INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Chapter one

1.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of research.
2. Explain the benefits of research.
3. Discuss the different types of research.
4. Come up with a suitable research topic.
5. Describe the components of as proposal
6. Come up with a suitable proposal.
7. Carry out the research process.

1.2 Defination
Research is defined as:
-A systematic method of inquiry for generating new knowledge, asking questions, highlighting new
experiences, solving problems and understanding current situations (Dewey, 1933).
-A scientific investigation to produce new knowledge
-A scientific investigation carried out to solve problems.
- Research is an organized and systematic way of find answers to questions.

Scientific research therefore relies on the application of the scientific methods for the purpose of satisfying
curiosity or to correct previous knowledge as well as to come up with a solution concerning a particular problem
within a topic of interest. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by
private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications
according to their academic and application disciplines.
Research methods refer to a process of creating a random sequence of steps to solve a particular problem. Example
the use of questionnaires, interviews as methods of data collection. Research methodology refers to a process of
acquiring solutions by means of a proven method in which selected cases are considered. In short, it refers to the
process of carrying out the research methods. Examples include asking open and closed ended questions while
conducting an interview, film taking, asking questions in focus group discussions e.t.c.

1.3 Characteristics of research.

 It is purposive
 It is systematic.
  It involves formulation and testing of hypotheses.
 It involves recording data and reporting of the findings.
 It is critical, logical and objectives

1.4 Aims of research

-For thorough testing of theories.
- To test hypotheses and lay solid foundations for future research and study.
- To establish the underlying causes and relationship between different occurrences.

1.5 Benefits of research

-Helps to identify research problems needing solutions.
-Helps to create new methods tools, ideas, practices.
-Discovering cures of a disease.
-Improve the quality of services offered.
-One obtains funding from donors to carry out the research.
-Research knowledge is transferred to the public.

1.6.0 Types of research

1.6.1 Quantitative research

This is research that involves numerical data. Mostly involves the study of relationship between different
populations. Data is usually in form of numbers and statistics. This research involves hypotheses testing. A study on
the prevalence or incidence of a particular disease is a practical example of qualitative research. Qualitative research
involves analysis of data that is in form of numbers. Other example of qualitative research include the study of the
number of people attending a certain hospital, number of people using a certain service in the work place e.t.c.

1.6.2 Qualitative research

This type of research is aimed to get a deeper understanding of the behavior of the subjects which may be animal or
human. Qualitative research aims at answering the questions of how and why, hence research questions are suitable
rather than hypotheses. For example, if a certain organization needs to amend the policies within the organization, it
may first carry out qualitative research to understand how the people feel about the current policies.

1.6.3 Basic research

This is research carried for the purpose of better understanding of a particular theory, law or subject. Basic research
does not aim at practical application of the findings to solve a problem in the area of research. Many times the end
results have no direct or immediate commercial benefits. For example, one may want to study the Big Bang Theory
so as to understand what happened at the beginning of the universe.However, this kind of research may give rise to a
research idea to solve practical problems within the society. Basic research is mainly carried out by learning
institutions. This type of research is not easily funded by donors.

1.6.4 Applied research or Action research

This is research undertaken to solve practical problem rather than for knowledge sake. Applied research is used to
find solutions to everyday problems, find treatment for illnesses, to come up with new technology e.t.c .This kind of
research is mostly in social sciences and health sciences. Applied research is easily funded as it aims at providing a
solution to a problem within an institution .Applied research can also be used as an evaluation method. The action
research process works through three basic phases:
Look - building a picture and gathering information. When evaluating we define and describe the problem to be
investigated and the context in which it is set. We also describe what all the participants (educators, group members,
managers etc.) have been doing.
Think – interpreting and explaining. When evaluating we analyze and interpret the situation. We reflect on what
participants have been doing. We look at areas of success and any deficiencies, issues or problems.
Action – resolving issues and problems. In evaluation we judge the worth, effectiveness, appropriateness, and
outcomes of those activities. We act to formulate solutions to any problems.

1.6.4.1 Types of Action or Applied research.

Impact Assessment Research:

The purpose of impact assessment research is to estimate the expected consequences after a change has been
implemented. It is used to plan and make choices from different policies. E.g. it can be used to assess the change in
environment by establishing a new sewerage or to find the change in housing after building a new highway.

Participatory action research (PAR):

This research aims at creating a positive change within a social group. This research is mostly applied in social and
educational research so as to solve real problems. There is dual commitment of both the researcher and the subjects.
The process involves first identifying the problem and collection of data so as to understand the magnitude of the
problem in detail. This is followed by collective (involving both the researcher and the study group) stipulation of
the possible solutions. From this step, a single plan of action emerges and is implemented. .Data based on the results
is collected so as to see the effect of the plan. This will help to see how effective the plan was. If the action was not
very effective, the problem is reassessed and a new implementation plan is enacted. Participatory action research
aims at making policies for the people with the people and not making policies for the people without the people.

Evaluative research:

Evaluation research seeks to evaluate the implementation and consequences of social programs. Evaluation has
become a widespread activity, internationally, notably in the social sciences. Evaluation is important as it keeps the
program on track and if there is need for amendments, this can be recognized in the process of evaluation.

Question that can be answered in improving evaluation include:

-What appears to be working so far?
-Do the benefits justify the cost?
-How much does it cost to implement the programme?
-Is the programme or intervention in place?

Formative evaluation:

Formative evaluation is used to judge if a certain program is worth and how valid and reliable it is. It is conducted in
small groups to see if the implemented policies are in line with the organizational goals and objectives. It is also
known as developmental evaluation or implementation evaluation. Formative
evaluations strengthen or improve the object being evaluated -- they help form it by examining the delivery of the
program or technology, the quality of its implementation, and the assessment of the organizational context,
personnel, procedures, inputs, and so on. Summative evaluations, in contrast, examine the effects or outcomes of
some object -- they summarize it by describing what happens subsequent to delivery of the program or technology;
assessing whether the object can be said to have caused the outcome; determining the overall impact of the causal
factor beyond only the immediate target outcomes; and, estimating the relative costs associated with the object. A
key distinction between formative and summative evaluation is that the former is designed to improve the current
product/process while the latter is intended for future improvements.

Formative evaluation includes several evaluation types:

 Needs assessment determines who needs the program, how great the need is, and what might work to meet
the need.
 evaluability assessment determines whether an evaluation is feasible and how stakeholders can help shape
its usefulness
 Structured conceptualization helps stakeholders define the program or technology, the target population,
and the possible outcomes.
 Implementation evaluation monitors the fidelity of the program or technology delivery.
 Process evaluation investigates the process of delivering the program or technology, including alternative
delivery procedures.
Summarative evaluation:
Summative evaluation provides information on the product's efficacy (its ability to do what it was designed to do).
Summative evaluation is typically quantitative, using numeric scores or letter grades to assess learner achievement.
Some advantages of summative evaluations include:
 They can, if designed correctly, provide evidence for a cause-and-effect relationship.
 They assess long-term effects.
 They provide data on impacts.
 They can provide data on change across time.

