Short Notes On Computer Awareness

NABARD Grade A/B – Phase 1

Contents
Chapter No 1 General introduction

Chapter No 2 Development of computer

Chapter No 3 Input and output device

Chapter No 4 Memory

Chapter No 5 Development of personal computer

Chapter No 6 Design Tool and Programming Languages

Chapter No 7 Data Representation and Number System

Chapter No 8 Software

Chapter No 9 Network

Chapter No 10 Internet

Chapter No 11 Microsoft windows

Chapter no 12 Microsoft office

Chapter no 13 Important Abbreviation

Chapter no 14 Decision Support Systems

Chapter no 15 Computer security

 Computer: General Introduction

1. Introduction:
A computer is a man-made electronic machine which stores, reads and processes data to produce meaningful information
as output. It works very fast and does not make mistakes but its capacity is limited. It is made of English word ‘to compute’.
It operates under the control of a set of instructions that is stored in its memory unit. A computer accepts data from an input
device and processes it into useful information which is displays on its output device.
Actually, a computer is a collection of hardware and software components that helps us to accomplish many different tasks.
Hardware consists of the computer itself and includes a CPU, a monitor, a keyboard, a mouse and any equipment connected
to it. Software is the set of instructions that the computer follows in performing a tasks.

2. Computers and Calculators

A calculator is a small electronic device used for doing mathematical calculations. A calculator cannot be used for writing
letters or drawing images, while a computer can be used to calculate, draw images, write letters, and do many other things
as well.

3. Human Being and Computers

Computers cannot work on their own. They do what we want them to do, only we give them the right command. Its memory
is better than human memory. It can’t forget anything it has saved, so it is also called an artificial intelligence.

Comparison between Human beings and Computers

Human being Computer
Human beings are slow in doing calculations. Computers can do complex calculations in
seconds.
Human beings cannot remember lots of things Computers can store and remember a large
at one time. amount of information at one time.
Human beings can make mistakes Computers do not make mistakes.
Human beings have feelings. Computers do not have feelings
Human beings can think. Computers cannot think.
Human beings get tired if they work for ling Computers never get tired.
hours.
 4. Elementary words related to computer

4.1 Data: Data is information required by the computer to be able to operate or to put it the other way information
we put into the computer is called data. It is gathered from any source but cannot be organized. It cannot be used
for decision making. It is a collection of unprocessed items and combination of characters, numbers and symbols
collected for a specific purpose. Generally, it is divided into three types: Numeric data, Alphabetic data and
Alphanumeric data.

Types of Data

Alphabetic Alphanumeric
Numeric data
data data

4.1.1 Numeric Data: Numeric data consists of ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. There are different types
of number system that are used to represent numeric data. These number systems are decimal number
system binary number system, octal number system and hexadecimal number system. Examples are
examination score, bank balance and pin-code etc.

4.1.2 Alphabetic Data: Alphabetic data is used to represent 26 alphabetic. It consists of capital letters from
A to Z, small letters from a to z and blank space. Alphabetic data is also called non-numeric data. An
example is the address of an employee.

4.1.3 Alphanumeric Data: Alphanumeric data is used to represent alphabetic data, numeric data, special
characters and symbols. An example is any password.

4.2 Information: Information is well organized data which we get after processing of data and it helps in decision
making. It is processed data that is organized, meaningful, and useful.

5 Characteristics of a computer
Computers are the foundation of business, travel, and leisure of life today. The common characteristics that make
computers of all sizes such a powerful machine are speed, accuracy and reliability, storage capacity, ability to operate
automatically, diligence, scientific approach and versatility.

5.1 Speed: Computers provide the processing speed required by all facets of society. The quick service we expect
at the bank, at the grocery store, on the stock exchange, and on the Internet are dependent on the speed of
computers. The speed of a computer is measured in the following time units for the access time or instructions
per second.

Millisecond (1ms) A thousandth of a second or 10-3

Micro second (1ms) A millionth of a second or 10-6
Nanosecond (1ns) A thousand millionth of a second of 10-9
Pico second (1ps) A million millionth of a second or 10-12
KIPS Kilo Instructions Per Second.
MIPS Million Instructions Per Second.

5.2 Accuracy and Reliability: Computers are quite accurate and extremely reliable as well. They are only a machine
and do not make errors on their own. Errors are caused by humans, not by computers.
5.3 High Storage Capacity: Computers are capable of storing enormous amounts of data that must be located and
retrieved very quickly. The capability to store and retrieve volumes of data is the core of the information Age.
5.4 Automation: Once a process has been initiated, it is capable of functioning automatically. It does not require an
operator at each stage of the process.
5.5 Diligence: It is capable of operating at exactly the same level of speed and accuracy even if it has to carry out
the most voluminous and complex operations for a long period of time. It does not suffer from physical and
mental fatigue, lack of concentration and laziness.
5.6 Versatility: The wide use of computers in so many areas such as commerce, scientific applications, education
in day to day life is ample evidence of its versatility.

6 Basic applications/uses of a computer

» Entertainment or Recreation: Computer is used for playing games, listening to music and watching movies. It is
also used for making cartoon movies, animation films and drawing picture etc.
» Education: Computer is used in schools for teaching, doing mathematical calculations and completing homework.
» Banks: Computer is used in banks for storing information about different account holders, keeping a record of cash
and providing all kinds of information regarding any account in the bank. It is also used by ATM (Automatic Teller
Machine) of a bank which provides cash without any bank staff.
 » Railway stations and Airports: Computer helps in providing information about seat availability, booking tickets
and keeping records of all passengers. It helps in providing information about the arrival and departure as well as
timing of trains and aeroplanes.
» Medical Science: Computer helps in keeping records of all the patients in a hospital and doing a number of medical
tests. It helps doctors in controlling machines in an operation theatre.
» Business: Computers are used to type and print documents, letters etc. They help in keeping records of employees
and sending e-mails etc.
» Defence: In defence computer is used to help in building weapons, controlling their functions, launching missiles
and keeping record of criminals. It helps in establishing communication links between the soldiers and their
commanders through satellites.
» Designing: Computer helps in designing magazines, newspapers, books and advertisements etc. It also helps in
designing buildings, houses etc.
» Scientific Research: Computer is used in scientific research and is handy for all kinds of scientific research.
» Administration: Computer is used to improve administrative services and their efficiency.
» Publication: Computer is used in desk-top publication.
» Communication: Computers are used in communication such as e-mail, chatting etc.

7 Limitations of a computer

7.1 Lack of intelligence (Programmed by

human/Can’t think): Though computer is programmed to
work efficiently, fast and accurately, but it is
programmed by human beings to do so. Without a
program, computer is nothing. A program is a set of
instructions. Computer only follows these instructions. If
the instructions are not accurate the working of computer
will not be accurate.
7.2 Prone to virus: The computer sometimes
malfunctions and results in loss of data if some virus
attacks.

7.3 Depends on electricity: One of the limitations also includes machine failure in case of some hardware or
software problem. The computer sometimes results in loss of data if power fails.

8 Functions of a computer
 1. Data collection: Data collection is a process of preparing and collecting data obtain information to keep on record,
make decisions and pass information on to others. Computers collect or gather data, which means that they allow
users to input data.
2. Data Storage: Data storage means that it retains digital data used for computing at some interval of time.
3. Data Processing: Data processing is a process to convert data into information.
4. Data Output: It is a processed data which we get as an output.

Impact of computerization
(i) Time saving
(ii) Errorless work
(iii) Saving of paper
(iv) Unemployment

8.1 Data Processing and Electronic Data Processing

I manipulating and distributing data to achieve certain n

the past, manual techniques used for collecting,

objectives, were known as Data Processing. As
technology advances, computers are used to achieve results
accomplished by humans and machines. Example: calculator,
typewriter and computer. This is known as Electronic Data
Processing (E.D.P)
The major objective of data processing is to get the desired information from any raw data. Data refers to raw facts that are
gathered from any source but are not organized. The data cannot be used to make decisions. Information, thus, to processed
data which is well organized or presented in a meaningful fashion and increase the understanding of the data. This helps in
decision making. Processing involves transforming input into output.

9. Computer System
A group of equipment put together to process a data is called a computer system. A computer system consists of several
components to achieve electronic data processing.

9.1 Input Units: They are devices which accept data from user and transmit it to the central processing unit as electronic
pulses. For example, the ATM System, when we want to withdraw, we are required to enter our Personal
identification number (PIN). When we enter our PIN, we are using an input device, the keypad.

9.2 CPU (Central Processing Unit): It is an abbreviation for central processing unit, and is pronounced as separate
letters. The Central Processing Unit is the brain of the computer sometimes referred to simply as the central processor,
but commonly called a processor. The Central Processing Unit is the unit where most calculations take place. It is
linked with the input units and output units to form the computer system. In terms of computing power, the CPU is
the most important component of computer system. On personal computer (PC) and small workstations, the CPU is
housed in a single chip called a microprocessor or microchip.

The fundamental sequence of steps that a CPU performs is also known as the fetch-execute cycle or instruction
cycle. It is the time in which a single instruction is retrieved from memory, decoded (determined what actions the
instruction requires) and execute (carried out those actions). The first half of the cycle transfers the instruction from
memory to the instruction register and decodes it. The second half executes the instruction. This cycle is repeated
continuously by the CPU from Start or boot-up to the time when the computer is shut down.

9.2.1 Instruction cycle

Each computer’s CPU can have different cycles based on different instruction sets, but will be similar to the following
cycle:

9.2.1.1 Fetch the instruction: The CPU fetches the instruction from main memory via the data bus, and it is then placed
into the CIR. The Program Counter is instructed to contain the address of the next instruction.
9.2.1.2 Decode the instruction: The instruction decoder interprets instructions. If an instruction has an indirect address,
the effective address is read from main memory, and any
required data is fetched from main memory to be
processed and then placed into data registers.
9.2.1.3 Execute the instruction: The CU passes the decoded
information as sequence of control signals to the relevant
function units of the CPU to perform the actions required
by the instruction, such as reading values from registers,
passing them to the ALU to perform mathematical or
logic functions on them, and writing the result back into
a register. If the ALU is involved, it sends a condition
signal back to the CU.
9.2.1.4 Store results: The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or sent to an output device.
Based on the condition of any feedback from the ALU, Program Counter may be updated to a different address
from which the next instruction will be fetched. The cycle is then repeated.

9.2.2 There are two main components of a CPU

9.2.2.1 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU): It performs all arithmetic operations and decision making operations.
1. Data Transfer: Which includes moving of data from one location to another within the computer.
2. Arithmetic operation: It includes addition, subtraction, multiplication and division etc.
3. Decision making: It is an ability to compare two quantities and perform logical operations such as compare,
true or false etc.

