BDU

Chapter Four

4 Integration and Application of Integration

4.1 Anti-derivative: Indefinite integrals

Definition a function F is said to be an anti-derivative of f on an interval I if F 0 (x) = f (x) for all x in I .

However,if F is anti-derivative f on an interval I then the most general anti-derivative of f on I is

F (x) +C

Where C is an arbitrary constant.

With this, we define the indefinite integral as follows:
Definition The set of all anti-derivatives of f is the indefinite integral of f with respect to x, denoted by
Z
f (x)d x = F (x) +C
R
is an integral sign. The function f is the integrand of the integral, and x is the variable of integration.
Note that the indefinite integral yields a family of functions.
Example Since the derivative of x 4 is 4x 3 , the general anti-derivative of 4x 3 is x 4 plus a constant. Thus,
Z
4x 3 d x = x 4 +C

Example: Finding anti-derivatives

Solution: Let’s take a look at 6x 2 . How would we go about finding the integral of this function? We know that the rule from
d n n−1
differentiation that d x x = nx
d 3 2
Then, we have: dx x = 3x
We now know that the function we seek will have a power of 3 in it. How would we get the constant of 6? Well,

d
2x 3 = 2 × 3x 2 = 6x 2 .
dx

Thus, we say that 2x 3 is an anti-derivative of 6x 2 .

Example

3x
R
1. Evaluate 2 dx
3x
Solution We need to find a function, F , such that F 0 (x) = 2
d 2 d 2 3x
We know that dx x
= 2x. So we need to find a constant, a, such that d x ax = 2ax = 2 .
Solving for a, we get 2ax = 3x 3
R 3x 3 2
2 =⇒ a = 4 . So 2 = 4 x + C.
Check your answer by taking the derivative of the function you’ve found and checking that it matches the integrand:

d 3 2 3 3x
( x +C ) = (2x) =
dx 4 4 2

2. Find the general anti-derivative of the function f (x) = 2x 4 .

d 5
We know that dx x = 5x 4 .
d 5 4 4
We need to find a constant, a, such that d x ax = 5ax = 2x .
Solving for a, we get 5ax 4 = 2x 4 =⇒ a = 25 . So the general antiderivative will be 25 x5 + C.
Check your answer by taking the derivative of the antiderivative you’ve found and checking that you get back the
function you started with: ddx 2x 4 d x = ddx ( 25 x 5 +C ) = 25 (5x 4 ) = 2x 4 .
R

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4.1 Anti-derivative: Indefinite integrals BDU

R
3. Evaluate 3 sin xd x
d
We know that d x (cos x) = − sin x. We need to find a constant, a,
d
such that d x (a cos x) = −a sin x = 3 sin x
Solving for a, we get −a sin x = 3 sin x =⇒ a = −3.
So the general antiderivative will be −3 cos x + C.
Check your answer by taking the derivative of the antiderivative you’ve found and checking that you get back the
function you started with: ddx 3 sin xd x = ddx (−3 cos x +C ) = 3 sin x
R

4. Find the general antiderivative of the function f (x) = 6e 3x .

d 3x
We know that dx e = 3e 3x
d 3x
We need to find a constant, a, such that d x ae = 3ae 3x = 6e 3x . Solving for a, we get 3ae 3x = 6e 3x =⇒ a = 23. Then
the general antiderivative will be 2ex + C

Basic Properties of Indefinite Integrals

1. Constant Rule for indefinite integrals

R R
If c is a constant then c f (x)d x = c f (x)d x.

2. Sum/Difference Rule for indefinite integrals

R R R
( f (x) + g (x))d x = f (x)d x + g (x)d x.
R R R
( f (x) − g (x))d x = f (x)d x − g (x)d x.