Revision questions

1. Describe the meaning of research.

2. Discuss the difference between formularize and summarative applied research.

3. Describe the benefits of research to the researcher and the society.

4. Describe the difference between qualitative and quantitative research.

5. State the differences between applied and basic research.

6. Give an example of a participatory action research and formative research.

7. State the difference between research methods and research methodology.

Chapter two

Research ideas/Research topic

2.0 Objectives
After reading this topic, you should be able to:
1. Come up with a suitable research topic.
2. Know suitable sources of research topics.
3. Identify the steps in selecting a research topic.
4. Differentiate between scholarly and non scholarly articles.

2.1 Introduction:
Finding a research topic is the first step before beginning any research. The identified research topic is
converted to research questions or a problem statement. For the research to be relevant, you
have to make sure that the research topic has benefits (or solutions) to a particular problem
within the society country or organization. This is especially important if the researcher
intends to seek funds from donors.
2.1.1 Selecting a research topic.
To select a research topic, you need to have ideas on what you intend to study. A gap in the
understanding of phenomenon may lead to the development of a hypothesis.
1. A topic may be developed by a researcher so as to satisfy their curiosity. This curiosity may
lead them to solving a particular practical or theoretical problem.Eg; researchers in the
world are still in the process of carrying out research so as to come up with a HIV/AIDS
vaccine.
2. A topic in research may also be developed due to the unsolved problems in the nation,
country or in a particular organization.E.g the effect of water pollution on the workers in a
certain industry. The main aim of such is to find an immediate solution to that particular
problem.
3. A research topic can also be developed as a result of an experience one had encountered
before.E.g the effect of stress during pregnancy. This may provoke the researcher to want to
study on such an area so as to raise awareness and to provide possible solutions.
4. Trying out new methods: One may develop a research topic so as to enable them to try out a
new method to see how reliable it could be as compared to the previous method.E.g the use
of an alternative method of drug administration. Such type of a research topic may be
developed if the researcher has found shortcomings in the previous method used and want to
provide a solution
5. Social issues may also lead the researcher to come up with a research topic.E.g one may
want to study the role of village elders within a society, why the youth are so rebellious to
the authority,illetracy within a country e.t.c
 Sources of research ideas include literature. This further includes historical records, books, journals,
scientific papers, magazines, government reports e.t.c
As you read literature, you identify missing information that may lead you to identifying the gap of
knowledge that you will desire to fill, hence you come up with a research topic.
The community, nation states and society are also sources of research ideas as they have some practical
problems that may require solutions e.g. unemployment, global recession education e.t.c

2.2 Steps in identifying a suitable research topic.

Step 1.Identify a suitable topic:

State your topic idea as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about use of alcoholic
beverages by college students, you might pose the question, "What effect does use of alcoholic beverages
have on the health of college students?”. Identify the main concepts or keywords in your question. In this
case they are alcoholic beverages, health, and college students.

Step 2: Test your topic

Test the main concepts or keywords in your topic by looking them up in the appropriate background sources .If you
are finding too much information and too many sources, narrow your topic by using the and operator: beer and
health and college students, for example. Finding too little information may indicate that you need to broaden your
topic. For example, look for information on students, rather than college students. Link synonymous search terms
with or: alcoholic beverages or beer or wine or liquor. Using truncation with search terms also broadens the search
and increases the number of items you find.

Step 3: Finding the background information

Once you have identified the main topic and keywords for your research, find one or more sources of background
information to read. These sources will help you understand the broader context of your research and tell you in
general terms what is known about your topic. The most common background sources are encyclopedias and
dictionaries from the print and online reference collection. Class textbooks also provide background information.

Step 4: Use indexes to find periodical articles

Use periodical indexes and abstracts to find citations to articles. The indexes and abstracts may be in print or
computer-based formats or both. Choose the indexes and format best suited to your particular topic; ask at the
reference desk if you need help figuring out which index and format will be best. You can find periodical articles by
the article author, title, or keyword by using the periodical indexes in the Library home page.

STEP 6: Evaluate what you find.

If you have found too many or too few sources, you may need to narrow or broaden your topic. Check with a
reference librarian or your instructor. Ensure you critically analyze information sources by asking yourself the
following question;

 What are the author's credentials--institutional affiliation (where he or she works), educational background,
past writings, or experience? Is the book or article written on a topic in the author's area of expertise?
 Has your instructor mentioned this author? Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or
bibliographies? Respected authors are cited frequently by other scholars. For this reason, always note those
names that appear in many different sources.
 Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organization? What are the basic values or goals of
the organization or institution?
 When was the source published? This date is often located on the face of the title page below the name of
the publisher. If it is not there, look for the copyright date on the reverse of the title page.
 Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic? Topic areas of continuing and rapid development, such
as the sciences, demand more current information. On the other hand, topics in the humanities often require
material that was written many years ago. At the other extreme, some news sources on the Web now note
the hour and minute that articles are posted on the information covered fact, opinion, or propaganda? It is
not always easy to separate fact from opinion. Facts can usually be verified; opinions, though they may be
based on factual information, evolve from the interpretation of facts.
 Is the publication organized logically? Are the main points clearly presented? Do you find the text easy to
read, or is it stilted or choppy? Is the author's argument repetitive?

Scholarly journals are also called academic, peer-reviewed, or refereed journals.

They are often required or strongly recommended by supervisors at the college level for use in writing research
papers and projects
Scholarly journal articles often have an abstract, a descriptive summary of the article contents, before the main text
of the article. As a researcher, one must know the difference between scholarly and non scholarly work. The
following points will guide you to identifying a scholarly article:
 Usually longer articles, providing in-depth analysis of topics.
 The author is usually an expert in the field and their name and credentials are almost always provided.
 Written in the jargon of the field for scholarly readers (professors, researchers or students).
 Articles may include these specific sections: abstract, literature review, methodology, results, conclusion,
and bibliography
 Articles usually reviewed and critically evaluated by a board of experts in the field (refereed).
 A bibliography (works cited) and/or footnotes are always provided to document research thoroughly.

Revision questions
1. Briefly discuss four sources of research topics.
2. Outline the steps in identifying a suitable research topic.
3. Describe factors that will help you to differentiate between a scholarly and a non scholarly article.
Activity 1
Follow the steps of identifying a suitable research topic and come up with research topic.

Chapter 3
Problem statement
Objectives:
1. Define a problem statement in reference to research.
2. Understand the purpose of problem statement in research.
3. Learn the common sources of research problems.
4. State the elements of a problem statement.
5. Differentiate between specific and general objectives.

3.1 Introduction
A problem statement is the description of an issue currently existing which needs to be addressed. It provides the
context for the research study and generates the questions which the research aims to answer. This is the central
point of any research and it generates the questions that the researcher aims to answer. A well articulated problem
statement establishes the foundation for everything to follow in the proposal. As a researcher you need to be clear
and precise on the statement of the problem and be ready to clearly elaborate on what the problem is.

Clearly indicate why your problem is an important one by answering questions such as these:

 Is the problem of current interest? Is it topical?

 Is the problem likely to continue into the future?
 Will more information about the problem have practical application?
 Will more information about the problem have theoretical importance?
 How large is the population affected by the problem?
 How important, influential, or popular is this population?
 Would this study substantially revise or extend existing knowledge?
 Would this study create or improve an instrument of some utility?
 Would research findings lead to some useful change in best practice?
 Is there evidence or authoritative opinion from others to support the need for this research?