9.2.2.2 The Control unit (CU): It extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the
ALU, when necessary. It controls all functions and coordinates all components of components of computer. It is
in-charge of fetch-execution cycle.

9.2.2.3 Functions of control unit

➢ Control flow of data

 A. From input device to memory
B. From memory to output devices or secondary storage
C. From secondary storage to memory
D. From ALU to memory
E. From memory to ALU
➢ Co-ordinates instructions execution
A. Fetch the instruction
B. Decode the instruction
C. Execute the instruction
More component of CPU, that are vital to its operation, are the registers which are very small memory locations
that are responsible for holding the data that is to be processed.

9.3 Output Units: Output is a processed data that is otherwise called information. Output Devices or Output Units do
not compute or process anything. Those devices just display the results in hard copy or soft copy.

Chapter 2: Development of Computer

1.Introduction
Computer is a manmade electronic machine that changes the way we work, live, and play. A machine that has done all this
and more, now exists in nearly every business and one out of every two households. This incredible invention is the
computer. The computer is one of the most powerful innovations in human history. The electronic computer has been
around for over a half-century, but its ancestor abacus has been around for 2000 years. However, only in the last 40 years
it has changed our lifestyle. From the first wooden abacus to the latest high-speed microprocessor, the computer has
changed nearly every aspect of people’s lives for the better. With the use of computers, people are suddenly able to perform
a large amount of computations at dazzling speed. Information can be crunched, organized, and displayed in the blink of an
eye. Things that were only dreams a few years ago are now possible due to computers.

2. Evolution of computers
2.1 Abacus: The abacus is one of the earliest known computation devices. It is
a tool that helped in calculating answers of arithmetic problems. It is simply
a wooden rack holding parallel wires on which beads are strung.
Calculations are done by manipulating the beads. The abacus was
developed in Chine about 5000 years ago. The abacus was so successful
that its use spread form Chine to many other countries.

2.2 Pascal Calculator: The first real mechanical calculator was invented by a
French scientist and mathematician Blaise Pascal, around 1645. The device
was constructed by interlocking gears representing the number 0 to 9. It was
only able to do addition and subtraction, so it is called adding machine.

2.3 Analytical Engine: In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard perfected the idea of the automated weaving loom. Using
holes punched into a series of connected cards, Jacquard was able to control the weaving of fabrics. The Jacquard
loom not only cut back on the amount of human labour, but also allowed
for patterns to be stored now on cards and to be utilized over and over
again to achieve the same product. In 1820 Charles Babbage, a British
mathematician and inventor, designed and built the mechanical calculator
and the Difference Engine one principles that anticipated the modern
electronic computer. The concept Babbage put forward was eventually
used by engineers in the development of the first computer prototype. For
this reason, Charles Babbage is known as father of computing. Despite ten
years of work, Babbage failed to build a fully operational model of
Difference or Analytical Engine. In 1842 Lady Lovelace wrote a
demonstration program and her contribution to binary arithmetic was later
used by John Von Neumann in developing the modern computer. So she is often regarded as the “first computer
programmer”.
2.4 Herman Hollerith and Punch cards: In 1890 the United States
Census Bureau asked Herman Hollerith to find a way to speed up
the processing a census data. Herman Hollerith created punched
cards that resemble today’s computer cards. He also invented the
Hollerith 80 column code and tabulating machine.

2.5 First Electronic computer (ENIAC): Howard Aiken, with his colleagues at Harvard and with some assistance
from International Business Machines he had built by 1942 the Mark I,
the world’s first program controlled calculator, an early form of a digital
computer. In 1944 John Mauchley, an American physicist, and J. Presper
Eckert, an American engineer, proposed an electronic digital computer,
called the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), and
completed it in 1946 which is regarded as the first successful general
digital computer.

2.6 Stored Program concept (EDSAC): According to John Von Neumann’s concept, the operating instructions and
data used in processing should be stored inside the computer. Whenever necessary the computer would have the
capability to modify these program instructions, during their execution. This concept was incorporated into the
EDSAC computer (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer), which was developed at Cambridge
University. This computer was capable of storing a sequence of instructions, the equivalent of the first computer
program.

2.7 UNIVAC 1: It is the short form of Universal Automatic Computer. In 1951 it was introduced and became the
first commercially available computer. The UNIVAC 1 was characteristic of the first generation of computers.

Development Approximate Dates Important Features

Abacus 2000 – 3000 B.C First mechanical calculator.
Pascal’s Calculator 1645 First adding machine capable of
counting, adding and
subtracting.
Jacquard’s weaving 1801 Utilized metal plates with
punched holes to control
weaving patterns.
Babbage Analytical 1834 – 1871 Intended to be the First general
purpose computer. The engine
was never constructed in
Babbage’s lifetime.
Herman Tabulating 1887 – 1896 Designed a code and device to
punch data into card and
tabulate collected data. Used in
automating the Census of 1980.
Howard Aiken Mark 1 1937 – 1944 The Largest electromechanical
computer ever built. Utilized
punch paper tape to store data.
 ENIAC 1943 – 1950 First electronic computing
devices in which program wired
into a permanent panel. No
significant storage capability.
John Von Neumann’s Stored Program 1945 – 1952 Developed the concept of
concept storing program instructions
and data in the memory of the
computer. Credited with
introducing the idea of coding
data and instructions in binary.
EDSAC 1946 – 1952 First computer capable of
storing instructions and data in
memory.
UNIVAC 1 1951 – 1954 First computer that was
commercially available and
produced in quantity.

3.Computer Generation
The history of the development of computer is often referred to in tracing the different generations of computing devices.
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way
computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and efficient and reliable devices.
Generations Characteristics
First Generation 1. Use of vacuum tubes in circuits.
2. Use of magnetic drum as primary internal storage medium.
3. Limited main storage capacity.
4. Slow input / output.
5. Low-level symbolic language programming.
6. Heat and maintenance problem.
Applications: Payroll processing and record keeping. Example:
ENIAC, IBM 650, UNIVAC 1
Second Generation 1. Use of transistors at the place of vacuum tubes.
2. Use of magnetic core as primary internal storage medium.
3. Increased main storage capacity.
4. Faster input / output.
5. Great reduction in size and heat generation.
6. Increased speed and reliability.
7. High – level programming language (COBOL and FORTRAN).
Application: Batch oriented (Billing, Payroll processing and Updating
inventory files.)
Example: IBM 1401, Honeywell 200, CDC 1604.
Third Generation 1. Use of IC (Integrated Circuit).
2. Use of magnetic core as primary storage medium.
3. More flexible input / output.
4. Smaller size, better performance and reliability.
 5. Increased speed and better performance.
6. Extensive use of high level programming languages.
7. Emergence of minicomputers. Remote processing and time sharing
through communication.
8. Availability of operating system software to control input / output.
Applications: Airline reservation system, market forecasting and credit
card billing.
Example: IBM System/360, NCR 395, Burroughs B6500.

Fourth Generation 1. Use of large scale integrated circuit.

2. Increased storage capacity and speed.
3. Modular design and compatibility between hardware provided by
different manufacturers.
4. Greater versatility of Input / Output devices.
5. Introduction of microprocessors and microcomputers.
6. Increased use of microcomputers.
Application: Electronic fund transfer, computer-aided instruction, home
computers and mathematical modelling and simulation.
Example: IBM PC-DT (microcomputer), Apple II, Honeywell 6080 series.
Fifth generation 1. ULSI technology.
2. Development of true artificial intelligence.
3. Development of Natural language processing.
4. Advancement in Parallel Processing.
5. Advancement in Superconductor technology.
6. More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features.
7. Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates.
3.1 First Generation (1942 – 1955)
The first generation computers were entirely electronic. They used vacuum tubes to store instructions. Magnetic drums
were used for memory. They were often enormous, taking up entire
rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a
great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat which often need
expansive air-conditioning. First generation computers relied on
machine language (1s and 0s), the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could solve
only one problem at a time.
The UNIVAC 1, ENIAC and Mark 1 computers are examples of the
first generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first
commercial electronic computer. This machine was developed specially
for scientific and military purposes but it was dedicated to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
3.2 Second Generation (1955 – 1964)
In second generation of computers solid state transistors replaced
vacuum tubes in computers. It was invented in Bell Laboratories.
The transistor was far superior than the vacuum tube, allowing
computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient
and more reliable. To represent data a magnetic core is used in
computer. At about the same time magnetic tape and disks began to
be widely used as an auxiliary storage. Magnetic disk was layered by
iron oxide. Magnetic disks made possible direct access of data.
As a result of these developments, a significant increase in the speed and processing capability of computers was
achieved. Businessmen began to use computers in increasing numbers and new high-level programming languages also
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.

3.3 Third Generation (1965 – 1974)

Further development in electronics brought further reduction in size, greater reliability, speed and lower costs computer.
Integrated circuits (IC) replaced the transistors, which was developed by J.S. Kilbi. This was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers.
This development is known as LSI (Large Scale Integration)
and it refers to the ability to compress large number of integrated
circuits on a single silicon chip. There is also VLSI (Very Large
Scale Integration).
Another development that changed the way people use
computers was time sharing. A time-shared computer allows many
users, each working at a separate input / output terminal, to use it
at the same time.
Users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to mass users because they were smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors. Users could use software according to their need because Software and Hardware were available
separately.

3.4 Fourth Generation (1975 – Up till now)

Fourth Generation computer continued to be characterized by chips that can contain increasing numbers of items. This
further miniaturization of components referred to as ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration), resulted in increased speed,
greater reliability and enormous storage capacities for current
computers.
By using LSI technology, microprocessor was produced. This
microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as
thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
Computer of the first generation that filled an entire room could now fit
in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971,
located all the components of the computer from the CPU and memory
to input / output controls on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its
first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the
 realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life. Everyday products such as vehicles, microwave oven and
electronic games etc. began to use microprocessors more and more.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form a network, which eventually
led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIIs, the mouse and
handhold devices.

3.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)

Unlike all other generation computers, present
generation of computers is characterized by the use of the
technique used to reduce complex programming. This
technique is known as Artificial intelligence (AI). Fifth
generation computing devices, based on artificial
intelligence, are still in development, though there are
some applications such as voice recognition, that are being
used today.

4 Classification of computer by the purpose which they design:

4.1 Special Purpose Computer: The special purpose computers are used to solve a single and dedicated type of
problem. For their specialized use, they are extremely efficient and economical. Example – automatic aircraft
landing, computerized traffic control system.
4.2 General Purpose Computer: The general purpose computers are flexible and versatile. They can be used to
solve a variety of problems by changing the program or instructions. Example – Accounting, Simulation and
forecasting.