3. Indefinite integrals of Polynomials

Say we are given a function of the form, f (x) = x n , and would like to determine the antiderivative of f . Considering
d 1 n+1
that d x n+1 x = x n we have the following rule for indefinite integrals:

4. Power rule for indefinite integrals

1
R n
x d x = n+1 x n+1 +C for all n 6= −1.
d
But to integrate f (x) = x1 , we should first remember dx ln x = x1 .
1 dx
R
Therefore, since x is the derivative of ln(x) we can conclude that x = ln |x| +C .
Note that the polynomial integration rule does not apply when the exponent is −1. This technique of integration
must be used instead. Since the argument of the natural logarithm function must be positive (on the real line), the
absolute value signs are added around its argument to ensure that the argument is positive.

5. Integral of the Exponential function

d x
Since dx e = ex
we see that e x is its own anti-derivative. This allows us to find the integral of an exponential function: e x d x = e x +C .
R

6. Integral of Sine and Cosine

d d
Recall that dx sin x = cos x and dx cos x = − sin x.
So sin x is an anti-derivative of cos x and − cos x is an anti-derivative of sin x. Hence we get the following rules for
integrating sin x and cos x
R R
cos x d x = sin x +C and sin x d x = − cos x +C .

We will find how to integrate more complicated trigonometric functions in the chapter on integration techniques.
Example1 Suppose we want to integrate the function f (x) = x 4 − 1 + 2 sin x. An application of the sum, Difference and
constant multiple rule from above allows us to use the power rule and our rule for integrating sin x as follows,
5
f (x) d x = (x 4 − 1 + 2 sin x )d x = x 4 d x − 1 d x + 2 sin x d x = x5 − x − 2 cos x +C .
R R R R R

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

Example2 Evaluate (7x 2 + 3 cos(x) − e x )d x

R

Solution
Z Z Z Z
(7x 2 + 3 cos(x) − e x )d x = 7 x2d x + 3 cos(x)d x − exd x

x3
= 7( ) + 3 sin(x) − e x +C
3
7 3
= x + 3 sin(x) − ex + C
3
R 2
Example3 Evaluate ( 5x + sin(x))d x
Solution

2 2 dx
Z Z Z
( + sin(x))d x = + sin(x)d x
5x 5 x
2
= ln |x| − cos(x) + C
5

4.2 Techniques of integration

4.2.1 Integration by substitution

Substitution Rule: The substitution rule is essentially the chain rule (a differentiation technique you should be familiar
with) in reverse. First, let’s take an example:
Suppose we want to find x cos(x 2 )d x. That is, we want to find a function such that its derivative equals x cos(x 2 ). Stated
R

yet another way, we want to find an anti-derivative of f (x) = x cos(x 2 ). Since sin(x) differentiates to cos(x), as a first guess
we might try the function sin(x 2 ). But by the Chain Rule,

d d 2
sin(x 2 ) = cos(x 2 ) · x = cos(x 2 ) · 2x = 2x cos(x 2 ).
dx dx
Which is almost what we want apart from the fact that there is an extra factor of 2 in front. But this is easily dealt with
because we can divide by a constant (in this case 2). So,

d sin(x 2 ) 1 d 1
= · sin(x 2 ) = · 2 cos(x 2 )x = x cos(x 2 ) = f (x).
dx 2 2 dx 2
sin(x 2 )
Thus, we have discovered a function, F (x) = 2 , whose derivative is x cos(x 2 ). That is, F is an antiderivative of f (x) =
x cos(x 2 ). This gives us

sin(x 2 )
Z
x cos(x 2 )d x = +C .
2
Theorem 1. General Substitution Rule: If u = g (x) is differentiable function whose range is an interval I and f is continuous
on I. Then Z Z
f (g (x))g 0 (x)d x = f (u)d u.

f (g (x)) · g 0 (x)d x when f and g 0 are

R
The Substitution Rule provides the following method to evaluate the integral
continuous functions:

1. Substitute u = g (x) and d u = g 0 (x)d x to obtain the integral

R
f (u)d u

2. Integrate with respect to u.

3. Replace u by g (x) in the result.

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

du
Notice that it looks like you can "cancel" in the expression dx d x to leave just a d u. This does not really make any sense
du
because dxis not a fraction. But it’s a good way to remember the substitution rule.
R 1
Examples Evaluate the integral of ¡ ¢3/2 d x
x + a2
2
Solution First, we re-write the integral:

1
Z Z
¢−3/2
x2 + a2
¡
¡ ¢3/2 d x = dx
x2 + a2
¶¶−3/2
a2
Z µµ
2
= x 1+ 2 dx
x
¶−3/2
a2
Z µ
= x −3 1 + 2 dx
x
¶−3/2
a2
Z µ
¡ −3 ¢
= 1+ 2 x dx .
x
Now we preform the following substitution:
2 du du
u = 1 + ax 2 then = −2a 2 x −3 =⇒ x −3 d x = − 2 . Which yields:
dx 2a
¶−3/2
a2 du
Z µ Z µ ¶
¡ −3 ¢
1+ 2 x d x = u −3/2 − 2
x 2a
1
Z
−3/2
=− 2 u du
2a
µ ¶
1 2
= − 2 − p +C
2a u
1
= s +C
2
a
a2 1 + 2
x
x
= p +C .
a2 x2 + a2
Examples

x sin(2x 2 )d x
R
1. Evaluate
du
Solution By making the substitution u = 2x 2 Since u = 2x 2 , d u = 4xd x and d x = 4x .

du
Z Z
2
x sin(2x )d x = x sin(u)
4x
1
Z
= sin(u)d u
4
cos(u)
=− +C
4
cos(2x2 )
=− + C.
4

2. Evaluate −3 cos(x)e sin(x) d x.

R

du
Solution Let u = sin(x), d u = cos(x)d x so that d x = cos(x) .

du
Z Z
−3 cos(x)e sin(x) d x = −3 cos(x)e u
cos(x)
Z
= −3 eu d u

= −3e u +C

= −3esin(x) + C.

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

p 19
R
3. Evaluate d x.
9x−38
du
Solution Let u = 9x − 38 d u = 9d x dx = 9 . Then

19 19
Z Z
p dx = p du
9x − 38 9 u
19 p
= (2 u) +C
9
p
38 9x − 38
= + C.
9
R p
4. Evaluate −15 9x + 43d x.
Solution
du
Let u = 9x + 43 d u = 9d x dx = 9 . Then
p
Z p Z
u
−15 9x + 43d x = −15 du
9
15 2 3/2
=− u +C
9 3
10(9x + 43)3/2
=− + C.
9
R
5. Evaluate 5 cos(x) sin(x)d x
du
Solution Let u = sin(x) d u = cos(x)d x dx = cos(x) . Then
Z Z
5 cos(x) sin(x)d x = 5 ud u

u2
=5 +C
2
5 sin2 (x)
= + C.
2
R 17 sin(x)
6. Evaluate cos(x) d x.
du
Solution Let u = cos(x) d u = − sin(x)d x d x = − sin(x) . Then

17 sin(x) du
Z Z
d x = 17 −
cos(x) u
= −17 ln |u| +C

= −17 ln | cos(x)| + C

7. Evaluate −3e 3x+12 d x.

R

Solution Let u = 3x + 12 d u = 3d x d x = d3u . Then

Z u
e
Z
3x+12
−3e d x = −3 du
3
= −e u +C

= −e3x+12 + C.

4.2.2 Integration by part

Integration by parts is another powerful tool for integration. It was mentioned above that one could consider integration
by substitution as an application of the chain rule in reverse. In a similar manner, one may consider integration by parts

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

as the product rule in reverse.

R
Example: Find x cos(x) d x.
d
Solution let F (x) = x sin x + cos x, so that F 0 (x) = x cos x −→ [x sin x + cos x] = x cos x.
R dx
So that x cos(x) d x = x sin(x) + cos(x) +C .

Theorem 2. Integration By part: Suppose f and g are differentiable and their derivatives are continuous. Then
Z Z
[ f (x)g 0 (x)]d x = f (x)g (x) − [ f 0 (x)g (x)]d x.

It is also very important to notice that Z Z

ud v = uv − vd u.