The problem statement should persuasively indicate that major variables can be measured in some meaningful way.
If you can identify likely objections to the study, identify and respond to them here. A good problem statement
should not exceed one page on the proposal.

Elements of the statement of the problem include:

 The problem itself, stated clearly and with enough contextual detail to establish why it is important.
 The purpose, statement of objective and scope of the project being proposed.

 The method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim or working thesis

Common sources of research problems include:

1. Various theories in the discipline of the researcher.

2. A reproduction of past research studies.

3. Personal experience.

3.2 Objectives
The objectives summarize what is to be achived.They should be closely related to the problem statement. In
research, there are two types of objectives.
3.2.1 General objective:
States what researchers expect to achieve by the study in general terms. The general objective is directly derived
from the research topic. For example if your topic is Prevalence of malaria among children 0-5 years in Mwea
division, the general objective will therefore be; to study the prevalence of malaria among children 0-5 years in
Mwea division.

3.2.2 Specific objectives:

Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under ‘Statement of
the Problem’ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem. They should specify what you
will do in your study, where and for what purpose. Example:
1. To determine the main species of malaria parasite in Mwea division.
2. To determine the effect of malaria infection on hemoglobin levels in children 0-5 years in Mwea division.

NB: The objectives should be clearly stated and should be achievable within the period the researcher will be
conducting their study. Hence for beginners they should limit themselves to a maximum of four objectives.

Revision questions
1. State the elements of a problem statement
2. Outline the factors to consider for a problem statement to be considered of importance.
3. State the differences between specific and general objectives.

Activity 2
From your research topic in activity one, write down your problem statement.
State the general and three specific objectives.

Chapter 4

Hypothesis/ research questions

Objectives:
1. Define the term hypothesis.
2. Understand the characteristics of a good hypothesis.
3. Learn the differences between null and alternative hypotheses.
4. Learn the statistical methods of hypotheses testing.
4.1 Introduction:
A hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect will be the
outcomes of your study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study may be designed to be exploratory.
There is no formal hypothesis, and perhaps the purpose of the study is to explore some area more thoroughly in
order to develop some specific hypothesis or prediction that can be tested in future research. A single study may
have one or more hypotheses.

4.2Characteristics of a good hypothesis

1. It should be narrow.
2. It should be capable of being tested.
3. It should state the relationship between variables if it happens to be a relational hypothesis.
4. It should be clear and precise.
5. Hypotheses should be amendable to testing within a reasonable time.
6. It should correspond with existing knowledge.
7. It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the phenomenon.
4.3Types of hypothesis
4.3.1 Null hypothesis:
This is often the reverse of what the experimenter actually believes. For example if the experimenter believes that
there is a relationship between school drop outs and alcoholism, then the null hypothesis will be: There is no
relationship between alcoholism and absenteeism in school. In research the null hypothesis is usually denoted as H 0

4.3.2 Alternative hypothesis:

This is a statement that has been put forward so as to agree with what one is set to establish. In summary, the
alternative hypothesis is usually the contradiction of the null hypothesis. It is usually denoted as H 1 or Ha. Example:
There is a relationship between alcoholism and absenteeism in school.
It is important to note that both the null and the alternative hypothesis cannot be true, hence one must accept one and
reject the other.
Hypotheses are usually derived from the research topic
4.4 Hypothesis testing
Statistical tests must be carried out so as to determine if to accept or reject a hypothesis.
Examples of statistical tests include:

4.4.1 Chi-square test:

Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with data we would expect to obtain
according to a specific hypothesis. It is always used for testing the null hypothesis, which states that there is no
significant difference between the expected and observed result. The formula for calculating chi-square (X 2) is:

X2= (o-e) 2/e

O=Observed

E=Expected.

4.4.2 Z-test.

A Z-test is any statistical test for which the distribution of the test statistic under the null hypothesis can be
approximated by a normal distribution (A theoretical frequency distribution for a set of variable data, usually
represented by a bell-shaped curve symmetrical about the mean. Also called Gaussian distribution).

4.4.3 F-test:

The F-test is designed to test if two population variances are equal.

4.5 Computer applications:

4.5.1 Ms-Excel

Excel is an electronic spreadsheet program that can be used for storing, organizing and manipulating data. When you
look at the Excel screen (refer to the example on this page) you see a rectangular table or grid of rows and columns.
The horizontal rows are identified by numbers (1, 2, 3) and the vertical columns with letters of the alphabet (A, B,
C). For columns beyond 26, columns are identified by two or more letters such as AA, AB, and AC.

The intersection point between a column and a row is a small rectangular box known as a cell. A cell is the basic
unit for storing data in the spreadsheet. Because an Excel spreadsheet contains thousands of these cells, each is
given a cell reference or address to identify it. The types of data that a cell can hold include numbers, text or
formulas. Just as in math class, formulas are used for calculations usually involving data contained in other cells.
Excel and other electronic spreadsheets include a number of built in formulas used for common tasks known as
functions.

4.5.6 Statistical packages of social scientists (SPSS).

SPSS is a computer program used for statistical analysis. It is among the most widely used programs for statistical
analysis in social science.

4.6 Decision Errors

Two types of errors can result from a hypothesis test.

  Type I error. A Type I error occurs when the researcher rejects a null hypothesis when it is true. The
probability of committing a Type I error is called the significance level. This probability is also called
alpha, and is often denoted by α.

 Type II error. A Type II error occurs when the researcher fails to reject a null hypothesis that is false. The
probability of committing a Type II error is called Beta, and is often denoted by β. The probability of not
committing a Type II error is called the Power of the test.

4.7 One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests

A test of a statistical hypothesis, where the region of rejection is on only one side of the sampling distribution is
called a one-tailed test. For example, suppose the null hypothesis states that the mean is less than or equal to 15.
The alternative hypothesis would be that the mean is greater than 15. The region of rejection would consist of a
range of numbers located on the right side of sampling distribution; that is, a set of numbers greater than 15.

A test of a statistical hypothesis, where the region of rejection is on both sides of the sampling distribution, is called
a two-tailed test. For example, suppose the null hypothesis states that the mean is equal to 15. The alternative
hypothesis would be that the mean is less than 15 or greater than 15. The region of rejection would consist of a range
of numbers located on both sides of sampling distribution; that is, the region of rejection would consist partly of
numbers that were less than 15 and partly of numbers that were greater than 15.

Revision questions

1. Define the term hypotheses.

2. State the differences between null and alternative hypotheses.

3. State and explain the two types of errors that can result from a hypotheses test.

4. State four ways of hypotheses testing.

Activity 3:

From your previously selected topic, formulate your null and alternative hypotheses.

