG.
Experimental Setup

Model Graph:

TABULAR COLUMN

Sl. No Hall Current I(mA) Hall Voltage V(mV)

1 0.1
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
6 0.6
7 0.7
8 0.8
9 0.9
10 1
11 1.1
12 1.2
13 1.3
14 1.4
15 1.5
 16 1.6
17 1.7
18 1.8
19 1.9
20 2
21 2.1
22 2.2
23 2.3
24 2.4
25 2.5

Specification of the Specimen supplied with the set up:

Crystal type = Germanium p-type

Size = 5mm x 5mm
Thickness of the crystal (Z) = 0.7mm
Resistivity (p) = 2.1217 ohm m
Conductivity = 0.4713201 col volt-1 sec-1 m-1
Calculation of Hall Coefficient (RH)

Hall Coefficient (RH) = VH x Z m3/C

IXB
3
= Slope x Z m /C
B
Where
VH/I = Slope of 2 kG graph
Z = Thickness of the crystal
B = Magnetic field
Substituting the values in the equation
Calculation of carrier Density:

-3
Carrier Density (n) = I/(RH x q) m
RH = Hall Coefficient
Q = Charge of an electron =1.6x10-19 coulombs

Calculation of Carrier Mobility:

2 -1 -1
Carrier Mobility (µ) = RH x σ m v s
RH = Hall Coefficient
σ = Conductivity

Sources of Error
The following may account for the errors associated with this experiment.
1. Due to temperature fluctuation thermo – EMF and corresponding heating – current are
generated. Hence, these affect the reading of Hall voltage.
2. The calibration of the magnetic field with current is done at 10x scale for larger values of
current. Thus, errors creep in due to measurement in this scale.
3. When the hall probe is inserted manually, the probe may be relatively tilted with the
axis of magnetic field coils.
4. The contact pins on the semiconductor surface should be adjusted properly to completely
remove the zero error in Hall voltage or should be noted and taken careof.

Applications:

1. Hall Effect is the basis of many practical applications and devices such as magnetic field
measurements, and position and motion detectors.
2. Also, Hall Effect measurement is a useful technique for characterizing the electrical
transport properties of metals and semiconductors.
3. Hall Effect sensors are readily used in various sensors such as rotating speed sensors,
fluid flow sensors, current sensors, and pressure sensors.
4. Other applications may be found in some electric air soft guns and on the triggers of
electro pneumatic paintball guns, as well as current smart phones, and some global
positioning systems.

Result:
Studied Hall Effect and determined the type of semiconductor by calculating Hall
coefficient.
3
=------------------- m /C

Type of semiconductor is ………………

Viva Voce
1. What is Hall Effect?
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field mutually
perpendicular to the direction of current a potential difference is developed at right
angle to both the magnetic and electric field. This phenomenon is called Hall effect.
2. Define hall co-efficient.
It is numerically equal to Hall electric field induced in the specimen crystal by unit
current when it is placed perpendicular in a magnetic field of 1weber/(meter*meter).
3. Define mobility.
It is the ratio of average drift velocity of charge carriers to applied electric field.
4. Why is Hall potential developed?
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field the
magnetic field exerts a deflecting force (Lorentz Force) in the direction perpendicular
to both magnetic field and drift velocity this causes charges to shift from one surface
 to another thus creating a potential difference.
5. What is Fleming’s Left Hand Rule?
Stretch thumb, first finger, middle finger at right angles to each other such that fore
finger points in the direction of magnetic field, middle finger in the direction of
current then thumb will point in the direction of the force acting on it.
6. How does mobility depend on electrical conductivity?
It is directly proportional to conductivity.
7. Define Hall angle.
It is the angle made with the x direction by the drift velocity of charge carrier is
known as hall angle.
8. Which type of charge has greater mobility?
In semiconductors, electron has greater mobility than holes.
9. What happens to the hall coefficient when number of charge carriers is decreased?
Hall coefficient increases with decrease in number of charge carriers per unit volume.
10. Name one practical use of Hall Effect.
It is used to verify if a substance is a semiconductor, conductor or insulator. Nature of
charge carriers can be measured.
 EXPERIMENT-5
LED V-I and L-I CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
To study the V-I and L-I characteristics of LED
APPARATUS:
Light emitting diode
0-5V variable Supply for Light emitting diode
20mW Digital Optical power meter to measure optical power of Light emitting diode
20V Digital Voltmeter to measure voltage across Light emitting diode
200mA DC Digital Ammeter to measure Light emitting diode Current
THEORY:
A P- N junction diode, which emits light on forward biasing, is known as light
emitting diode. The emitted light may be in the visible range or invisible range and the
intensity of light depends on the applied potential.
PRINCIPLE:
In a P N junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross
from the N-layer to the P-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the N-side while
holes are in the valence band on the P-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level
compared to the valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the difference
in energy is given out in the form of heat or light. In case of silicon or germanium, the energy
dissipation is in the form of heat, whereas in case of gallium-arsenide and gallium phosphate,
it is in the form of light. But this light is in the invisible region & so this material cannot be
used in the manufacture of LED. Hence gallium – arsenide phosphate which emits light in the
visible region is used to manufacture an LED.
CONSTRUCTION:
An n-type layer is grown on a substance and a p-type layer is grown over it by
diffusion process. The P-layer is kept at the top because carrier recombination takes place in
it. The terminals anode and cathode are taken out of the n- layer and P-layer respectively. The
anode connections are made at the edge in order to provide more surface area for the
emission of light. A metal film is applied to the bottom of substance to reflect light to the
surface of the device and also to provide connection for the cathode terminal. Finally the
structure is provided with an encapsulated (cover) to protect them from destruction.
ADVANTAGE:
Works on low voltage and current and hence consumes less power. Require no warm
up time. Can be switched ON and OFF at a faster rate. Long lifetime. Small size and less
weight.
APPLICATIONS:
Infra red LEDS are used in burglar alarms.
Used in solid state video displays.
Used in the field of optical communication.
Used in image sensing circuits.
Used in numerical displays like watches, pocket calculators etc.
Experimental Procedure
Procedure for V-I characteristics of a Light emitting diode:
Connect the Light emitting diode circuit as shown below:

Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply using coarse and fine
knobs.
Note down current through the Light emitting diode at increasing values of Light
emitting diode voltage of 0.5V, 1.0V, 1.5V, 2.5 V.
Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the Light emitting diode may get damaged.
Plot a graph of Light emitting diode voltage V/s Light emitting diode current.

Table 1:
S.NO. Voltage (V) Current(mA)
Procedure for L-I characteristics of a Light emitting diode:
Connect the Light emitting diode circuit as shown below:

Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply coarse and fine knobs.

Note down the optical power measured by the optical power meter in mW at
increasing current through the Light emitting diode of 1mA to 20 mA at 1 mA step.

Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the Light emitting diode may get damaged.

Plot a graph of Light emitting diode intensity V/s Light emitting diode current as
shown in figure 2

Calculate the slope of this curve.

This slope is efficiency of Light emitting diode in terms of mcd/mA.

Model Geaphs
Table 2:

S.NO. Current(mA) Power (mcd)

Result:
The V-I and L-I characteristics of given LED is studied
 EXPERIMENT-6b
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL

Aim:
To plot the V-I characteristics of Solar cell.

Micro board consists of:

1. Solar Cell/Photovoltaic cell mounted on the wooden base.

2. Single directional mercury coated variable intensity source.
3. Voltmeter.
4. Ammeter.
5. Load resistance.

Theory:

Sunlight consists of little particles of solar energy called photons. As the

photovoltaic cell is exposed this sunlight, many of the photons are reflected, pass right
through or absorbedby the solar cell.
When enough photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic cell,
electrons are freed from the negative semiconductor material. Due to the manufacturing
process of the positive layer, these freed electrons naturally migrate to the positive layer
creating a voltage differential, similar to a household battery.
When the 2 layers are connected to an external load the electrons flow through the
circuit create electricity. Each individual solar energy cell produces only 1-2 watts. To
increase power output, cells are combined in a weather-tight package called a solar
module. Thesemodules (from one to several thousand) are then wired up in serial and/or
parallel with one another, into what’s called a solar array, to create the desired voltage
and amperage output required.

Due to the natural abundance of silicon, the semi-conductor material that PV cells
are primarily made of, and the practically unlimited resource in the sun, solar power cells
are very environmentally friendly. They burn no fuel and have absolutely no moving
parts which makes them virtually maintenance free, clean, and silent.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in fig (1).
2. Place the solar cell at a particular distance say 1cm from the variable light
source.
3. Vary intensity of the light source, note down the voltage and current in the
tabular column.
4. Next note the short circuit current Isc, when the voltage across the solar cell is
zero & open circuit voltage Vo by removing the load resistance across the solar
cell.
5. Calculate power P=VI for each reading.
6. Plot the graph between the voltage Vs Current , mark the maximum power point,
7. Repeat the experiment by changing the distance between the solar cell & light
source.
Circuit diagram:

Fig(1)
Ideal graph:

The short circuit current Isc, is the maximum current from the solar cell and
occurs when the voltage across the solar cell is approx zero.

Tabular column:

Distance between the

Voltage Current P=VI
Sl.No light source & solar cell
(mv) (mA) (mW)
(cm)
Observation:

1. Short Circuit Current (Isc) =………………………….

2. Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) =………………………….

3. Maximum Peak Point (MPP) =………………………….

Result:
The V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell is studied and determined maximum
powerpoint is…………………………

Viva voce
1. What is a solar cell?
Ans; It is a semiconducting device in the form of a diode

2. What is the purpose of a solar cell?

Ans: transformation of light energy into electrical form

3. What is the mode of biasing?

Ans: Reverse biasing

4. What is the principle of solar cell?

Ans:Photovoltaic effect

5. What is open circuit of a solar cell?

Ans: All the short circuit current flows through diode

6. What is short circuit of a solar cell?

Ans: No current flows through the diode

7. When light falls on the diode, what happens?

Ans: Excess charge carriers in the form of holes and electrons are
developed

8. What are the applications?

Ans: Domestic use, street lights etc.,