Chapter 5

Handy Circuit
Analysis
Techniques

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 a linear circuit element has a linear voltage-
current relationship:
▪ if i(t) produces v(t), then Ki(t) produces Kv(t)
▪ if i1(t) produces v1(t) and i2(t) produces v2(t), then
i1(t) + i2(t) produces v1(t) + v2(t),
 resistors, sources are linear elements1
 a linear circuit is one with only linear elements
1Dependent sources need linear control equations to be linear elements.

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In a linear network, the voltage across or the current
through any element may be calculated by adding
algebraically all the individual voltages or currents
caused by the separate independent sources acting
“alone”, i.e. with
▪ all other independent voltage sources replaced by
short circuits and
▪ all other independent current sources replaced by
open circuits.

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 Leave one source ON and turn all other
sources OFF:
▪ voltage sources: set v=0.
These become short circuits.
▪ current sources: set i=0.
These become open circuits.
Find the response from this source.
 Add the resulting responses
to find the total response.
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Use superposition to solve for the current ix

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First, turn the current source off:

3
ix = = 0.2
6+9

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Then, turn the voltage source off:
6
ix = (2) = 0.8
6+9

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 i1 -3+6i1+9(i1+2)=0
i2
I1=(3-18)/15=-1

ix = ix + ix = 0.2 + 0.8 = 1.0

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Determine the maximum positive current to
which the source Ix can be set before any
resistor exceeds its power rating. 50mA

P=i2R
36.6mA

Solution on next slide

Answer: Ix<42.49 mA 62.5mA

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Maximum current magnitude in 100 resistor is 0.25 /100 = 50mA
Maximum current magnitude in 64 resistor is 0.25 / 64 = 62.5mA
Current from voltage source alone is 6/164 = 36.6mA flowing clockwise
64
Current in 100 from I x alone is I x flowing to the left.
164
64 64
Therefore 0.0366 − I x  0.05 or − 0.05  0.0366 − I x  0.05
164 164
221.9mA  I x  −34.33mA
100
Current in 64 from I x is I x flowing downward.
164
100 100
Therefore 0.0366 + I x  0.0625 or − 0.0625  0.0366 + I x  0.0625
164 164
−0.1625  I x  0.04247
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 When applying superposition to circuits with
dependent sources, these dependent sources
are never “turned off.”

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2ix’’+3+ix’’+2ix’’=0
I1-ix’’=3
I1=3+ix’’ -10+3ix`+2ix`=0
Ix’’=-3/5 Ix`=2A

current source off

voltage source off

ix = ix’+ix’’=2 + (−0.6) = 1.4 A

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 +
v`
-

3=v’’/2+v’’-(2ix’’) -v’+ix’+2ix’=0
ix’’=-v’’/2 -10+5ix’=0➔ix’=2
3=v’’/2+v’’+v’’ v’=6V
v‘’=12/10=1.2

V=v’+v’’=7.2 V

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 Ideal voltage sources: a first approximation
model for a battery.
 Why do real batteries have a current limit and
experience voltage drop as current increases?
 Two car battery models:

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For the car battery example:
VL = 12 – 0.01 IL

This line
represents all
possible RL

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The source has an internal resistance or output
resistance, which is modeled as Rs

short circuit current (when RL=0)

open circuit voltage (when RL=∞)

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The source has an internal parallel resistance
which is modeled as Rp

short circuit current (when RL=0)

open circuit voltage (when RL=∞)

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The sources are equivalent if
vs=isRs vs=isRp
Rs=Rp and vs=isRs

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 The circuits (a) and (b) are
equivalent at the terminals.
 If given circuit (a), but
circuit (b) is more
convenient, switch them!
 This process is called
source transformation.

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We can find the current I in the circuit below
using source transformation, as shown.