Chapter five

Literature review
Objectives:
1. Understand the steps in conducting literature review.
2. Write the chapter on literature review.
3. Use deductive and inductive knowledge to argue the existence of a problem.
5.1 Introduction
A literature review is a summary of research that has been published about a particular subject though it usually has
an organizational pattern. It provides the reader with an idea about the current situation in terms of what has been
done, and what we know. Sometimes it includes suggestions about what needs to be done to increase the knowledge
and understanding of a particular problem.
The literature review enables you to clarify your ideas about the topic. It also enables you to find out what others
have studied concerning your topic and what can still be done. This chapter summarizes:
 Literature that shows how the problem was identified.
 Literature revealing how much the researcher knows about the problem.
 Theoretical and conceptual frame work.
 Benefits of solving the problem.
 Testable hypotheses, both new and old
 Importance of studying the topic.
 Literature to justify what gains or losses will occur if the problem is not solved.
 Current and previous studies of variables under study that shows ways in which othr researchers have
treated the problem.
Some questions you may think about as you develop your literature review:
 What is known about the subject you are interested in conducting research?
 Are there any gaps in the knowledge of the subject?
 Have areas of further study been identified by other researchers that you may want to consider?
 Who are the significant research personalities in this area?
 Is there consensus about the topic?
 What aspects have generated significant debate on the topic?
 What methods or problems were identified by others studying in the field and how might they impact your
research?
 What is the most productive methodology for your research based on the literature you have reviewed?
 What is the current status of research in this area?
 What sources of information or data were identified that might be useful to you?

5.2 Writing literature review.

The process entails:
1. Citing the author of the book or article, year of study and the page.
2. Making clear and logical presentation of the past research work published up to that time
3. Description of variables using significant findings by past researcher.
4. Showing the foundation of the theory, theoretical and conceptual frame work and hypotheses.
5. Convincing the reader that the researcher has knowledge concerning the subject
5.3 Steps in conducting literature review
Step 1: The first step of conducting literature review is selecting your topic. This will enable you only obtain
relevant material. A research topic is selected based on the methods discussed in the previous chapter.

Step 2: Search the literature concerning your topic. Go to the library or do online search. Use general descriptors to
begin your search (e.g. malaria).Make your descriptors more specific and in line to your topic as you find out what
information is available. Always focus on recent
Rely on scholarly sources. These are sources that contain a serious detailed study on a particular topic. Examples
include: The journal of the American Medical Association, British journal of sociology e.t.c

Step 3: Evaluating content

This involves finding the most significant literature in your field of study. Focus on sources that have been published
by experts in that field. Start by reading the abstract to see if you want to continue reading the entire article. Read
the discussion part to try and identify the strengths and weaknesses and a possible way forward.

Step 4: Synthesizing knowledge

This involves developing the argument, build your case and evaluate the various parts
Of your argument

Step 5: Critique the literature:

Look for logical interpretations of evidence to produce propositions that signal a specific conclusion.

Step 6: Write your review.

Write it to understand, that is, to develop and understand your topic and to be understood as well. If necessary,
redraft the content; you want to make sure your work accurately and adequately communicate the ideas to your
readers.
5.4 Source of literature
5.4.1 Scientific journal
This is a publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. Scientific
journals contain articles that have been peer-reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's
standards of quality, and scientific validity. Examples include:
 Journal of Scientific Psychology.
 American Journal of hematology and oncology.
 European Journal of organic chemistry.
 Expert review of anticancer therapy
Other sources include books, magazines, historical records, newspaper e.t.c
Revision questions
1. State the role of literature review in research.
2. State four sources of literature.
3. Outline the process of conducting literature review.
4. Briefly give a summary of literature review in research.
Activity 4
Carry out an extensive literature review on your previously selected topic.Rember to carefully note your source of
information.
Chapter six
Methodology
Objectives:
1. To be able to select an appropriate research design, data collection methods, tools and instrumentation to be used
in research.
2. To be able to apply the research methods in your research project.
3. To be able to conduct data analysis.

4Describe various data collection techniques and state their uses and limitations.

5. Identify various sources of bias in data collection and ways of preventing bias.

6 Identify ethical issues involved in the implementation of research and ways of ensuring that your research
informants or subjects are not harmed by your study.

6.0 Introduction:
You need to identify an appropriate research design, understand the research methods, tools and instruments so as to
conduct a successful research. This section simply describes the methods that you are going to use in order to carry
out your research. It should be clearly elaborated to enable another researcher to follow the same procedure and be
able to obtain similar finding and draw the same conclusions without any difficulty. The methodology chapter
should include the following sub sections

6.1 Area of study

This defines the limit where the research will be carried out. You need to know where the population will be found
so as to identify the study area. When describing the study area, the following should be included
 Vegetation of the area.
 Transport structures/modes of transport.
 Economic and social activities within the area.
 Size of the area (in hectares)
  A map of the geographical coverage of the area.
 Towns within the area.

Study sites: This is a detailed description of places where you are going to conduct your research. This includes a
description of specific groups, and places such as towns villages e.t.c
6.2 Study population
Population refers to the specific set of people, animals, elements, events microorganisms or services that will be
involved in the study. The population should be well described in detail. The researcher should identify and describe
the characteristics of the population involved in the study. A sample (subjects) of the study will then be drawn from
the population.
6.3 Sample design and sample size
Sampling is the use of a subset of the entire population. It is usually done as it is not possible to study the entire
population as this would be tedious, expensive and time consuming.
There are many types of sampling procedures which are determined by factors such as:
 The objectives of the study
 The nature of the research(qualitative or quantitative)
 Experience of the researcher
 The research questions
 Where detailed analysis of the sample is required
During the process of sampling there may be bias in sampling. These are the data errors that may occur hence
resulting to false finding. Bias in sampling can be due to

 Faulty research instruments(e.g. rulers, measuring tapes, weighing scales)

 Non responses
 Late return of questionnaires
 False information from the respondents
 Biasness of the interviewer concerning a certain culture or political differences
6.4Types of sampling methods
6.4.1 Simple random sampling
Each item in the population has the same probability of being selected as part of the sample as any other item.
This is usually achieved by the use of computers that will generate the table of random numbers. The lottery
method can also be used. In this method, names of the subject or objects, in the population frame are written on
pieces of paper and put in a container .The pieces of paper are then thoroughly mixed so as each item has an
equal chance of being selected. Random sampling can be done with or without replacement. If done without
replacement, an item is not returned in the population after being selected and thus can only occur once in the
sample.
6.4.2 Systematic sampling
 Every nth element from the list is selected as the sample is, starting with a sample element n randomly selected
from the first k elements. For example if a population has 1000 elements and a sample size of 100 is needed,
then k would be 1000/100=10.If number 5 is randomly selected from the first ten elements on the list, the
sample would continue down the list selecting the 5th element from each group of ten elements
6.4.3 Cluster sampling
Also known as block sampling. In cluster sampling, the population that is being selected is divided into groups
known as clusters. Instead of these groups being homogenous based on a certain criteria, a cluster is as
heterogeneous as possible to match the population. For example all the clusters in the population are listed (e.g.
Hospitals, markets, restraunts, and colleges).Subjects are then selected from each cluster ensuring that the
selected subjects are a representative of the entire population.
6.4.4 Stratified sampling
The population is first divided into subgroups known as the strata based on mutually exclusive criteria. Random
or systematic samples are then taken from each of the subgroup (stratum).The sampling fraction for each of the
subgroup may be taken in the same proportion as the subgroup has in the population. For example, if 40
students are to be selected,5%are first years,25%are second years,60%are third years and 10% are fourth years,
then 2 first years,10 second years 24 third years and 4 fourth years will be selected randomly so as to be part of
the sample population of 40.Statified sampling can also sample an equal number of items from each subgroup.
Advantages over other sampling methods include;
1. Improves the accuracy/efficiency of estimation
2. Permits greater balancing of statistical power of tests of differences between strata by sampling equal numbers
from strata varying widely in size.
3. Allows use of different sampling techniques for different subpopulations.
4. Focuses on important subpopulations and ignores irrelevant ones.