To choose the function f (x) and g (x) we need to follow that the rule called I.L.A.T.E.
ILATE defines the order in which we must set the function f (x).
I for inverse trigonometric function
L for log functions
A for algebraic functions
T for trigonometric functions
E for exponential function
f (x) and g (x) must be in the order of ILATE or else your final answers will not match with the main key.
Example: Find x 2 e x d x
R

Solution let u = x 2 , so that d u = 2xd x, and d v = e x d x, so that v = e x . Then:

Z Z
x2e x d x = u d v
Z
= uv − vd u
Z Z
x 2 e x d x = x 2 e x − 2xe x d x
Z
= x 2 e x − 2 xe x d x.

Now to calculate the last integral we use integration by parts again. Let u = x, so that d u = d x, and d v = e x d x, so that
v = ex.
xe x d x = xe x − e x d x = xe x − e x . So, finally we obtain
R R
And integrating by parts gives
Z
x 2 e x d x = x 2 e x − 2(xe x − e x ) +C

= x 2 e x − 2xe x + 2e x +C

= e x (x 2 − 2x + 2) +C .
R
Example: Find ln(x) d x.
1
SolutionLet u = ln x then d u = d x and d v = d x then v = x
x

Z Z
ud v = uv − vd u
1
Z Z
ln xd x = x ln x − xd x
x
Z
= x ln x − 1d x

= x ln x − x +C .

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

R
Example Find arctan(x)d x.
Solution The integrand function arctan(x) = arctan(x) · 1. Then let u = ar c t an(x) then d u = 1/(1 + x 2 )d x and d v = 1d x
then v = x. So using integration by parts,

x
Z Z
arctan(x) d x = x arctan(x) − dx
1 + x2
1 ¡
= x arctan(x) − ln 1 + x 2 +C .
¢
2

Example: Find e x cos(x) d x.

R

Solution This example uses integration by parts twice. First let,u = e x ; thus d u = e x d x and d v = cos(x)d x; thus v =
si n(x). So that

Z Z
x x
e cos(x) d x = e sin(x) − e x sin(x) d x

Now, to evaluate the remaining integral, we use integration by parts again, with u = e x ; d u = e x d x v = −cos(x); d v =
si n(x)d x. Then
Z Z
e x sin(x) d x = −e x cos(x) − −e x cos(x) d x
Z
= −e x cos(x) + e x cos(x) d x

Putting these together, we have

Z Z
e x cos(x) d x = e x sin(x) + e x cos(x) − e x cos(x) d x

Notice that the same integral shows up on both sides of this equation, but with opposite signs. The integral does not
cancel; it doubles when we add the integral to both sides to get
Z
2 e x cos(x) d x = e x (sin(x) + cos(x))

e x (sin(x) + cos(x))
Z
e x cos(x) d x =
2
e x (sin(x) + cos(x))
Z
x
∴ e cos(x) d x = +C .
2

Examples

2x−5
R
1. Evaluate x3
d x.
dx dx
= − 2x1 2 .
R
Solution Using integration by parts with u = 2x − 5 and d v = x3
then d u = 2d x and v = x3

2x − 5
Z Z
dx = ud v
x3
Z
= uv − vd u
1 1
Z
= (2x − 5)(− 2 ) − (− 2 )2d x
2x 2x
5 − 2x dx
Z
= 2
+
2x x2
5 − 2x 1 5 − 2x 2x
= 2
− +C = 2
− 2 +C
2x x 2x 2x
2x − 5 5 − 4x
Z
∴ dx = +C .
x3 2x2

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

2. Evaluate (2x − 1)e −3x+1 d x

R

−e −3x+1
Solution Let u = 2x − 1; d v = e −3x+1 d x then d u = 2d x and v = . So
3
Z Z
(2x − 1)e −3x+1 d x = ud v
Z
= uv − vd u