5 Classification of computer by the types of data which they are capable of

manipulating:
5.1 Digital Computer: In digital computers data are represented as discrete units or electrical pulse, which can be
counted and switched. In modern digital computer binary system is used. Digital clock is its good example. Due
to fast speed and large storage capacity digital computers are
used for business and scientific data processing.

5.2 Analog Computer: In analog computers data are represented

as physical quantities. Physical quantities are best measured in
a continuous fashion and this are ideally suited for analog
computation. Analog computer is a machine that works on data
which is always changeable. Analog form of electricity is used
by us. Speed of this kind of computers are slow. Voltmeter,
thermometer and barometer are the examples of analog device.
Analog computers are most often used for scientific and engineering purposes.
 5.3 Hybrid Computer: Hybrid computers have combined features of both
digital and analog computers with the input and output in analog form and
the processing in digital form. This involves analog to digital converter at the
input end and digital to analog converter at the output end.

6 Classification of computers on the basis of Price, Size and Capabilities:

6.1 Super Computers: Super Computers are the most powerful computers as of now. These computers are large in
size and memory compared to all other computers. They work with
multi-processing and parallel processing facilities. At present,
especially in computing speed, these are very fast. So, these are the
fastest, biggest and most expansive computers. These machines are
special high capacity computers used by very large organizations.
They contain thousands of microprocessors. First super computer of
world was CRAY – 1 which was developed by Cray Research
Company in 1976. First super computer of India was PARAM which
was developed by C – DAC in 1991. It was designed for ultra-high
performance task such as creating animation, weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, encryption cracking
and designing. Examples are CRAY – 1 and IBM’s Deep Blue.

6.2 Mainframe Computer: Mainframes are characterized by large internal memory storage and comprehensive
range of software and peripheral equipment that might be connected. Mainframe computers occupy specially
wired, air-conditioned room. Although not nearly as powerful as supercomputers, mainframe computers are
capable of great processing speeds and data storage. In these
computers processing capacity and speed are very fast and more
than one user works at a time. Multics was a mainframe timesharing
operating system which was developed at Bell Laboratories. A
typical super computer the CRAY – 1 costs about $20 million.
These computers are used scientific and business application. For
example, insurance companies use mainframes to process
information about millions of policy holders. Examples are IBM –
370, IBM – S/390, DEC VAX – 8800 and UNIVAC – 1110.
6.3 Minicomputer: Minicomputers are smaller in size, faster, cost lower than mainframes and higher than Personal
Computer. They are designed for real time dedicated multi user application. Minicomputer converts into super
minicomputer by using the 80386 super chip. Super minicomputer processes 5 lac process per second. These
computers are used in company, passenger reservation and research etc. examples are IBM – 17, DEC PDP 11,
HP – 9000, AS 400 and BULL HN – DPX2.

6.4 Micro Computer: Microcomputer are computers whose central processing unit consists of a microprocessor. A
microprocessor is an integrated circuit. Microcomputers are the least powerful, yet the most widely used and
fastest growing type of computers. There are four types of microcomputer which is desktop, notebook, tablet PC
and handheld computer. Desktop computers are small enough to fit on top of or alongside a desk yet are too big
to carry around. Notebook computers, also known as Laptop computers, are portable, lightweight, and fit into
most briefcases. A tablet PC is type of notebook computer that accepts your
handwriting. This input is digitized and converted to standard text that can
be further processed by programs such as a word processor. Handheld
computers are the smallest and are designed to fit into the palm of one hand.
Also known as palm computers.
Hardware for a microcomputer system consists of a variety of different
devices such as system unit, input / output, secondary storage, and
communication. The main media of input into a microcomputers are a
keyboard and a mouse and output is the monitor. The processing speed of
microcomputer is 1 lac process per second. These computers are used for
business application, entertainment, at home and the field of medicine.
Examples are Apple MAC, I Mac, IBM PS/2, IBM compatible and PS 386, 486.

6.5 Personal Computer: A small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. It is based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing and for spreadsheet and database management
application. At home, the most popular use of personal computer is for playing games, email, chatting etc.
examples are Apple II, IBM PC, Lenovo and HP etc.

6.6 Laptop: A laptop is a personal computer designed for mobile use. It is small enough to sit on one’s lap and fits
into a briefcase. It integrates most of the components of a desktop computer, including a monitor, a keyboard, a
pointing device (also known as a track pad), speakers, and other drives. It includes rechargeable battery, so it
works anywhere. By using Bluetooth and Wi-Fi we can access the Internet.

6.7 Notebook computer: An extremely lightweight personal computer. It is generally thinner and smaller than
laptop.

6.8 Workstations: Workstations are special single user computers having the same feature as personal computer but
have the processing speed equivalent to minicomputer or mainframe computer. A workstation computer can be
fitted on a desktop. Scientists, engineers, architects and graphic designers mostly use these computers.
Workstation computers are expensive and powerful computers. These have advanced processor, more RAM and
storage capacity than personal computers. These are usually used as single user application but are used as servers
on computer network and web servers as well.
6.9 Palmtop: A small computer that literally fits in our palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely
limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen
rather than a keyboard for input. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives.
However, many contain PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) slots in which
we can insert disk drives, modems, memory and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held
computers and pocket computers.
 Chapter 3: Input and Output Device
1. Introduction
There are a lot of devices that are attached to the computer. Some of them are input devices while others are output
devices. These devices are collectively referred to as peripheral devices.

2. Input Devices:
Information or data that is entered into a computer is called input. It can come from an external source and be fed into
computer software. It is done by an input device.
In other words, devices that are used to give instruction to the computer are known as input devices. They send
information into the CPU. Without any input device that computer would simply be a display device like a TV.

2.1 Some most commonly used input device are given below.
1) Keyboard
2) Mouse
3) Scanner
4) Microphone
5) Web Camera
6) Bar Code Reader
7) Touch Screen

2.1.1 Keyboard: The keyboard is one of the main input devices used in a computer. It is used to enter
text and numeric data in a computer system. It looks very similar to typewriters, with some
additional keys like the function keys (F1 – F12), the Ctrl keys and Alt Keys. A standard keyboard
has 104 keys. A port is built for adding the keyboard. Nowadays USB keyboard is also available
which added into USB port of computer system and wireless keyboard which has no need to add
into computer system.
❖ The keyboard has five different types of keys:
A. Alphabet Keys: A keyboard has 26 alphabet keys from A to Z. we can type any text or word with the help of
these keys.
B. Numeric Keys: These keys are used for typing numbers. They are also called number keys. They are marked
with digits 0 to 9. We can also use the numeric keypad on the right side of the keyboard to type numbers. They
are marked with digits 0 to 9, decimal, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. With the help of shift
key, number pad acts as a directional arrow.
C. Function Keys: These keys are placed on the top of the keyboard. These keys are used for predefined special
functions. They are marked F1 to F12 and are twelve in number.
D. Cursor Control Keys: These keys are used for moving the cursor in the text that has already been entered on the
monitor. They are also called arrow keys. They are marked with arrows in four different directions. These are
called right, left up and down arrow keys.
Over and above these arrow keys there are four more keys to control the cursor. They are called Home, End, Page
Up and Page Down.
Home: This key is often used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line or the beginning of a document.
End: This key moves the cursor to the end of the line.
Page Up: When this key is pressed, if the page currently being viewed has more than one page, the page view
will be moved up one page or cursor goes to the back page.
Page Down: when this key is pressed if the page currently being viewed has more than one page, the page view
will be moved down one page or cursor goes to the next page.
E. Special Keys: Some of the special keys present on a keyboard are
✓ Caps Lock Key: This key is used to type the letters of the alphabet in capital letters or
uppercase without using the shift key. This key is placed on the left side of the keyboard. It
is referred to as a toggle key because its function goes back and forth every time it is pressed.
It enables or disables all the letters from being typed in capital letters. When the caps lock
key is enabled, a user would type in capital letters and when it is disabled, a user would type
in small letter or lowercase.
✓ Num Lock Key: This is a short form for numeric lock or number lock. This key is used to
enable and disable the numeric keypad. This key is placed on the right side of the keyboard
in the numeric keypad. Turning the Num Lock on will allow the user to use the numbers on
the keypad and turning the Num Lock off will enable the keys other functions such as using
the keypad as an arrow pad.
✓ Shift Key: This key is used in combination with other keys, so this is also called combination
key. There are two shift keys on a keyboard. Some keys on the keyboard, like numeric keys,
have special symbol printed on their upper portion. The shift key is used to print these
symbols. When we want to type the symbol printed on the numeric key we press the shift key
along with number key on which that symbol is present. This key allows a user to type
characters, either upper or lower case, and numbers to symbols. For example, pressing and
holding the shift key while pressing the letter a key would generate a capital A. The shift key
is commonly located on both the left and right hands of the keyboard and is commonly
located below the caps lock key and the enter key on keyboards. This key is also used as a
shortcut key to perform various different shortcuts. For example, holding down the shift key
and pressing arrow keys will highlight text in the direction of the arrow key you press.
✓ Enter Key: This key is also known as a return key. This is typically to finish an entry and
begin the desired process, and is usually, an alternative to pressing an OK button. We put
information into the computer by pressing enter key. It is used to move the cursor to the
beginning of the next line. If any instruction or command is given to the computer, it will
execute that instruction or command only when the enter Key is pressed. There are two enter
keys on a keyboard, one on the keyboard and the other one on the numeric keypad.
✓ Space Bar Key: This is the longest key on the keyboard. It is used to insert blank space
between two words or anywhere in the text where needed.
✓ Tab Key: Tab key is the abbreviation of tabulator key. It is used to advance the cursor to the
next tab stop. This key can also move between selectable items in a dialog box. Spreadsheet
and database management applications usually respond to the Tab key by moving the cursor
to the next field or cell. In dialog boxes and menus, pressing the Tab key highlights the next
button or option. In word document page margin, indent a paragraph and distance between
two words is defined by tab setting and by pressing the tab key the cursor moves ½ inch
across the page.
✓ Escape Key (Esc): It is a powerful key placed on a keyboard that allows a user to cancel or
abort operations, which he is executing at present and lets exit a program when pressed. Such
as slide-show in power point, opening animation on web page is stopped by using this key.
With the combination of Ctrl key it opens Start Menu.
✓ Back Space Key: This key is used to erase anything typed on the left side of the cursor. It is
placed just above the Enter Key.
✓ Delete Key: this key is used to erase anything typed on the right side of the cursor. By using
this key selected word, line, page, file and drawing can be erased. It is a key that will erase
information from the computer’s memory and characters on the screen.
✓ Control Key (Ctrl): This key is also used in combination with other keys. When it is pressed
in combination with another key, it performs a special operation. For example, when Ctrl +
Alt + Delete are pressed together they open task manager. Ctrl + C and Ctrl + V performs the
cut and paste. Similar to the shift key, the Ctrl key rarely performs any function when pressed
by itself. There are two Ctrl keys on a keyboard. The control key is located below the shift
keys.
✓ Print Screen Key (Prt Scr): When this key is pressed, it either sends the current screen
image to the computer clipboard or the computer printer depending on the operating system
or software program the key is pressed in.
✓ Scroll Lock Key: This key is placed on a keyboard near the keyboard pause key. This key is
intended to temporarily stop the scrolling of text or halt the operation of a program.
 ✓ Pause Key: This key is commonly placed near the top right of a keyboard. This key allows
a user to temporarily halt the action of the program being run. For example, in computer
games, the pause key is commonly used to temporarily stop the game while the user steps
away from his or her computer and is shared with the break key.
✓ Modifier Key: Alt, Ctrl and Shift keys on the keyboard, that are only used in combination
with another key, are modifier keys.