Disadvantages

1. Requires selection of relevant stratification variables which can be difficult.

2. Is not useful when there are no homogeneous subgroups.
3. Can be expensive to implement.

6.4.5 Quota sampling

In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups, just as in stratified sampling.
Quota sampling is useful when time is limited, a sampling frame is not available and the budget is very tight or
when detailed accuracy is not important. One can also choose how samples to be obtained from each category. The
problem with quota sampling is that you have to decide the characteristic on which you will base your quota (e.g.
age, sex tribe, occupation)
6.4.6 Multistage sampling

This is a complex form of cluster sampling. Two or more levels of the units are imbedded one into the other. For
example geographic areas(primary units), factories(secondary units),employees(tertiary units).At each stage, a
sample of the corresponding unit is selected. At first, a sample of primary units is selected, then, in each of those
selected, a sample of secondary units is selected, and so on. All ultimate units (individuals, for instance) selected at
the last step of this procedure are then surveyed. The reasons for adopting such a design may be reducing costs, for
example, when interviewers are assigned to persons located in a restricted area, or reducing the sample error. Multi-
stage sampling is sometimes used when no general sample frame exists. In this case, a first step is to select, at
random, a sample of areas, collective units, or villages from a list where they are all registered (primary units). Then,
for each selected primary unit, a comprehensive enumeration of all units of lower rank is made, thus obtaining a
local sample frame among which a sample of secondary units will be selected.

6.4.7 Purposive sampling

Subjects are selected because of some characteristic. Purposive sampling targets a particular group of people. When
the desired population for the study is rare or very difficult to locate and recruit for a study, purposive sampling may
be the only option. For example, you are interested in studying cognitive processing speed of young adults who have
suffered closed head brain injuries in automobile accidents. This would be a difficult population to find.

6.4.8 Snowball sampling

This sampling method is used if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a very small subgroup of the
population. This type of sampling technique works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the
researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest.

The process is much like asking your subjects to nominate another person with the same trait as your next subject.
The researcher then observes the nominated subjects and continues in the same way until the obtaining sufficient
number of subjects.

For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the researcher may opt to use
snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects. It is also possible that the patients with the same
disease have a support group; being able to observe one of the members as your initial subject will then lead you to
more subjects for the study. The process is cheap and cost efficient and needs little planning. The disadvantages of
this method are that the researcher has little control over this method and the representative of the sample is not
guaranteed.

6.5 Data collection methods

Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our objects of study (people, objects,
phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our
research questions in a conclusive way.

Example:

Various data collection techniques can be used such as:

 Using available information

 Observing
 Interviewing (face-to-face)
 Administering written questionnaires
 Focus group discussions
 Projective techniques, mapping, scaling

6.5.1 Using available information

Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it may not necessarily
have been analyzed or published. Locating these sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in
any data collection effort.

For example, analysis of the information routinely collected by health facilities can be very useful for identifying
problems in certain interventions or in flows of drug supply, or for identifying increases in the incidence of certain
diseases.

Analysis of health information system data, census data, unpublished reports and publications in archives and
libraries or in offices at the various levels of health and health-related services, may be a study in itself. Usually,
however, it forms part of a study in which other data collection techniques are also used.

6.5.2 Interviews

Types of interviews

Face to face interview

An interview is used to obtain information from one person about particular situations, problems or topics. This kind
of interview involves a direct meeting between interviewer and interviewee. The interview can be structured or
semi-structured.
The structured interview is designed to elicit specific responses to specific questions. Responses to a structured
interview will normally be easier to quantify and interpret since uniform questions tend to yield a narrower range of
responses. The semi-structured interview uses open-ended questions to explore broad issues in a non-directive, non-
threatening manner.

Advantages

1. The main advantage of face-to-face or direct interviews is that the researcher can adapt the questions as necessary,
clarify doubt and ensure that the responses are properly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the questions.

2. The researcher can also pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent. Any discomfort, stress and problems that the
respondent experiences can be detected through frowns, nervous taping and other body language, unconsciously
exhibited by any person.

Disadvantages
1. The main disadvantages of face-to-face interviews are the geographically limitations they may impose on the
surveys and the vast resources needed if such surveys need to be done nationally or internationally.

2. The costs of training interviewers to minimize interviewer's biases for example differences in questioning
methods, interpretation of response are also high.

3. Respondents might feel uneasy about the anonymity of their responses when they interact during face to face
interviews.

Telephone interviews

This is a prescheduled interview that takes place between the interviewer and the interviewee. Unlike the face to
face interview, there is no meeting with the parties involved

Advantages

1. Telephone interview enable a researcher to gather information rapidly.

2. Wide geographical access. People from all over the globe can be accessed.

3. The people are likely to cooperate due to the confidentiality involved.

4. Access to dangerous or politically sensitive areas.

Disadvantages.
1. Some people may not have telephones

2. People often dislike the intrusion of a call to their home.

3. Telephone interviews need to be relatively short otherwise the people will feel imposed upon.

4. Many people do not have publicly listed telephone numbers

5. The interviewer has no view on the situation in which the interviewee is situated. Because of this the interviewer
has lesser possibilities to create a good interview ambience.

E-Mailed interviews.

Advantages

1. There is extended access to participants.

2. The questionnaire may be handed to the respondents or mailed to them, but in all cases they are returned to the
researcher via mail.

3. Cost is very low, since bulk postage is cheap in most countries.

4. Respondents can answer at their own convenience.

5. No interviewer bias introduced

6. Large amount of information can be obtained: some mail surveys are as long as 50 pages

Disadvantages

1. Long time delays, often several months, before the surveys are returned and statistical analysis can begin

3. Not suitable for issues that may require clarification

6.5.3 Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of
gathering information from respondents.

Advantages
1. The responses are gathered in a standardized way, so questionnaires are more objective unlike interviews.

2. Generally it is relatively quick to collect information a questionnaire. However in some situations they can take a
longtime not only to design but also to apply and analyze.

3. Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-face interviews especially for studies involving
large sample sizes and large geographic areas. Written questionnaires become even more cost effective as the
number of research questions increases.

4. They are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all surveys can be easily done with many computer
software packages.

5. Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone has had some experience completing questionnaires
and they generally do not make people apprehensive.

6. Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no middle-man bias. The researcher's own
opinions will not influence the respondent to answer questions in a certain manner. There are no verbal or visual
clues to influence the respondent.

7. Questionnaires are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys. When a respondent receives a
questionnaire in the mail, he is free to complete the questionnaire on his own time-table. Unlike other research
methods, the respondent is not interrupted by the research instrument

Disadvantages

Questionnaires, like many evaluation methods occur after the event, so participants may forget

Important issues.