−e −3x+1 −e −3x+1
Z
= (2x − 1) − (2)d x
3 3
(1 − 2x)e −3x+1 2
Z
= + e −3x+1 d x
3 3
(1 − 2x)e −3x+1 2 −e w
Z
= + dw
3 3 3
3(1 − 2x)e −3x+1 2 w
= − e +C
9 9
(3 − 6x)e −3x+1 2 −3x+1
= − e +C
9 9
(1 − 6x)e−3x+1
Z
∴ (2x − 1)e −3x+1 d x = +C
9
R
3. (−7x + 38) cos(x)d x
Solution Let u = −7x + 38 so d u = −7d x and d v = cos(x)d x so v = sin(x) Then
Z Z
(−7x + 38) cos(x)d x = (−7x + 38) sin(x) + 7 sin(x)d x
Z
∴ (−7x + 38) cos(x)d x = (−7x + 38) sin(x) − 7 cos(x) + C

(5x + 1)(x − 6)4 d x

R
4.
(x − 6)5
Solution: Let u = 5x + 1 so that d u = 5d x and d v = (x − 6)4 d x so that v = . Then
5

(5x + 1)(x − 6)5

Z Z
(5x + 1)(x − 6)4 d x = − (x − 6)5 d x
5
(5x + 1)(x − 6)5 (x − 6)6
= − +C
5 6

4.2.3 Partial Fraction Method

In this section we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler
fractions, called partial fractions, that we already know how to integrate. To illustrate the method. Suppose we want to
find 3x+1
R
x 2 +x
d x. This is to simplify to
3x + 1 3x + 1 A B
2
= = + .
x + x x(x + 1) x x + 1
This can be done by cross multiplying the fraction gives

3x + 1 A(x + 1) + B x
=
x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
As both sides have the same denominator we must have

3x + 1 = A(x + 1) + B x.

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

This is an equation for x so it must hold whatever value x is. If we put in x = 0 we get 1 = A and putting x = −1 gives
3x+1 1 2
−2 = −B so B = 2. So we see that x 2 +x
= x + x+1 . Returning to the original integral

3x + 1 dx 2
Z Z Z
dx = + dx
x2 + x x x +1
= ln |x| + 2 ln |x + 1| +C

Rewriting the integrand as a sum of simpler fractions has allowed us to reduce the initial integral to a sum of simpler
integrals. In fact this method works to integrate any rational function.
P (x)
Method of Partial Fractions: To decompose the rational function f (x) = Q(x)
Step 1: Use long division (if necessary) to ensure that the degree of P (x) is less than the degree of Q(x) (see breaking up a
rational function in section)
Step 2: Factor Q(x) as far as possible.
Step 3: Write down the correct form for the partial fraction decomposition (see below) and solve for the constants.
To factor Q(x) we have to write it as a product of linear factors (of the form ax +b) and irreducible quadratic factors (of the
form ax 2 + bx + c with b 2 − 4ac < 0). Some of the factors could be repeated. For instance if Q(x) = x 3 − 6x 2 + 9x we factor
Q(x) as Q(x) = x(x 2 − 6x + 9) = x(x − 3)(x − 3) = x(x − 3)2 .
It is important that in each quadratic factor we have b 2 − 4ac < 0, otherwise it is possible to factor that quadratic piece
further.
For example if Q(x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 2x then we can write Q(x) = x(x 2 − 3x + 2) = x(x − 1)(x + 2)
P (x) C Ax+B
We will now show how to write Q(x) as a sum of terms of the form (ax+b) and (Ax 2 +B x+c)
.
Exactly how to do this depends on the factorization of Q(x) and we now give four cases that can occur. Q(x) is a product
of linear factors with no repeats
This means that Q(x) = (a 1 x +b 1 )(a 2 x +b 2 ) · · · (a n x +b n ) where no factor is repeated and no factor is a multiple of another.
A
For each linear term we write down something of the form (ax+b) , so in total we write

P (x) A1 A2 An
= + +···+
Q(x) (a 1 x + b 1 ) (a 2 x + b 2 ) (a n x + b n )

1+x 2
R
Example 1 Find (x+3)(x+5)(x+7) d x
Solution Here we have P (x) = 1 + x 2 ,Q(x) = (x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) and Q(x) is a product of linear factors. So we write

1 + x2 A B C
= + +
(x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) x + 3 x + 5 x + 7

Multiply both sides by (x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) which gives 1 + x 2 = A(x + 5)(x + 7) + B (x + 3)(x + 7) +C (x + 3)(x + 5)
Substitute in three values of x = −3, −5 and x = −7 to get three equations for the unknown constants,

1 + 32 = 2 · 4A 1 + 52 = −2 · 2B 1 + 72 = (−4) · (−2)C .