2.1.2 Mouse: It is an input device that was invented by Douglas Engel Bert of the Stanford Research
Institute in
1963. It is also called pointing device which is used to point to the things on the monitor screen. There are three
types of mouse – Two-Button Mouse, Three-Button Mouse and optical mouse. A Two-Button Mouse has right
and left buttons, a Three-Button Mouse has right, left and centre buttons and optical mouse has right, left buttons
and a scroll wheel at the centre. When we turn the mouse upside down, we see a ball under it. This mouse ball
helps to move the mouse on a plane surface. The movement of the ball is reflected by the movement of the mouse
pointer on the monitor. A mouse pointer takes different shapes depending on the task we are performing. The
mouse is placed on a slate shaped object which is called mouse pad.

There are four mouse actions: Click, Double click, Right click and Drag and Drop.
A. Click: It is a press and release of left mouse button. The mouse makes a clicking sound. A click selects and item
on the screen. For example, take the mouse pointer over the My Computer icon and click on it. It will turn blue
which means it is selected. Generally, it is used for OK.
B. Double click: To double click, means to press and release the left mouse button twice in a short interval. It is
used to open a document or program. For example, take the mouse pointer over the My Computer icon and
doubleclick on it. The ‘My Computer’ window will open.
C. Right Click: To right click, means to press and
release the right mouse button. It often displays a
list of commands on the screen. For example, take
the mouse pointer over the ‘My Computer’ icon
and right-click on it. a shortcut menu will appear.
So, right clicking is used to access the properties of
any object.
D. Drag and Drop: Drag and drop are used to move
an item on the screen. Drag and drop hold the
mouse firmly. Position the pointer over an item on
the screen and then press and hold down the left
mouse button. Holding down the button, move the
pointer to where you want to place the item and then release the button. This way we can drag and drop the item.
To select text by shading by drag the mouse arrow over the text is referred to as highlight.

2.1.3 Scanner: A scanner is used to convert a text or an image into its electronic or digital representation, which can be
viewed on the screen. These scanned or digital images can be used in different fields. They can be processed,
edited and stored in memory or in any storage device. It looks like a photocopy machine. A sales clerk at a
checkout counter scanning a tag on an item rather than keying it into the system is using source data automation
process by scanning. Digital photos and scanned images are typically stored as bitmap graphics with extension
such as .bmp, .png, .jpg, .tif or gif etc.
 2.1.4 Microphone: A microphone is used to record any voice or sound into the computer.

2.1.5 Web Camera: A web camera is used to view images on the Internet. Using it with the help of Internet we can view
the photo of a faraway person, but he should also have web camera. It is like a digital camera which is used as
an input device by adding to the computer. It captures images in digital format that can be easily transferred into
a computer and manipulated using graphics software. A web cam is a video capture device connected to a
computer, often using a USB port or if connected to a network, Ethernet.

2.1.6 Bar Code Reader: A bar code reader is an electronic device for reading information contained in a printed bar
code. It is also called a point-of-sale (POS) scanner. Today supermarkets commonly use bar code data for pricing
and inventory updating. The black and white lines or bars of varying widths or lengths that we see on a grocery
item at supermarket are bar code and read bar code reader. The bar code reader translates black and white bars
of different widths into electrical impulses and sends them to the computer. Now-a-days it used in supermarkets,
libraries, banks and post offices.

2.1.7 Touch Screen: A touch screen also an input device. When we touch the screen it can detect the presence and
location of a touch within the display area. The term generally refers to touch the screen by a finger. Touch
screens can also sense other passive objects, such as a stylus. The ability to interact directly with a display
typically indicates the presence of a touch screen. It is used to listening music and selects the available choices
at bank ATM and public information centre.

3. Output Device
Output device are those devices which display or give the desired results from the computer. We use our hand and mouth
to express ourselves. Similarly, a computer gives its output
with the help of its output devices.
❖ Some of the most commonly used output devices
are given below.
1. Monitor
2. Printer
3. Speaker
4. Screen Image Projector
5.

3.1.1 Monitor: A monitor is an output device that

displays all work done and images on its screen. It is also called a VDU (Visual Display Unit). After processing
the input, the result is shown on the monitor. The three most common specifications about quality of monitors
are dot pitch, resolution and the refresh rate.

Mainly two types of monitor technologies available are CRT monitor and LCD monitor.

A. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor: A CRT is traditionally used in most computer monitors. A CRT is the
electron beams within a monitor that move across your screen either interlaced or non-interlaced hitting phosphor
 dots on the inside glass tube. The picture is an example of the inside of a computer monitor that shows the CRT
connected to the screen.
Within the CRT are three electron guns, red, green, and blue. Each of these guns streams a steady flow of
electrons, left to right, for each line of your monitor. As the electrons hit the phosphors on the CRT, the phosphor
will glow certain intensities. As a new line begins, the guns will then begin at the left and continue right; these
guns will repeat this process sometimes thousands of times until the screen has been completely drawn line by
line.
Once the phosphors on the CRT have been hit with an electron they only glow for a short period of time; because
of this, the CRT must be refreshed, which means the process will be repeated as explained above. If the video
card's refresh rate is not set high enough, you may encounter a flicker or a noticeable steady line scrolling from
the top to the bottom of your screen.

B. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitor: A Liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat and lightweight screen
made up of any number of colour or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. It uses very
small amount of electric power and is therefore suitable for use in battery powered electronic devices.

3.1.2 A Printer is the primary output device used to get the printed copy or hard copy of work on paper, slides, clothes
etc. it used to prepare lasting documents.

Printers are mainly divided into three groups.

❖ Serial Printer (Character Printers): Serial printers print one character at a time moving across the paper, its
speeds ranging from 200 to 400 characters per second (cps), which about 90 to 180 lines per minutes (lpm).
❖ Line Printers: Line printers print approximately 400 to 2000 lines per minute (lpm) at a time, and are commonly
used in data centres and industrial environments.
❖ Page Printers: Page printers print more than 800 pages per minutes (ppm) at a time. It is able to print large data.

Printers are of two types according to the manner of printing.

A. Impact Printer: Impact printing devices transfer the image on paper by striking
a paper, ribbon and character together. There are two types or Impact Printer.
(i) Dot Matrix Printer
(ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

B. Non-Impact Printer: It is a type of printer that does not operate by striking a

head against a ribbon. The term non-impact is important primarily in that is
distinguishes quiet printers from noisy (impact) printers. Examples are below:
(i) Inkjet Printer
(ii) Laser Printer
(iii) Thermal Printer (Electro Thermal Printer)

3.1.3 Speaker: A speaker is an output device which is often used as entertainment to listen to music and sound. It
needs a sound card connected to a CPU that generates sounds by the card. The speakers attached to our computer
are used for handling sound and music.
3.1.4 Screen Image Projector: It is an output device that enables an image, such as a computer screen, to be projected
on a flat surface. These devices are commonly used in meetings and presentations as they project a large image
covering everyone present there.
 Chapter 4: Memory

1. Introduction
Computer memory refers to the devices that are used to store data or programs on a temporary or permanent basis
for use in a computer. Any data or instruction entered into the memory of a computer is considered as storage. It is
one of the fundamental components of all modern computers coupled with a central processing unit. For central
processing unit to process the input data, there must be a place for storing the data and instruction. This is provided in
the memory unit.

2. Types of Memory

Memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as Random-Access Memory (RAM) and sometimes
other forms of fast but temporary storage. It is a place in the computer system where data and programs are temporarily
stored in internal storage areas in the computer. The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of
chips. Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to mass storage such as optical disks, forms of magnetic storage
such as hard disk drives, and other types slower than RAM, but of a more permanent nature. The primary device that a
computer uses to store information is hard drive. Memory and storage were respectively called main memory and
secondary storage. The term internal memory and external memory are also used. Storage and memory differ with
respect to price reliability and speed.

3. Primary or Main Memory or Semi-Conductor Memory or Internal Memory

Computer memory usually refers to the semiconductor technology that is used to store information in electronic
devices. Current primary computer memory makes use of IC consisting of silicon-based transistors.
4. There are two main types of memory
Volatile and Non-volatile. Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored
information, unlike Non-volatile memory which does not require a maintained power supply.

4.1 Volatile Memory

✓ RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. It is the most common type of memory used in
computer. It works with the CPU to hold instructions and data in order to be processed. It is the first place
where data and instructions are placed after being input, and processed information is placed in it to be
returned to an output device. But it can hold data only temporarily because it requires a continuous flow of
electrical current. If current is interrupted, data is lost. It allows data to be read and written randomly not in
sequence, so read and write of data is bit quickly.
There are two types of RAM.
(i) Dynamic RAM: It requires constant refreshing of its contents. It loses its content in a very short
period even though computer is working. It is cheaper than static RAM (SRAM).
(ii) Static RAM: It does not require refreshing. It retains its content till computer is working. It is faster
than dynamic RAM (DRAM).
a. Cache Memory: Cache Memory is a type of Static RAM. A cache is temporary storage area where
frequently accessed data can be stored for rapid access. Once the data is stored in the cache, it
can be used in the future by accessing the cached copy rather than re-computing the original data.
The CPU and hard drive frequently use a cache. When the processor needs to read from or write
to a location in main memory, it first checks whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the
processor immediately reads from or writes to the cache, which is much faster than reading from
or writing to main memory.