I = (45-3)/(5+4.7+3) = 3.307 mA
P5kΩ=(3+3.307*10.7)2/5 mW=295 mW P5kΩ=3.3072*5 mW=54.7 mW
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  Calculate the current through the 2Ω
resistor

5*3
3Vx*17
1*9

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23
 it would be incorrect to attempt a
source transformation using the
60Vsource and the 30 Ω resistor

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Thévenin’s theorem: a linear network can be
replaced by its Thévenin equivalent circuit, as
shown below:

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 We can repeatedly
apply source
transformation on
network A to find its
Thévenin equivalent
circuit.
 This method has
limitations- not all
circuits can be source
transformed.
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 Disconnect the load.
 Find the open circuit voltage voc
 Find the equivalent resistance Req of the
network with all independent sources turned
off.

Then:
VTH=voc and
RTH=Req
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One method to find the Thévenin equivalent of
a circuit with a dependent source: find Vo.c and
Is.c and solve for RTH=Vo.c / Is.c
Example:

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 -4+2000i+vx=0
Find Thevenin equivalent as seen by the open
terminals i=-vx/4000
-4+0.5vx=0➔Vx=Vth=8
1- disconnect the load➔? V
Isc=0.8 mA
2- Find the open terminals voltage=Vth=Vx=Vo.c
3- Find Is.c➔Rth=Voc/Is.c

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Finding the ratio VTH / Is.c fails when both
quantities are zero!
Vtest =-0.8=Rth
Solution: apply a test source. Rth=Vtest

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 v test v test − (1.5i)
+ =1
2 3
i = −1

Solve: vtest =0.6 V, and so RTH = 0.6 Ω



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Norton’s theorem: a linear network can be
replaced by its Norton equivalent circuit, as
shown below:

Vo.c.=Vth
Is.c=IN
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 Replace the load with a short circuit.
 Find the short circuit current isc
 Find the equivalent resistance Req of the
network with all independent sources turned
off.

Then:
IN=isc and RN=Req

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 The Thévenin and Norton equivalents are
source transformations of each other!

RTH=RN =Req and vTH=iNReq

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Find the Thévenin and Norton equivalents for
the network faced by the 1-kΩ resistor.
Answer: next slide
the
load
resistor

this is the circuit we will simplify

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 -4 -4+Vth=0
 Vth=8
 Rth=5 kΩ
 IN=8/5 mA
 OR
▪ 4/5+4/5 mA

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Thévenin Norton

Source
Transformation

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 Va
+
Vo.c
-
Ref
Find Thevenin equivalent as seen by the 2 A source

I=(Va+2)/7
21Va+3Va+6+7Va-28=0
2-2I+Vo.c=0
31Va=22➔ Va=22/31
2(22/31+2)/7-2
=-1.2 A
Rth=(3||1+5)||2

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 Va Vb

Find Thevenin equivalent as seen by the open terminals

Vth=Va-Vb
(Va+2)/2+(Va-Vb)/5=2
Vb+(Vb-Va)/5+(Vb-4)/3=0
Rth=(3||1+2)||5

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What load resistor will allow the practical
source to deliver the maximum power to the
load?
P=I2R
Answer: R =R
P=(Vs/(Rs+RL))s2*RL
L
dP/dR=0
[Solve dpL/dRL=0.]
RL=Rs=Rth
Pmax=(Vs2/4Rs)
Pmax=Vth2/(4Rth)
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 Vpi=2.32 mV
Vpi=2.32 mV Id=0.0696 mA Rth=1 kΩ
Vth=-0.0696 Is.c=-0.0696 mA Pmax=1.2μW
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 If Rth is negative ➔ the resistance to get
maximum power will be:
Rmax=-Rth instead of Rmax=Rth
Because a negative resistance does not absorb
power.
➔ I= Vth/0 ➔ P=∞

45
 The following resistors form a Δ:

 The following resistors form a Y:

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this Δ is equivalent to the Y if this Y is equivalent to the Δ if

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 How do we find the equivalent resistance of
the following network? Convert a Δ to a Y

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 use the Δ to Y
equations

use standard serial and parallel

combinations
6.5||(2+3/8)+0.5
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