1 + x2 5 13 25
So A = 5/4, B = −13/2,C = 25/4, and = − + . Now when we integrating both
(x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) 4x + 12 2x + 10 4x + 28
sides the left hand side becomes.
1 + x2 5 13 25
Z
d x = ln |x + 3| − ln |x + 5| + ln |x + 7| +C
(x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) 4 2 4
Examples Evaluate the following by the method partial fraction decomposition.
R 2x + 11
1. dx
(x + 6)(x + 5)
Solution: Decompose the fraction
2x + 11 A B Ax + 5A + B x + 6B
= + =
(x + 6)(x + 5) x + 6 x + 5 (x + 6)(x + 5)

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

Equate coefficients of x we get A + B = 2 and 5A + 6B = 11

Solve the system of equations, we have A = 1, B = 1 and Rewrite the integral and solve:
2x + 11 dx dx
Z Z Z
dx = +
(x + 6)(x + 5) x +6 x +5
= ln |x + 6| + ln |x + 5| + C

R 7x 2 − 5x + 6
2. dx
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 7)
Solution Decompose the fraction:

7x 2 − 5x + 6 A B C
= + +
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 7) x − 1 x − 3 x − 7
A(x − 3)(x − 7) + B (x − 1)(x − 7) +C (x − 1)(x − 3)
=
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 7)
A(x 2 − 10x + 21) + B (x 2 − 8x + 7) +C (x 2 − 4x + 3)
=
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 7)
Ax − 10Ax + 21A + B x 2 − 8B x + 7B +C x 2 − 4C x + 3C
2
=
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 7)
Equate coefficients:

A + B +C = 7

−10A − 8B − 4C = −5

21A + 7B + 3C = 6

2 −27 157
Solve the system of equations we get: A = , B = and C =
3 4 12
Rewrite the integral and solve:

7x 2 − 5x + 6 2 dx 27 dx 157 dx
Z Z Z Z
dx = − +
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 7) 3 x −1 4 x −3 12 x −7
2 27 157
= ln |x − 1| − ln |x − 3| + ln |x − 7| + C
3 4 12

Q(x) is a product of linear factors some of which are repeated

A
If (ax +b) appears in the factorization of Q(x) k-times then instead of writing the piece (ax+b) we use the more complicated
A1 A3 Ak
expression + A 2 2 + (ax+b)
ax+b 3 +···+ (ax+b)k
R (ax+b)
1
Example : Find (x+1)(x+2)2 d x
Solution Here P (x) = 1 and Q(x) = (x + 1)(x + 2)2 We write
1 A B C
= + +
(x + 1)(x + 2)2 x + 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2
Multiply both sides by the denominator 1 = A(x + 2)2 + B (x + 1)(x + 2) +C (x + 1)
Substitute in three values of x to get 3 equations for the unknown constants,

1 = 22 A + 2B +C 1= A 1 = −C

1 1 1 1
So A = 1, B = −1,C = −1, and = − − Then we can now integrate the left hand side.
(x + 1)(x + 2)2 x + 1 x + 2 (x + 2)2
1 1
Z
d x = ln (x + 1) − ln (x + 2) + +C
(x + 1)(x + 2)2 x +2
We now simplify the function with the property of Logarithms.
1 x +1 1
Z
∴ 2
d x = ln( )+ +C
(x + 1)(x + 2) x +2 x +2
Examples