4.2 Non Volatile Memory

✓ ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Data and instructions stored in it which can be read
but cannot be modified or destroyed. It is commonly used for storing program instructions that are not required
to change. It is an internal storage area in the computer. It is a silicon chip on motherboard on which
instructions are burned at the time of manufacture. When switched on, the computer instruction stored there
is automatically initiated and after switching off instructions do not get lost. These permanent instructions
stored in ROM are called BIOS (Basic Input Output System). On computer the BIOS contains all the
instruction required to control the keyboard, display screen, disk drives, serial communication and number
miscellaneous functions. The BIOS is copied from ROM to RAM each time the computer is booted. This is
known as shadowing.
In computing firmware is the combination of read-only memory and program code pre-installed and data stored
in it. Firmware is a combination of software and hardware. The firmware contained in the device provides the
control program for the device. Computer chips that have data or programs recorded on them are firmware.
Firmware is held in non-volatile memory devices such as ROM, PROM, EPROM or flash memory.
5. Secondary or Auxiliary Memory
The main memory is volatile and limited in capacity so there is a need to store data in a more permanent and cheaper
form. Such a kind of storage is known as secondary memory. It is also known as auxiliary or backing store memory.
Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down. It is non-volatile. Data that is not
currently required by the CPU is kept on backing store and copied into main storage when needed. The most common
storage media used as backing store is magnetic tape and magnetic disk. It differs from primary storage in that it is
not directly accessible by the CPU.
5.1 Hard Disk: A hard disk is a magnetic disk which stores and provides relatively quick access to large amounts
of data. It provides higher capacity and greater reliability than other types of disk drives. A hard disk is really
a set of several stacked platters. Each of these looks like an old song record. All platters are mounted on a
vertical shaft forming a disk pack. Both surfaces of the platters in a pack are used for recording except for the
top and bottom platters. The top and bottom platters have data recorded only on their inner surfaces. Each
platter requires two read and write heads, one for each side. Data is recorded on concentric rings on the surface
of the platters called tracks. Each platter has the same number of tracks. Each track is subdivided into sectors
and each sector stores a fixed amount of data. The process of dividing a disk into tracks and sectors is called
formatting. Thus the operating system can store and locate data and information on the disk. Read / write
head can read and write data direct to any track, so access or writing of data becomes very fast. It is sealed
into a single module with the read / write heads so it is protected from the environment and any scratches.
Often it is called C drive in computer. All programs and data of
computer are installed in hard disk. Today’s computers are
available with a hard disk capacity 160GB, 320GB, 500GB, 1TB,
2TB and more.

5.2 Floppy Disk: It is a soft removable magnetic disk that holds

information. The disk is enclosed in an envelope to protect it from
dust and scratches. It is slower to access than hard disk and has
less storage capacity. It is an external memory.

Floppy disk comes in three basic sizes:

(i) 8-inch: The first floppy disk design.
(ii) 5¼-inch: It is generally capable of storing between 100k and 1.2MB of data.
(iii) 3½- inch: Floppy is encased in rigid envelope.

5.3 Magnetic Tape: This is the most successful backup storage media. Storage of data in magnetic tape is similar
to the cassette tape that we use for the storage and recording of music. The amount of data that can be stored
on magnetic tape is enormous in comparison to punched cards and paper tapes. It can be re-used for storing
the data by writing, modifying and erasing the old data.

5.4 CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory): CD-ROM is also called optical disk capable of storing
large amounts of data up to 1GB, although the most common size is 650MB. Data is recorded permanently
on the surface of the optical disk through the use of laser. The laser burns the hole on the surface of the disk
at the time of manufacture and the content recorded cannot be changed or erased by users. To access the data
from the CD, CD-Drive and to write the data on the CD, CD-Writer is needed.
5.5 CD-R/W (Compact Disk Read / Write): CD-R/W is also an optical
disk. Data is recorded on the surface of the optical disk through the use
of laser but it can be erased. To access the data from the CD, CD-R/W
drive is needed.

5.6 DVD: DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video disk. It’s
working technique is like a CD-ROM. It is single or double sided and each side can store one or two layers
of data. It stores minimum 4.37 GB data or very good quality of Video, several audio tracks in different
formats. It can be played by DVD Players and most computer DVD-ROM.

5.7 Pen Drive: It looks like small key ring. Most pen drives use a standard
USB connection allowing plugging in to a port on a personal computer.
USB pen drive emulates a small disk drive and allows data to be
transferred easily from one device to another. It consists of flash
memory data storage device integrated with a USB interface. It is
typically removable and rewritable. It is relatively new device storage
capacities can range from 64MB to 256GB. It is also called Flash drive.
It is example of EEPROM memory.
 Chapter :5 Personal Computer

1. Introduction
A personal computer (PC) is a general-purpose computer which is designed for personal uses. Its size, capabilities and low
cost make it useful for individuals. A personal computer may be a desktop, a laptop, tablet or a palmtop. It is based on
microprocessor technology. Software applications for personal computers include word processing, accounting,
spreadsheet, database, web browser and e-mail, games and special-purpose software. Modern personal computer often
have high-speed or dial-up connections to the Internet, allowing access to the Internet and wide range of other resource. A
PC may be used at home or may be found in an office. Personal Computers can be connected to a LAN either by a cable or
wireless.
2. Development of Personal Computer
Personal Computers were made possible by two technical innovations in the field of microelectronics viz the integrated
circuit (IC), which was developed in 1959 and the microprocessor, which first appeared in 1971. The IC permitted the
miniaturization of computer memory circuits, and the microprocessor reduced the size of a computer’s CPU to the size of a
single silicon chip. The first complete personal computer was the Commodore PET introduced in January 1977. It was soon
followed by the popular Apple II. In 1981, IBM (International Business Machine) introduced its own microcomputer model,
the IBM PC. IBM PS was the most popular personal computer.
3. Parts of a Personal Computer
A personal computer isn’t a single part called the ‘computer’. A computer is a system that has many parts working
together and each part has a special function.

3.1 System Unit: The system unit is the main part

of a computer system. It is a rectangular box
placed on or under your desk that houses the
important parts of a computer system. It
includes the motherboard, microprocessor,
main memory, bus and ports but does not
include the keyboard, monitor or any
peripheral devices. Inside this box are the
microprocessor, disk drives and other
elements that work together to do the actual
computing. The most important of these
components is the central processing unit
(CPU) or microprocessor which acts as the
‘brain’ of computer. Another component is
Random Access Memory (RAM) which
temporarily stores information that the CPU
uses while the computer is on. The
information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off. All these functions are controlled by software
which makes it possible for us to use computer. Almost every other part of computer such as keyboard, monitor,
 mouse and printer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports, typically on the
back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called peripheral devices.

3.1.1 There are two types of system unit

(a) Desktop Type System Unit: The desktop type system unit is a square box shaped structure which can lie flat
on the desk or table and the monitor is usually placed on the system unit.

(b) Tower type System Unit: This is another type of system unit.
This type of system unit is vertically placed on the side of the
monitor. The tower models are mostly uses at homes and offices.

3.1.2 Main Parts of System Unit

(a) CPU: CPU is the most important part of a computer where actual processing takes place. It is the brain behind all
personal computers. It is also referred to as processor or microprocessor.

(b) Motherboard: The motherboard is the flat circuit board on which fiber like structures of metal connecting pins are
mounted. These metal connecting pins connect components to each other through which data, instruction and
information are transferred. These fibres like structures of metal are called bus. The motherboard is the main circuit
board of a computer on which the processor, video card, sound card, IDE hard drive etc. are all plugged into the
various slots and connectors. The CPU also plugs into the motherboard through a Socket or Slot. On most computers,
it is possible to add memory chips directly to the motherboard. We can also upgrade to a faster PC by replacing the
CPU chip. To add additional core features we may need to replace the motherboard entirely.
(c) RAM: This is where our computer keeps the information it is using at the moment. RAM stands for Random Access
Memory and information is kept here only as long as it is needed by the application running on the computer.

(d) RAM Chip Slots: These slots are meant to

expand the computer’s memory by adding
RAM Chips.

(e) ROM: It is a silicon chip on motherboard on

which instructions are burned at the time
manufacture. When computer is switched
on, instruction stored is automatically
initiated and after switching
it off instructions do not get lost.

(f) Math Co-Processor Slot: Some Personal

computers have a slot where Math
Coprocessor can be inserted. This processor
assists the CPU in
performing its mathematical
operations.

(g) Video Card: A video card is also called

video adapter, graphics-accelerator card,
display adapter or graphics adapter or
graphics card. Its function is to generate an
output image to a display.

(h) Sound card: This card enables us to play sound and music. The sound card converts the digital information into
electrical signals.

(i) Power Supply: A power supply unit (PSU) is the component that supplies power to other components in a computer.
A power supply unit is typically designed to convert AC from the mains to DC power for the different components
of the computer. Most components require 5 volts while the floppy and hard disk require about 12 Volts.

(j) Internal Speaker: It is a speaker on the computer motherboard that is responsible for beeps, beeping noises and
other tones. This speaker is very basic and is not a speaker for playing songs, music or other sound.

(k) Timer: It is an internal clock on the motherboard which is battery operated.

(l) Expansion Slot: it is a long narrow connector which allow us to plug in expansion card like the sound card, network
card etc. The primary purpose of an expansion card is to provide or expand on features not offered by the
motherboard. The back side of system unit have ports and jacks to connect different accessories.

(i) Power Socket

(ii) Keyboard Port
(iii) Monitor Port
 (iv) Serial Port
(v) Audio Jack
(vi) Network Port
(vii) USB

3.2 Hard Disk: It is a hardware device which stores all programs and data in the computer. So it is referred to as the
memory bank of a computer. It is a permanent memory. So programs and data are not lost when the computer is
turned off.

3.3 CD Drive: CD drive is a device that enables us to read and store the information on CD disks. It is usually located
on the front of the system unit. CD drives use laser to read data from a CD.

3.4 Monitor: It is the part of the computer that looks like a small TV and shows you what is going on. Usually it has
two cords, one for power and the other for connecting to the system unit. It displays text characters and graphics in
gray shed or in colours.

3.5 Mouse: It is an input device and is used to point and select items on your computer screen. By sliding the mouse
around on a flat surface the user moves a pointer on the screen. When the tip of the pointer is positioned over the
desired item, the user clicks the mouse to select the item. A single cord connects the mouse to the system unit.

3.6 Keyboard: It is a typewriter which contains keys to feed information into the computer. It is attached to the system
unit with a cord.