Questionnaires are standardized so it is not possible to explain any points in the questions that participants might
misinterpret. This could be partially solved by piloting the questions on a small group of students or at least friends
and colleagues. It is advisable to do this anyway.
Open-ended questions can generate large amounts of data that can take a long time to process and analyze. One
way of limiting this would be to limit the space available to students so their responses are concise or to sample the
students and survey only a portion of them.
Respondents may answer superficially especially if the questionnaire takes a long time to complete. The common
mistake of asking too many questions should be avoided.
Students may not be willing to answer the questions. They might not wish to reveal the information or they might
think that they will not benefit from responding perhaps even be penalized by giving their real opinion. Students
should be told why the information is being collected and how the results will be beneficial. They should be asked to
reply honestly and told that if their response is negative this is just as useful as a more positive opinion. If possible
the questionnaire should be anonymous

1. Open ended or unstructured (qualitative)

The interviewee is at liberty to answer the questions without any limitation. Examples

 Tell me about yourself.

 Why do you indulge in alcohol

 What is your opinion on traditional birth attendants?

2. Semi- structured

Semi-structured interviews are conducted with a fairly open framework which allow for focused, conversational,
two-way communication. They can be used both to give and receive information. A semi-structured interview is
flexible, allowing new questions to be brought up during the interview as a result of what the interviewee says. The
interviewer in a semi-structured interview generally has a framework of themes to be explored.

3. Structured questionnaires.

The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same
order. This ensures that answers can be reliably aggregated and that comparisons can be made with confidence
between sample subgroups or between different survey periods. The answers are answered in on way (e.g. yes or no)
4. Focus group discussion

This is a form of qualitative research method where people from similar backgrounds or experiences (e.g., mothers,
HIV/AIDS patients, students) are brought together to discuss a specific topic of interest to the investigator(s).
Homogeneous samples are preferred because mixing age/ gender groups may inhibit some people, especially
women, from expressing their views. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free
to talk with other group members. The main characteristic of a focus group is the interaction between the moderator
and group, as well as the interaction between members. The objective is to give the researcher an understanding of
the participants’ perspective on the topic in the discussion. Focus groups are rapidly gaining popularity in health and
medical research.

Advantages of focus groups include:

 Quick, cheap and relatively easy to assemble

 Good for getting rich data in participants' own words and developing deeper insights
  People are able to build on one another's responses and come up with ideas they might not have thought of
in a 1-on-1 interview
 Good for obtaining data from children and/or people with low levels of literacy
 Provides an opportunity to involve people in data analysis (e.g. "Out of the issues we have talked about,
which ones are most important to you?")
 Participants can act as checks and balances on one another - identifying factual errors or extreme views

Limitations of focus groups include:

 The responses of each participant are not independent

 A few dominant focus group members can skew the session
 Focus groups require a skilled and experienced moderator
 The data which results from a focus group requires skill and experience to analyze

6.5.4 Observation

Observational research techniques solely involve the researcher or researchers making observations.

To develop an observation tool, you want first to establish the indicators for the observation. Indicators are based on
what you expect to find in the environment, product or process as a result of your program. The second thing you
want to do is consider each of the indicators and measure them for their presence or absence, and then, their quality.
The observed resorts may be recorded by methods such as video taping, taking notes or counting occurrences

Advantages
1. In terms of validity, observation findings are considered strong as compared to other methods because the
researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior.
Disadvantages
1. There are problems with reliability. Reliability refers the extent that observations can be replicated. Seeing
behaviors occur over and over again may be a time consuming task.
2. There is a possibility of the researcher being bias. Often; it is assumed that the researcher may see what they want
to see.
6.6 Data presentation
6.6.1 Pie charts
A pie chart (or a circle graph) is a circular chart that is divided into sectors, illustrating proportion. In a pie chart, the
arc length of each sector (and consequently its central angle and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents.
Pie charts can be an effective way of displaying information in some cases, in particular if the intent is to compare
the size of a slice with the whole pie, rather than comparing the slices among them. Below is an example of a pie
chart
6.6.2 Histograms

The histogram provides a graphical summary of the shape of the data's distribution. It often is used in combination
with other statistical summaries such as the boxplot, which conveys the median, quartiles, and range of the data.
Below is an example of a histogram.

6.6.3 Scatter plots

Scatter plots show the relationship between two variables by displaying data points on a two-dimensional graph. The
variable that might be considered an explanatory variable is plotted on the x axis, and the response variable is plotted
on the y axis.
Scatter plots are especially useful when there is a large number of a data point. They provide the following
information about the relationship between two variables:

 Strength
 Shape - linear, curved, etc.
 Direction - positive or negative
 Presence of outliers

A correlation between the variables results in the clustering of data points along a line. The following is an example

of a scatter plot suggestive of a positive linear relationship.

6.7 Variables in research.

A variable is any measured characteristic or attribute that differs for different subjects. For example, if height of 50
subjects was to be measured, then height would be a variable.
Independent variable
The independent variable is the variable that is representing the value being manipulated or changed. It is what the
experimenter changes so as to carry out an experiment.
This is what the experimenter changes or enacts in order to carry out the experiment
For instance: if you are measuring the growth rate of bacteria under aerobic conditions for 12 hours a day versus
bacteria that is only exposed to aerobic conditions for 6 hours, the amount of time per day that the bacteria is
exposed to aerobic conditions per day is the independent variable-the value that you control. The growth rate of the
bacteria would be a dependent variable.
Dependent variable
The dependent variable is what changes when the independent variable changes ( the dependent variable depends on
the outcome of the independent variable). Example: You are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans.
Your independent variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would be the heart rate. You can directly
manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how those stress levels change heart rate.
Extraneous and Confounding Variables

The independent and dependent variables are not the only variables present in many experiments. In some cases,
extraneous variables may also play a role. This type of variable is one that may have an impact on the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables.

For example, in our previous description of an experiment on the effects of sleep deprivation on test performance,
other factors such as age, gender and academic background may have an impact on the results. In such cases, the
experimenter will note the values of these extraneous variables so this impact on the results can be controlled for.

There are two basic types of extraneous variables:

 Participant Variables: These extraneous variables are related to individual characteristics of each
participant that may impact how he or she responds. These factors can include background differences,
mood, anxiety, intelligence, awareness and other characteristics that are unique to each person.
 Situational Variables: These extraneous variables are related to things in the environment that may impact
how each participant responds. For example, if a participant is taking a test in a chilly room, the
temperature would be considered an extraneous variable. Some participants may not be affected by the
cold, but others might be distracted or annoyed by the temperature of the room.

In many cases, extraneous variables are controlled for by the experimenter. In the case of participant variables, the
experiment might select participants that are the same in background and temperament to ensure that these factors
do not interfere with the results. If, however, a variable cannot be controlled for, it becomes what is known as a
confounding variable. This type of variable can have an impact on the dependent variable, which can make it
difficult to determine if the results are due to the influence of the independent variable, the confounding variable or
an interaction of the two.

Revision questions.
1. Define a variable in reference to research.
2. State the differences between an independent and a dependent variable.
3. State three ways of data presentation.
4. State three ways of data analysis.
5. Give a summary of conducting research methodology.
6. Discuss three types of questionnaires.
7. State the difference between random sampling and stratified sampling.