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

x 2 −x+2
R
1. Evaluate x(x+2)2
dx using the method of partial fractions.
Solution Decompose the fraction:

x2 − x + 2 A B C
= + +
x(x + 2)2 x x + 2 (x + 2)2
A(x + 2)2 + B x(x + 2) +C x
=
x(x + 2)2
A(x + 4x + 4) + B x 2 + 2B x +C x
2
=
x(x + 2)2
Ax + 4Ax + 4A + B x 2 + 2B x +C x
2
=
x(x + 2)2
Equate the coefficients:

A + B =1 4A + 2B +C = − 1 4A =2

Solve the system of equations:

1 1
4A = 2 =⇒ A = A + B = 1 =⇒ B = 4A + 2B +C = −1 =⇒ C = −4
2 2
Rewrite the integral and solve:

x2 − x + 2 1 dx 1 dx dx
Z Z Z Z
2
d x = + − 4
x(x + 2) 2 x 2 x +2 (x + 2)2
1 1 4
= ln |x| + ln |x + 2| + +C
2 2 x+2
R 2
2. dx
(x + 2)(x 2 + 3)
Solution
2 A B x +C Ax 2 + 3A + B x 2 +C x + 2B x + 2C
= + = .
(x + 2)(x 2 + 3) x + 2 x2 + 3 (x + 2)(x 2 + 3)
Equate the coefficients : A + B = 0, C + 2B = 0 and 3A + 2C = 2
4 2 2
Solving the system of equations we get C = , B = − , A = So
7 7 7
2 2 1 2 x 4 1
Z Z Z Z
d x = d x − + dx
(x + 2)(x 2 + 3) 7 x +2 7 x2 + 3 7 x2 + 3
To evaluate the first integral use substitution, letting u = x + 2, ⇒ d u = d x.
du
To evaluate the second integral use substitution, letting u = x 2 + 3, d u = 2xd x, ⇒ d x = .
p 2x
p
To evaluate the third integral, use the trigonometric substitution x = 3 tan(θ), ⇒ d x = 3 sec2 (θ)d θ.
2 2 1 2 x 4 1
Z Z Z Z
d x = d x − d x + dx
(x + 2)(x 2 + 3) 7 x +2 7 x2 + 3 7 x2 + 3
Z p
2 2 4 3 sec2 (x)d θ
= ln |x + 2| − ln |x 2 + 3| +
7 14 7 3 tan2 (x) + 3
2 1 4 x
= ln |x + 2| − ln |x2 + 3| + p arctan( p ) + C
7 7 7 3 3

R dx
3.
(x + 2)(x 2 + 2)
Solution: Decompose the fraction:
1 A B x +C
2
= + 2
(x + 2)(x + 2) x + 2 x +2
A(x 2 + 2) + (B x +C )(x + 2)
=
(x + 2)(x 2 + 2)
Ax + 2A + B x 2 + 2B x +C x + 2C
2
=
(x + 2)(x 2 + 2)

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4.2 Techniques of integration BDU

Equate the coefficients:

A + B = 0
2B + C = 0
2A + 2C = 1
1 1 1
Solve the system of equations: A = , B = − and C =
6 6 3
Rewrite the integral and solve:

dx 1 dx 1 xd x 1 dx
Z Z Z Z
2
= − 2
+ 2
(x + 2)(x + 2) 6 x + 2 6 x + 2 3 x + 2
du
Making the substitution u = x 2 + 2 d u = 2xd x dx = in the second integral and
2x
x dx p
p = tan(θ) p = sec2 (θ)d θ dx = 2 sec2 (θ)d θ
2 2
in the third integral, we have
Z p
dx 1 1 du 1 2 sec2 (θ)d θ
Z Z
= ln |x + 2| − +
(x + 2)(x 2 + 2) 6 6 2u 3 2(tan2 (θ) + 1)
p Z
1 1 2 sec2 (θ)d θ
= ln |x + 2| − ln |u| +
6 12 6 sec2 (θ)
p Z
1 1 2
= ln |x + 2| − ln |x 2 + 2| + dθ
6 12 6
p
1 1 2
= ln |x + 2| − ln |x 2 + 2| + θ +C
6 12 6
p
1 1 2 x
= ln |x + 2| − ln |x2 + 2| + arctan( p ) + C
6 12 6 2