3.7 Speaker: It is an output device. When the speaker is connected to the sound card, the output as a sound can be heard
on the speaker. Often it is used for entertainment.

3.8 Printer: It is an output device that produced print of images such as numbers, alphabets, graphs etc. on paper or
hard copy which is called printout.

3.9 Scanner: It is an input device that transfer typed handwritten texts, graphs, diagrams and photographs to the
computer in digital form.

3.10 Modem: It is a short form of Modulator-Demodulator. To connect our computer to the Internet, we need a modem.
A modem is a device that sends and receives information over a telephone line or high speed cable

3.11 Sudden power cut erases any present data. So a UPS can be used to provide uninterrupted power supply to the
computer system and save the data typically for 5 to 15 minutes until an auxiliary power supply can be turned on
and utility power restored, or equipment is safely shut down. It is also known as battery backup.
 Chapter 6: Design Tool and Programming Languages

1. Introduction
1.1 Design: Before any program coding, input, output, flow of data and logic should be defined. For this purpose, we need
design tools. There are some design tools:

1.2 DFD (Data Flow Diagram): Data flow diagrams are the most commonly used as a pictorial way of showing the flow of
data through a system or subsystem. It is easier to understand and grasp. For diagrammatic representation it also uses
symbols and notation. Like below is shown data flow diagram for working of components of computer system

• Data Flow: It is represented by

line arrow. It shows the direction
of flow of data.
• Process: It changes the incoming
data flow to outgoing data flow.
• Decision: It shows the logical
process which has resultant Yes or
No.
• Connector: It
connects the flowcharts of
more than one page.
• Input/Output: It shows input /
output in program.
• Data Store: It shows storage of data.

2. Algorithm
To make a computer do something, we need to write a computer program or group of instructions. To write a computer
program, we have to tell the computer, step by step, exactly what we want it to do. The computer then executes the program
following each step to find the end goal. When we are telling the
computer what to do, we also get to choose how it is going to do it.
That’s the point where computer algorithms come in. Algorithm is an
effective method for solving a problem using sequence of
instructions. Each algorithm is a list of well-defined instructions for
completing a task from an initial state to the final state. A mistake in
an algorithm that causes incorrect results is called logical error.
 3. Flowchart
The pictorial representation of a program or the algorithm is known as
flowchart. It is nothing but a diagrammatic representation of the various
steps involved in designing a system. The purpose of using flowcharts is to
graphically present the logical flow of data in the system and defining major
phases of processing. For diagrammatic representation it also uses symbols
and notations.
Flowcharts are used in designing and documenting simple processes or
programs. Like other types of diagrams, they help visualize what is going on and thereby help understand a process, and
perhaps also find less-obvious features within the process, like flaws and bottlenecks. There are different types of flowcharts:
each type has its own set of boxes and notations. The two most common types of boxes in a flowchart are:

a processing step, usually called activity, and denoted as a rectangular box

a decision, usually denoted as a diamond.
A flowchart is described as "cross-functional" when the chart is divided into different vertical or horizontal parts, to describe
the control of different organizational units. A symbol appearing in a particular part is within the control of that
organizational unit. A cross-functional flowchart allows the author to correctly locate the responsibility for performing an
action or making a decision, and to show the responsibility of each organizational unit for different parts of a single process.

Flowcharts depict certain aspects of processes and are usually complemented by other types of diagram. For instance, Kaoru
Ishikawa defined the flowchart as one of the seven basic tools of quality control, next to the histogram, Pareto chart, check
sheet, control chart, cause-and-effect diagram, and the scatter diagram. Similarly, in UML, a standard concept-modeling
notation used in software development, the activity diagram, which is a type of flowchart, is just one of many different
diagram types.

Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams and Drakon-charts are an alternative notation for process flow.

Common alternative names include: flow chart, process flowchart, functional flowchart, process map, process chart,
functional process chart, business process model, process model, process flow diagram, work flow diagram, business flow
diagram. The terms "flowchart" and "flow chart" are used interchangeably.

The underlying graph structure of a flowchart is a flow graph, which abstracts away node types, their contents and other
ancillary information.
Common symbols
 4. Pseudo code
It is also called Program Design Language (PDL) and is
an alternative to flowcharts. Pseudo code allows the
programmer to represent logic in English in like
manner. It is easy to modify.

6. Programming Languages
Programming Languages are the medium used by one to communicate instructions to a computer. It is a set of keywords,
symbols and a system of rules for constructing statements by which humans can communicate instructions to be executed
by a computer. Each programming language has its own syntax that is the set of specific rules and words that express the
logical steps of an algorithm
5.1 Types of Programming languages:
(a) Low level language
Machine Language
Assembly Language
(b) High level language

5.1.1 Machine Language

It is a low level programming language also called machine code or object code. It is the only language understood directly
by computer’s central processing unit because it is a collection of binary digit. It has no need of translator program. While
easily understood by computers machine languages are almost impossible for humans to use because they consist of
numbers, that is series of ‘0’ and ‘1’. Coding in machine language is very difficult and has more possibilities of error. Machine
language instruction has two parts, one is the operation code or opcode that specifies the operation to be performed and
the other is operand such as data on which the operation should act.

5.1.2 Assembly Language

Assembly language was developed to make coding easier than machine language. At the place of binary code of machine
language mnemonic code and symbolic addresses were developed, that were easy to remember. This symbolic language
made program writing easy. But it must be translated into machine codes before being used operationally. The program
used to convert or translate programs written in assembly code to machine code is called assembler. Coding in assembly
language is simpler than machine language and error detection is easy.
5.1.3 High Level Language
High level language is a programming language which is machine
independent and uses translator. It is closer to human languages. It is
also called a source code. Some commonly used high level languages are
C, BASIC, FORTRAN, ALGOL, PASCAL etc.

➢ Scientific Language: It is a programming language that was

designed for the use of mathematical formulas and matrices.
Although all programming languages allow for this kind of
processing but scientific language makes easier to express these
actions. Examples are FORTRAN, ALGOL etc.
➢ Commercial Languages: It is a programming language that
was designed for solving everyday commercial problems.
➢ Special Purpose Languages: It is a programming language that
was designed for a specific function such as payroll, simulation etc. Examples are ADA, Modula and Modula, SQL,
QUEL etc.
➢ Multipurpose Language: These are languages intended to cope with a number of different types of application area
such as business and scientific. Examples are APL, BASIC, PL1, C and PASCAL
➢ Command Language for Operating System: These languages are used to control operation of a computer. Most
command languages are specific to the particular manufacturer’s operating system. Examples are DCL, SHELL,
MSDOS.

5.2 There are some High level languages as below.

5.2.1 FORTRAN (Formula Translation): FORTRAN was the first high

level programming language invented by John Backus for IBM 704
in October 1956 but the first FORTRAN compiler delivered in
April 1957. The language was widely adopted by scientists and
engineers for writing numerically intensive programs. Which
encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that could generate
faster and more efficient code. FORTRAN is still used today for
programming scientific and mathematical applications such as
mathematical calculation, function and formula.

5.2.2 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language): It was one of the earliest high level programming languages. It
was developed in 1959 by Grace Hopper. Its primary domain is
business, finance and administrative systems for companies and
governments. Group of sentences in this language is called paragraph.
All paragraphs together make a section and all sections make a division.
For mathematical terms, COBOL uses ADD, Subtract and Multiply etc.
it is English like language and provide much suitable documentation.
5.2.3 SQL (Structured Query Language), QUEL (Query Language) are examples of database query language.

5.2.4 BASIC (Beginner’s All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code): It was designed in 1964 by John George Kemeny
and Thomas Eugene Kurtz to provide computer access to non-science students. It is simple, powerful and interactive
language for beginners and provides clear error message. It allows advanced features to be added for experts so it is
used by both scientists and businessmen.

5.2.5 C: C is a general purpose computer language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at the
Bell Laboratories for use on the Unix Operating System. Although C was designed for
implementing system software, it is also widely used for developing portable application
software. It is one of the most popular programming languages and it is widely used on many
different platforms.

5.2.6 C++: It is object oriented general purpose programming language. It is regarded as a middle level language, as it
comprises a combination of both high level and low level language features. It is better than C programming language
but tough to code.

5.2.7 C Sharp: It is a programming language which also expressed as C#. It was developed by Microsoft. It is a simple,
modern, general purpose object oriented programming language.

5.2.8 Java: Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in
1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems Java platform. It is object oriented programming language. It derives
much of its syntax from C and C++. It is primarily used in the form of client side JavaScript, implemented as an
integrated component of the web browser, allowing the development of enhanced user interfaces and dynamic
websites.

5.2.9 MS DOS: It is one of the most popular operating system developed by Microsoft.

5.2.10 Fourth Generation Language (4th GL):

The third generation language needed a large number of codes for typical commercial system. It is time consuming to debug
and the modification of complex system is very difficult. It is a 4th generation language developed by the software vendors
in various application tools offering further improvement in productivity in programming. A fourth generation programming
language is designed with a specific purpose in mind, such as the development of commercial business software. All 4GLs
are designed to reduce programming effort the time it takes to develop software and the cost of software development.
 Chapter 7: Data Representation and Number System

1. Introduction
Data representation is a method to represent data in a computer. In computer we enter different forms of data such
as number, text, graphics, sound etc. all these data look different but in the computer process all are in only one form
that is 0 and 1, binary or digital form. Each information is stored in a computer as a digital data.
Generally we use the decimal number system which with the help of 0 to 9 represents any number. But in a computer
any number is represented by a combination of 0 and 1.

2. Number systems used in

computer
I. Binary Number System
II. Octal Number System
III. Hexadecimal Number System

2.1 Binary Number System: In the binary

number system, there are only two
possible values 0 and 1 which represent
the ON and OFF state of electrical pulse
in the circuit. These 0 and 1 are binary
digits and each is called a bit. This
number system is used by computer to data process and storage.

Conversion of Decimal to Binary: To convert decimal to binary we simply divide the decimal value by 2 and then
write down the remainder, we repeat this process until we cannot divide it by 2 anymore.

Conversion of Binary of Decimal: To convert binary to decimal we simply multiply the digit of binary value by its
place value and then add all the values we get from multiplication.

2.2 Octal Number System: In Octal number system there is a base of 8 because there are 8
possible digits (0 to 7). Each digit position in an octal number represents a power of eight.
Each octal digit is thus equivalent to three binary digits.

Conversion of Decimal to Octal: To convert decimal to octal we simply divide the decimal value by 8 and then write
down the remainder. We repeat this process until we cannot divide by 8 anymore.