Activity 6.
1. Give a brief summary of how you are going to conduct your research.
2. Identify your variables and differentiate between the dependent and independent variable.
3. Identify the methods that you will use for your data analysis and presentation.
Chapter 8
Citing authors in research
Objective:
1. Learn the different formats of quoting references in research.

8.0. Introduction:
To avoid plagiarism in research projects, a researcher is required to acknowledge the sources of words, facts or ideas
borrowed from other scholars. Most academic disciplines or professional bodies require special documentation
formats or styles in research projects reports. Consequently; the style should be consistent with the requirements of
each discipline.
8.1 In-text citation
8.1.1 Work by two authors:
Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the work. Use the word "and"
between the authors' names.E.g (Gerald & Beatrice, 2010)

8.1.2 Work by Three to Five Authors:

All the authors in the signal phrase should be listed in the signal phrase or in the parentheses the first time you site
the .E.g (Osteen, Myles, Jakes, Benny, & Copeland, 1993)

In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase or in
parentheses.E.g (Osteen et al., 1993).

8.1.3 Six or More Authors:

Use the first author's name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.

David et al. (2001) argued that malaria is common……………….

(David et al., 2001).

8.1.4 Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses:

When your parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference
list, separated by a semi-colon.

(David , 2002; Faith, 1983)

8.1.5 Authors with the Same Last Name:

To avoid confusion, use first initials with the last names.

(E.Joel, 2001; L. Robert, 1998).

8.2 American Psychological Association (APA) format.

This is the most commonly used to cite sources within the field of social sciences, psychology and education.

8.2.1 in-Text Citations in APA Format

When citing references in the text of a paper, the author's name should be used followed by the date of publication.
E.g. (Eriksson, 2000

8.2.3 Reference Page in APA Format

 All references should begin on a new page that will be titled "References" and center the title text at
the top of the page.
 All entries should be in alphabetical order
 The first line of a reference should be flush with the left margin. Each additional line should be
indented (usually accomplished by using the TAB key.)
 Each reference should be single-spaced, though double spacing should be used between the
references.
 All sources cited should appear both in-text and on the reference page. Any reference that appears in
the text of your report or article must be cited on the references page, and any item appearing on your
reference page must be also included somewhere in the body of your text.
 Titles of books, journals, magazines, and newspapers should appear in

Italics. Below is an example of a reference page using the APA format:

REFERENCES

[1] Bremen, J. (2001). The ears of hippopotamus: manifestation, determinants, and estimates of malaria burden. Am.
J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 64 (1, 2) S, 1-11

[2] Charlwood, J. D. Kihonda, J. Sama, S. Billingsley, P.F., Hadji, H. Verhave, J.P. Lyimo, E. Luttikhuizen, P.C.
Smith, T. (1995). The rise and fall of Anopheles arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae) in a Tanzanian village.
Bulletin of Entomological Research, 85:37-44.

[3] Detinova, T.S. (1962) Age-grouping methods in Diptera of medical importance with special reference to some
vectors of malaria. WHO monograph series 47, Geneva?
[4] Frevert, U. (1993). Malaria circumsporozoites protein binds to heparin sulphate proteoglycans associated with
the surface membrane hepatocytes. J. Exp. Med. 177: 1287-1298.

8.3 . MLA (Modern Language Association) format.

MLA citation style refers to the rules that were established by the Modern Language Association for
acknowledging the sources used in a research paper. MLA citation style uses a simple two-part
parenthetical documentation system for citing sources: In-text citations of a paper are used to point to an
alphabetical works cited list that appears at the end of the paper. Together, these references identify and
credit the sources used in the paper and allow others to access and retrieve this material. The general rules
of the MLA format include:

-Leave one inch margins all around the text of the paper (left side, right side, top and bottom) except for
page numbers.

-The research paper should be double spaced.

-The research paper does not need a title page. At the top of the first page, at the left-hand margin, type
your name, your instructor's name, the course name and number, and the date all on separate, double-
spaced lines.

- Number your pages consecutively throughout the manuscript (including the first page) in the upper right-
hand corner of each page, one-half inch from the top. Type your last name before the page number.

- Tables should be labeled "Table," given an Arabic numeral, and captioned (with those words flush to the left-hand
margin). Other material such as photographs, images, charts, and line-drawings should be labeled "Figure" and be
properly numbered and captioned.

Chapter 7
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Chapter objectives

1. Define the term ethics and other terms associated with ethics in research.

2. Describe how to go about proper publication in research.

3. Explain the importance of proper storage of data.

4. Understand the contents of the informed consent form.

5. Understand the consequences of plagiarism in research writing.

 7. Understand the different areas of dishonesty in research.

8. Learn how to go about research involving human subjects.

Terms definition

Ethics: These are the moral principle governing research.

Informed consent: Participants have adequate information regarding the research, are capable of
comprehending the information and have the power of the free choice, enabling them to consent or to decline
participation voluntarily

Seven areas of scientific dishonesty

1. Plagiarism.
Plagiarism is defined in dictionaries as "the wrongful appropriation, close imitation, or purloining and publication,
of another author's language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions, and the representation of them as one's own original
work. Understanding plagiarism helps us to know how to go about sharing information and writing scientific paper
since knowledge is generated from knowledge. The problem of plagiarism is on the increase especially in learning
institutions. The consequences may vary depending on the nature of the offence and the number of time one
commits the offence. In learning institute The problem of plagiarism is on the increase especially in learning
institutions. The consequences may include disqualification of the entire work, getting a lower grade, loss of
reputation, academic probation and even expulsion from the learning institution. As a student is expelled from one
institution, they may find it hard to get admission into another institution. To avoid plagiarism the person making the
statement, presenting their view etc. in the book or publication must be referenced next to the extract from the book,
or in a footnote at the bottom of the page on which the extract exists.

Paraphrasing: Involves putting a passage from source material into your own words. A paraphrase must also be
attributed to the original source. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than the original passage, taking a somewhat
broader segment of the source and condensing it slightly.
Quotations: Must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must match the source
document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.
Summarizing: Involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the main point(s). Once again,
it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the
original and take a broad overview of the source material.
2. Fabrication
This is the publication of intentional (deliberate) or misleading research for one purpose or the other. It is subdivided
into three:
Obfuscation: This refers to the use of jargon (difficult words or terms) so as to make something difficult to
understand. Doctors may use obfuscation to conceal some information from patients. Obfuscation is also used to
prevent work from being duplicated (e.g. soft wares).
Base rate fallacy: Using weak evidence to make a probability judgment without taking into account known
empirical statistics about the probability.
Falsifications: This refers to the act of making a false statement concerning a particular thing or mispresentation of
results.

3. Poor data storage and retention

Data collected during the process of research need to be kept safely and with due regards to issues of confidentiality
and anonymity. Information on video tapes, auto tapes, Cds, DVDs should be stored in fireproof lockable cabinets.
Data kept electronically should be password protected. It should also be protected from any computer virus or
Trojan.