dx
R
4. (x 2 +1)2 (x−1)
Solution: Decompose the fraction:
1 Ax + B Cx +D E
= 2 + +
(x 2 + 1)2 (x − 1) x + 1 (x 2 + 1)2 x − 1
(Ax + B )(x 2 + 1)(x − 1) + (C x + D)(x − 1) + E (x 2 + 1)2
=
(x 2 + 1)2 (x − 1)
(Ax + B )(x − x + x − 1) +C x 2 + (D −C )x − D + E (x 4 + 2x 2 + 1)
3 2
=
(x 2 + 1)2 (x − 1)
Ax + (B − A)x + (A − B )x 2 + (B − A)x − B +C x 2 + (D −C )x − D + E x 4 + 2E x 2 + E
4 3
=
(x 2 + 1)2 (x − 1)
Equate coefficients of x
A + E = 0
−A + B = 0
A − B + C + 2E = 0
−A + B − C + D = 0
− B − D + E = 0
1 1 1 1 1
Solve the system of equations we get A = − , E = , B = − , C = − and D = − . Rewrite the integral and solve
4 4 4 2 2
dx 1 xd x 1 dx 1 xd x 1 dx 1 dx
Z Z Z Z Z Z
= − − − − +
(x 2 + 1)2 (x − 1) 4 x 2 + 1 4 x 2 + 1 2 (x 2 + 1)2 2 (x 2 + 1)2 4 x − 1
Let’s solve each integral separately. To solve the first, use the substitution

du xd x du 1 1
Z Z
u = x 2 + 1; d u = 2xd x; dx = 2
= = ln |u| +C 1 = ln |x 2 + 1| +C 1
2x x +1 2u 2 2

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4.3 Definite integrals and its Properties BDU

To solve the second integral, use the substitution

dx sec2 (θ)d θ sec2 (θ)d θ

Z Z Z Z
x = tan(θ); d x = sec2 (θ)d θ 2
= = = d θ = θ +C 2 = arctan(x) +C 2
x +1 tan2 (θ) + 1 sec2 (θ)
du
To solve the third integral, use the substitution u = x 2 + 1; d u = 2xd x; dx = 2x

xd x du 1 1
Z Z
= =− +C 3 = − +C 3
(x 2 + 1)2 2u 2 2u 2(x 2 + 1)

To solve the fourth integral, use the substitution x = tan(θ); d x = sec2 (θ)d θ

dx sec2 (θ)d θ
Z Z
=
(x + 1)2
2 (tan2 (θ) + 1)2
sec2 (θ)d θ dθ
Z Z Z
= = = cos2 (θ)d θ
(sec2 (θ))2 sec2 (θ)
1 + cos(2θ) dθ 1
Z Z Z
= dθ = + cos(2θ)d θ
2 2 2
θ 1 θ 1
= + sin(2θ) +C 4 = + cos(θ) sin(θ) +C 4
2 4 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 x
= arctan(x) + cos(θ) sin(θ) +C 4 = arctan(x) + p p +C 4
2 2 2 2 1 + x2 1 + x2
1 x
= arctan(x) + +C 4
2 2(1 + x 2 )
To solve the last integral, use the substitution u = x − 1; du = dx

dx du
Z Z
= = ln |u| +C 5 = ln |x − 1| +C 5
x −1 u
Putting it all together, we have

dx 1 1 1 1 x 1
Z
= − (ln |x 2 + 1|) − arctan(x) + − (arctan(x) + ) + ln |x − 1| +C
(x 2 + 1)2 (x − 1) 8 4 4(x 2 + 1) 4 (1 + x 2 ) 4
1 1 1 1 x 1
= − ln |x 2 + 1| − arctan(x) + − arctan(x) − + ln |x − 1| +C
8 4 4(x 2 + 1) 4 4(1 + x 2 ) 4
(x − 1)2
µ ¶
1 1−x 1
= − arctan(x) + + ln +C
2 4(x2 + 1) 8 x2 + 1