Conversion of Octal to Decimal: To convert octal to decimal we simply multiply the digits of octal value by its place
value and then add the value we get from multiplication.
 2.2.1 Conversion of Octal to Binary

There are two methods to convert octal to binary

I. To convert octal to binary we simply multiply the digits of octal value by its place value and then add the value
we get from multiplication. That is decimal value of octal number. Again we calculate the binary value of this
decimal value.
II. Octal number is represented by collection of three digits of binary number such as octal number 1 is represented
by 001 in binary number system. So, to convert octal to binary we replace each digit of octal by three-digit
collection of binary number.

2.3 Hexadecimal Number System: In Hexadecimal number system there is a base of 16 because there are 16 possible
digits (0 and 15). Each digit position in a hexadecimal number represents a power of sixteen. In the hexadecimal
number system the number 0 – 9 are represented in their normal way, but numbers 10 – 15 are represented by the
letters A – F respectively. Each hexadecimal digit is thus, equivalent to four binary digits.

Conversion of Decimal to Hexadecimal: To convert decimal to hexadecimal we simply divide the decimal value by
16 and then write down the remainder repeat this process until we cannot divide it by 16 anymore.

Conversion of Hexadecimal to Decimal: To convert hexadecimal to decimal we simply multiply the digits of
hexadecimal value by its place value and then add the value we get from multiplication.

2.4 Adding binary numbers

Adding binary numbers is very similar to adding decimal numbers but it uses only two digits 0 and 1. There are
four basic rules of binary addition
(i) 0+0=0
(ii) 0+1=1
(iii) 1+0=1
(iv) 1 + 1 = 0 (carry one because 1 + 1 = 10)

2.5 Subtracting binary numbers

Subtracting binary numbers is very similar to subtracting decimal numbers but it also uses only two digits 0 and 1. There
are four basic rules of binary subtraction
(i) 0–0=0
(ii) 0 – 1 = 1 (borrow from nearest left side digit)
(iii) 1–0=1
(iv) 1–1=0

3 Binary Memory
Memory is a data storage device in a computer system. The data is stored in binary form (0 and 1).
Bit: A bit is the smallest unit of computer memory. There is only one value of a bit either 1 or 0.
 Nibble: It is a sequence of four bits.
Byte: It is a sequence of 8 bits and any data can
measure in a byte. To store in memory any
alphabet, symbol or space etc needs minimum
one-byte space.
Word: A word is a string of bits stored in
computer memory. Word length can vary in
different machines.
Memory measurement: Memory or any storage
device’s capacity is expressed as a quantity of
bits or bytes, such as kilobyte, megabytes and gigabyte etc. The total amount of stored information that a storage
device or medium can hold is called a capacity of that memory or storage device.

4 bits 1 Nibble
8 bits 1 byte
1024 bytes 1 kilobyte (KB)
1024 kilobytes 1 Megabyte (MB)
1024 Megabytes
1 Gigabyte (GB)
1024 Gigabytes
1 Terabyte (TB)

A gigabyte is equal to approximately one billion bytes or a thousand megabytes. A gigabyte is equal to exactly
1073741824 bytes and to 1024 megabytes. A megabyte is equal to about one million bytes or exactly 1048576 bytes.

4 Computer Codes
In computer any character like the alphabet, digit or any special character is represented by collection ‘1’s and ‘0’s in a
unique coded pattern. These patterns are of different types and are called computer codes.

5 Coding System
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD): It is also called Packet decimal. Binary Coded Decimal is a number system where
four bits are used to represent each decimal digit.
1. ASCII Code: It stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. In ASCII system a character is
represented by seven bits.
2. EBCDIC Code: It stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange code. In EBCDIC system a character is
represented by eight bits. ASCII and EBCDIC are very popular coding system.

6 Logic Gate
A computer circuit that performs the logic functions AND, NAND, NOR, NOT, OR, XNOR, and XOR. In the picture below, is
an example diagram and explanation of each of the types of logic gates. In the diagram, A and B are the input power sources
and Y is the output power, 1 represents power (ON), and 0 indicates no power (OFF). For example, in the first example of
the Not gate if A had no power, then the output would turn on, and if A had power, the output would turn off.
NAND gate and NOR gate are called Universal gates because by using these gates any digital circuit can be constructed.
 Chapter 8: Software

1. Introduction
Software is a collection of instructions that enable the user to interact with a computer, its hardware, or perform tasks.
Without software, most computers would be useless. For example, without your Internet browser software, you could
not surf the Internet or read this page and without an operating system, the browser could not run on your computer.

2. Software is often divided into two categories

Software

System Software Application Software

1. Operating System 1. Medical Software

2. Translator 2. Education Software
3. DBMS 3. Business Software
4. Utility 4. Entertainment
5. Data Communication Software
Software
2.1 System Software
System software is software on a computer that is designed
to control and work with computer hardware. The two main types of system software are the operating system and the
software installed with the operating system, often called utility software. The operating system and utility software typically
depend on each other to function properly.
Some system software is used directly by users and other system software works in the background. System software can
allow users to interact directly with hardware functionality, like the Device Manager and many of the utilities found in the
Control Panel.
Software that allows users to create documents (e.g. Microsoft Word), edit pictures (e.g. Adobe Photoshop), browse the
Internet (e.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer), or check their e-mail (e.g. Microsoft Outlook) are considered application
software. System software does not involve direct interaction with computer hardware or operating system functionality,
but may require the use of one or more hardware components to function properly.
 2.1.1 Operating System
An operating system or OS is software on the hard drive that
enables the computer hardware to communicate and operate
with the computer software. Without a computer operating
system, a computer and software programs would be useless.
2.1.1.1 Operating System Types
Operating systems can be classified as a method of operating the
system and mode of system access. As computers have
progressed and developed so have the types of operating
systems. Many computer operating systems will fall into more than one category.

➢ GUI: Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI operating system contains graphics and icons and is commonly
navigated by using a computer mouse. See the GUI definition for a complete definition. Examples of GUI operating
systems are System 7.x, Windows 98, Windows CE.

➢ Multi-user Operating System: A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer at
the same time and different times. The operating system must make sure that the requirements of the various users
are balanced and that each program they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one
user doesn’t affect the entire community of users. Examples of
operating systems that would fall into this category are Linux,
Unix, Windows 2000.

➢ Multiprocessing Operating System: It is an operating system

when two or more processors are present in a computer system
sharing some or all of the memory. It supports running a program
on more than one CPU. Examples of operating systems that
would fall into this category are Linux, Unix, Windows XP.

➢ Multitasking Operating System: An operating system that is

capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the
same time. Examples of operating systems that would fall into
this category are Linux, Unix, Windows 8.

➢ Multithreading Operating System: Operating systems that

allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently. Examples of operating systems that would fall into
this category are Linux, Unix, Windows XP.

➢ Multi-Programming Operating system: More than one program resides in main storage and is being processed
apparently at the same time. This is accomplished by taking turns at short bursts of processing time.

➢ Single-user, Multi-tasking: This is the type of operating system most people use on their desktop and laptop
computers today. Microsoft’s Windows and Apple’s Mac Operating system are both examples of operating system
that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the same time.

2.1.1.2 There are some important Operating Systems:

 ➢ MS-DOS: It was the main operating system of Microsoft installed in personal computers. Its most popular version
is 7.0. It is simple, non graphical and command line operating system but remembering all commands are very
difficult task. So it was gradually replaced on desktop computers by operating system offering a graphical user
interface (GUI).

➢ MS Windows: Microsoft Windows is a series of operating systems and graphical user interface produced by
Microsoft. It has other versions like Windows 95, windows 98, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7. The
most recent client version of Windows 8 and 10. The most server version used is Windows Server 2008 R2.

➢ UNIX: Unix is a computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Bell
Labs including Ken Thompson, Denis Ritchie, Brian Kernighan, Douglas Mcllroy and Joe Ossanna. Today the term
Unix is used to describe any operating system that conforms to Unix standards, meaning the core operating system
operates the same as the original Unix operating system. Unix operating systems are widely used in both server and
workstations. First time it was written in assembly language but in 1973 it was rewritten in C programming language.
Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time sharing configuration.

➢ Linux: It is a Unix-like operating system based on the Linux Kernel. The “Linux” comes from Linux kernel,
originally written in 1991 by Linus Thorvald. Linux is predominantly known for its use in server and it is also a
example of open source software.

2.1.2 Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is a method of using the computer hard drive to provide extra memory for the computer. Segments of
memory are stored on the hard drive known as
pages. When a segment of memory is requested
that is not in memory it is moved from the virtual
memory to an actual memory address.

2.1.3 Translator
Translator is a computer program or set of
instruction that converts instructions written in programming languages or source code to machine language or object
code.
1. Assembler: The assembler translates the source program in assembly language into machine code.
2. Compiler: The compiler is a program that translates the user source program written in high level language to an
object code ready for execution. It reads the entire source code, collecting and reorganizing the errors. We have to
correct the syntax or it won’t compile. After
correcting all the mistakes, it translates the entire
source code into object code.
3. Interpreter: Interpreted or an Interpreted
language refers to a language that does not need
to be compiled before it is executed. However,
because the script or program is not compiled, it
requires an interpreter to run. For example, the file
"myfile.cgi" could contain Perl code to run on a
computer and if Perl was installed it would be
used as the interpreter to run the script. However,
without Perl being installed it would not be able
to be understood or run by the computer.
An interpreter takes the script or program code and
modifies it in such a way that it can be understood and the executed by the computer. Below are some examples of
interpreted programming languages.

2.1.4 Utilities
It is also called service program. It is a small system program which provides a useful service to the user and enhances
the capabilities of operating system. It makes it easier to use computer. It performs a very specific task, usually related
to managing system resources and tells the computer how to use its components. The operating system contains a
number of utilities for managing disk drives, printers and other devices.

2.1.4.1 Some utilities are:

1. Disk Formatting: Disk formatting is the process of preparing a hard disk or other storage medium for use according
to operating system including setting up an empty file system.
2. Disk cleaner: Disk cleaner is a computer maintenance utility designed to free up disk space on a computer’s hard
drive. The utility first searches and analyses the hard drive for files that are no longer of any use and then it removes
the unnecessary files.
3. Disk Compression: Disk compression increases the amount of information that can be stored on a hard disk by
compressing all information stored on a hard disk. A disk compression utility works automatically and the user
doesn’t need to be aware of its existence.
4. Backup program: Backup program is a computer program used to perform a complete copy or backup of file, data
database system. The full backup program enables a user to make an exact duplicate of everything contained on the
original source or computer system. This software must also be used to perform a recovery of the data or system in
the event of a disaster.
5. Disk defragmentation: Fragmentation happens to a hard disk over times as we save, change or delete files. Disk
defragmenter is a tool that rearranges the data on hard disk and reunites fragmented files so computer can run more
efficiently.
 2.1.5 Device Driver
A device driver a software driver is a computer program
that allows high-level computer programs to interact with
a hardware device. A driver interacts with the device
through the bus or communications subsystem to which
the hardware connects. Device drivers are hardware
dependent.