4. Non publication of data.

This involves not including data in your research paper because it does not support your hypothesis. Researchers
may be tempted to do this especially if there is funding involved. Non publication of data is also referred to as
suppression. Examples include failure to publish information if the information states that the disease being
researched is no longer a threat in the community or the drug the researcher intends to use is harmful.
5. Faulty data gathering.
This can Faulty data gathering in research will automatically result to bias in the research findings are as a result of
collecting data from subjects (participants) who are not meeting the objectives of the research. It can also result from
the malfunctioning of the instruments being used to collect data e.g. rulers, weighing scale, tape measure e.t.c.Others
include inappropriate treatment of the research subjects and recording data incorrectly.
6. Misleading authorship.
Authorship credit is determined by the contributions of the researchers towards the research paper. Meaning the
person who comes up with the research idea automatically becomes the first author. This has to be decided before
the research is started. Authorship should include only those who directly contributed to the research. This means
that technicians who may have helped in data collection or anyone else should not be included as an author
Research involving human subjects
Ethical considerations have to be put in mind especially if the research is involving human subjects. There are
several ethical issues that must be considered when designing research that will utilize participants who are human
beings.
 The investigator should be primarily concerned with the safety of the subject (participant).Meaning; the
interest of the researcher should not outweigh the wellbeing of the subject. This can be achieved by
carefully considering the risk/benefit ratio. The investigator must therefore do a through research
concerning what he intends to study.
 The investigator must obtain informed consent from each person participating in the research. This should
be obtained in writing but at times oral consents are sometimes acceptable. After the participant has had the
opportunity to carefully consider the risks and benefits and to ask any questions. Informed consent should
be seen as an ongoing process. It is the duty of the investigator to first inform the subject on what the
research is all about before they (participants) give the consent.
 The investigator must consider the privacy and confidentiality concerns will be approached. Researchers
must be sensitive to know only how information is protected from unauthorized observation, but also if and
how participants are to be notified of any unforeseen findings from the research that they may or may not
want to know.
 The investigator must consider how adverse events will be handled; they must ensure that there is a
qualified person who will provide care incase there are adverse effects (e.g. injuries or reaction to the
treatment) on the research subjects. In addition, before enrolling participants in an experimental trial, the
investigator should be in a state of "equipoise," that is, if a new intervention is being tested against the
currently accepted treatment, the investigator should be genuinely uncertain which approach is superior. In
other words, a true null hypothesis should exist at the onset regarding the outcome of the trial.

Principles of research in human subjects.

1. The principle of autonomy.

Autonomy refers to the ability of a person to self-determine what they want. The subject should be at free will
to decide if they want to be part of the research or not. They are also at free will to withdraw from the research
if they so wish. A researcher should therefore respect the principle of autonomy.

2. The principle of beneficence.

The principle of beneficence stands for the proposition that it is the physician's duty to do good for his patient.
This is certainly a foundational principle of medical practice finding its roots in Hippocrates. For centuries,
beneficence was actualized through the process of the patient presenting himself to the physician for
examination and inquiry and then following the advice of the physician. In recent decades, societal needs for
self determination have sometimes brought this principle into conflict with autonomy.

3. The principle of non- maleficence.

Non-maleficence means to “do no harm.” Physicians must refrain from providing ineffective treatments or
acting with malice toward patients. This principle means that harm to the patient should not be done in the first
place, hence prevention is better than cure.

4. The principle of justice.

 Study participants have a right to fair and equal treatment before, during and after their participation in the
study

A sample of a letter of consent for conducting research.

Protocol Title: Efficacy of tetracycline to treat syphilis in males 25-40 years.

Please read this consent document carefully before you decide to participate in this study.

Purpose of the research study:

The purpose of this study is to examine if tetracycline is effective in the treatment of syphilis.

What you will be asked to do in the study:

You will be required to give a blood sample or the cerebrospinal fluid so as to test for the presence of antibodies
against Treponema pallidum (the bacteria that causes syphilis).The blood will be stored in a container containing an
anticoagulant to prevent it from clotting. You will also be required to fill a questionnaire. Incase you are found to
have syphilis, treatment will be administered inform of tablets. Two tablets (500gms) will be administered daily for
three months. Follow up will be done on monthly bases

Time required:

15 minutes

Risks and Benefits:

You may experience pain as the specimen is being collected. There may be overgrowth of non-susceptible
organisms that may result to urinary tract infections or oral thrush. Renal toxicity may also occur that can finally
lead to death. Tetracycline may also render oral contraceptives less effective. If you have any allergy, you will be
excluded from the study. Expectant mothers will also be excluded from the study. The benefits include getting a free
screening of syphilis as well as free treatment. You will also be at liberty to consult with me any time you wish.

Compensation:

You will be paid Ksh500.00 compensation for participating in this research.

Confidentiality:

Your identity will be kept confidential to the extent provided by law. Your information will be assigned a code
number. The list connecting your name to this number will be kept in a locked file in my faculty supervisor's office.
When the study is completed and the data have been analyzed, the list will be destroyed. Your name will not be used
in any report.
Voluntary participation:

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for not participating.

Right to withdraw from the study:

You have the right to withdraw from the study at anytime without consequence.

Whom to contact if you have questions about the study:

Iam a Community Health student at Thika school of Medical and Health Sciences.P.o Box 429-01000, Thika.

Cel phone no…………..

Whom to contact about your rights as a research participant in the study:

………………………………………………………………………………………………

Agreement:

I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in the procedure and I have received a
copy of this description.

Participant: ___________________________________________ Date: _________________

Principal Investigator: ___________________________________ Date: _________________

Revision questions
1. Define the following terms
 Plagiarism.
 Fabrication.
 Falsification.
 Consent letter.

2. Elaborate on data storage in research.

3. Discuss the principles of research involving human subjects.

Activity 7

Draft a letter of consent that you are going to use in conducting your research.
THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES.
PROJECT PROPOSAL AND REPORT GUIDELINES.

General considerations.
Length spacing and font size
One and a half line spacing and a standard font size of 12 should be used for the text and front matter materials
except for the title page where different lien spacing and fonts may be used. Times New Roman font should be used.
Pagination.
The preliminary pages of a research project should be paginated appropriately with small roman numbers at the
bottom center of the page i.e. i, ii, iii, IV
Format.
COVER PAGE

The cover page should appear as below.

Title

Name of the student…………………….Reg No………………………………………

Signature………………………………..Date……………………………………………

Name of the supervisor……………………………………………………………………

Signature………………………………..Date……………………………………………

A project proposal/report submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of a diploma/certificate in…………..(state
your course) of Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences in the department of…………
Year………..
Declaration
This page contains the students’ declaration of the originality of the work and approved by the supervisor.

This project/report is my original work and has not been presented previously for the award of any academic
qualification in another institution.

Name of the student…………………….Reg No………………………………………..

Signature………………………………..Date……………………………………………

Name of the supervisor……………………………………………………………………

Signature………………………………..Date……………………………………………..
ABSTRACT
This is a brief summary of the entire proposal
ACCRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
1.2 Problem statement.
1.3 Justification.
1.4 Research questions/hypothesis.
1.5 Objectives.
1.6 Significance.
1.7 Limitations and delimitations.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature review
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research design.
3.2 Location of the study.
3.3 Target population.
3.4 Sampling procedure.
3.5 Data collection techniques.
3.6 Ethical considerations

CHAPTER FOUR (only in the report)

4.0 Data analysis and presentation
CHAPTER FIVE (only in the report)
5.0 Discussion.
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendations
Work plan
Budget
References