3. Application Software
Application software perform the specific jobs for the user such as producing a payroll or stock control program or solving
problem etc. it is on top of system software because it is unable to run without the operating system and system utilities. It
includes programs that do real work for users. It is also called end-user programs and it includes word processors,
spreadsheets and database management systems etc.

3.1 There are two types of application software

➢ Special Purpose Application Software: Special purpose software is a type of software that can only be used for
only one specific thing. For example weather forecasting, aeroplane control etc.
➢ General Purpose Application Software: General purpose application software is generally tools that provide
specific capabilities, but not in support of a specific purpose. For example, a spreadsheet program is a general purpose
application.

3.4 What is Malware and its Types?

Malware can simply be defined as malicious code. It is a software that is developed with a malicious intent, or whose
effect is malicious. This is software that can cripple or disrupt the system’s operation, allowing attacker access to
confidential and sensitive information, as well as the ability to spy on personal and private computers.

Cybercriminals specifically program malware to be stealthy so that it can stay on the target system for extended
periods of time without the consent or knowledge of the user. Malicious software usually disguises itself as clean
programs.

But while the effects of such malicious software often are harmful for users, they are devastating for companies. If
spread through a network, malware can cause widespread damage and disruption, necessitating extensive recovery
efforts within organizations.

The spectrum of malware is wide — and getting wider by the minute.

Ways of Spread

Drive-by download: The unintended download of computer software from the Internet. It either refers to the
download that happens without the knowledge of a user, or the download that a person authorizes but without the
understanding of the consequences.

Homogeneity: A setup where all the systems are running on the same operating system and connected to the same
network. This increases the chances of a worm in one computer to easily spread to others on that network.

Vulnerability: A security defect in software that can be attacked by a malware. It could be a design flaw,
programming error, or some other kind of inherent weakness in a software implementation, application or operating
system.

Backdoor: An opening or break left in a software, hardware, network or system security by design, usually for
debugging purposes.

Types of Malware Attacks

0-Day: A zero-day vulnerability is an undisclosed flaw that hackers can exploit. It’s called 0-day because it is not
publicly reported or announced before becoming active.

Exploit: A threat made real via a successful attack on an existing vulnerability. Also refers to software that is
developed to target the loopholes on a particular device.

Privilege escalation: Situation where the attacker gets escalated access to restricted data that is on a higher level of
security.

Evasion: The techniques malware maker design to avoid detection and analysis of their malware by security systems
and software.

Blended threat: A malware package that combines the characteristics of multiple types of malware like Trojans,
worms or viruses, seeking to exploit more than one system vulnerability.

Other Important Terms

Botnet: A number of Internet connected devices that are running one or more bots. Botnets are used to perform
distributed denial of service attacks, send spam, and steal data.

Containment: The process of stopping the spread of malware, and preventing further damage to hosts.
 Endpoint: A security approach to the protection of computer networks that are remotely bridged to client devices.
Devices that are not in compliance can thereby be provisioned with limited access.

Payload: The part of the malware program that actually does the damage.

Privilege: In computing, privilege means the access to modify a system.

Signature: Signs that are specific to either a certain type of behavior or a specific item of malware.

Threat: In computing security, a computer or network is deemed under threat when it harbors persistent software
vulnerabilities, thereby increasing the possibility or certainty of a malicious attack

Track: Evidence of an intrusion into a system or a network. Advanced malware can clean folders, clear event logs,
and hide network traffic to cover their tracks.

Zombie: A computer connected to the Internet that has been compromised by a hacker, computer virus or Trojan
horse. It can be used to perform malicious tasks.

List of Common Malware Types:

Adware: The least dangerous and most lucrative Malware. Adware displays ads on your computer.
Spyware: Spyware is software that spies on you, tracking your internet activities in order to send advertising
(Adware) back to your system.
Virus: A virus is a contagious program or code that attaches itself to another piece of software, and then reproduces
itself when that software is run. Most often this is spread by sharing software or files between computers.
Worm: A program that replicates itself and destroys data and files on the computer. Worms work to “eat” the system
operating files and data files until the drive is empty.
Trojan: The most dangerous Malware. Trojans are written with the purpose of discovering your financial
information, taking over your computer’s system resources, and in larger systems creating a “denial-of-service attack
” Denial-of-service attack: an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to those attempting to
reach it. Example: AOL, Yahoo or your business network becoming unavailable.
Rootkit: This one is likened to the burglar hiding in the attic, waiting to take from you while you are not home. It is
the hardest of all Malware to detect and therefore to remove; many experts recommend completely wiping your hard
drive and reinstalling everything from scratch. It is designed to permit the other information gathering Malware in to
get the identity information from your computer without you realizing anything is going on.
Backdoors: Backdoors are much the same as Trojans or worms, except that they open a “backdoor” onto a computer,
providing a network connection for hackers or other Malware to enter or for viruses or SPAM to be sent.
 Keyloggers: Records everything you type on your PC in order to glean your log-in names, passwords, and other
sensitive information, and send it on to the source of the keylogging program. Many times keyloggers are used by
corporations and parents to acquire computer usage information.
Rogue security software: This one deceives or misleads users. It pretends to be a good program to remove Malware
infections, but all the while it is the Malware. Often it will turn off the real Anti-Virus software. The next image
shows the typical screen for this Malware program, Antivirus 2010
Ransomware: If you see this screen that warns you that you have been locked out of your computer until you pay
for your cybercrimes. Your system is severely infected with a form of Malware called Ransomware. It is not a real
notification from the FBI, but, rather an infection of the system itself. Even if you pay to unlock the system, the
system is unlocked, but you are not free of it locking you out again. The request for money, usually in the hundreds
of dollars is completely fake.
Browser Hijacker: When your homepage changes to one that looks like those in the images inserted next, you may
have been infected with one form or another of a Browser Hijacker. This dangerous Malware will redirect your
normal search activity and give you the results the developers want you to see. Its intention is to make money off
your web surfing. Using this homepage and not removing the Malware lets the source developers capture your surfing
interests. This is especially dangerous when banking or shopping online. These homepages can look harmless, but in
every case they allow other more infectious
Spybot: A spybot is the name of a worm first encountered on April 16, 2003 that spread through P2P networks, such
as KaZaA, that links the infected computer to an IRC network; enabling users who are familiar with its channels to
remotely control the computer.

Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software

What is CRM Software?

In CRM (customer relationship management), CRM software is a category of software that covers a broad set of
applications designed to help businesses manage many of the following business processes:

customer data
customer interaction
access business information
automate sales
track leads
contracts
marketing
customer support
clients and contacts
support vendor / partner relationships
employees
knowledge and training
assets or resources

While CRM software is most commonly used to manage a business-customer relationship, CRM software systems
are also used in the same way to manage business contacts, employees, clients, contract wins and sales leads.
Typically, CRM software is used in the enterprise, however many products scale and can be used in a business of
any size.

CRM software is designed to help businesses meet the overall goals of customer relationship management. Today's
CRM software is highly scalable and customizable, allowing businesses to gain actionable customer insights with a
back-end analytical engine, view business opportunities with predictive analytics, streamline operations and
personalize customer service based on the customer's known history and prior interactions with your business.
 Chapter 9: Network
1. Introduction
A computer network is a group of computers that are connected to each other for the purpose of communication. A
computer network allows computers to communicate with many other
computers and to share resources and information. It is a combination of
hardware and software which provide facility of sending and receiving of
information between computers or sharing of information between
computing devices. To establish any network needs sender, receiver,
medium and protocol. ARPANET was the first operational computer
network in the world.

2. Some Network related terms

2.1 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards which is used by computers to exchange information or data with
each other across a network. It can be defined as the rules governing the syntax, semantics and synchronization of
communication.
2.2 Nodes: In data communication, a node is any active, physical, electronic device attached to a network. These devices
are capable of sending, receiving, or forwarding information; sometimes a combination of the three. Examples of
nodes include bridges, switches, hubs and modems to other computers, printers, and servers. One of the most common
forms of a node is a host computer; often referred to as an Internet node.
2.3 Terminal: In data communication terminal is computer equipment at the end of the link from the host processor. A
computer terminal is an electronic device that is used for entering data into and displaying data from a computer. It
is used to share the resources of mainframe or supercomputer.

3. Networking Device
There are devices to establish a network:
❖ Repeater
❖ Bridge
❖ Hub
❖ Switches
❖ Routers
❖ Gateways
4. Types of Network:
There are different types of network
4.1 Local Area Network (LAN): A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small area.
Most often, a LAN is confined to a single room, building or group of buildings; however, one LAN can be connected
to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves.

4.2 Wide Area Network (WAN): Wide Area Network, WAN is a collection of computers and network resources
connected via a network over a geographic area. WideArea Networks are commonly connected either through the
Internet or special arrangements made with phone companies or other service providers.
 4.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Metropolitan-
Area Network, MAN is a network that is utilized across
multiple buildings. A MAN is much larger than the
standard LocalArea Network (LAN), but is not as large as
a Wide Area Network (WAN). A MAN is commonly used
in school campuses and large companies with multiple
buildings.

5. Network Topology
There are different types of network topology.
5.1 Mesh Topology: A network setup where each computer
and network device is interconnected with one another,
allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if
one of the connections go down. It is a topology
commonly used for wireless networks.
5.2 Star Topology: Alternatively referred to as a star network,
star topology is one of the most common network setups.
In this configuration, every node connects to a central
network device, like a hub, switch, or computer. The
central network device acts as a server and the peripheral
devices act as clients.
5.3 Ring Topology: Alternatively referred to as a ring
network, a ring topology is a computer network
configuration where the devices are connected to each
other in a circular shape. Each packet is sent around the
ring until it reaches its final destination. Ring topologies
are used in both local area network (LAN) and wide area
network (WAN) setups.
5.4 Bus Topology: A bus topology is a network setup in
which each computer and network device are connected to a single cable or backbone.

6. Modulation:
Modulation is used to send an information bearing signal over long distances. It usually involves varying one waveform in
relation to another waveform. Modulation is a process to change the analog signal to digital signal and digital signal to analog
signal. A device that perform these operations is called a modem.

There are three types of modulation

6.1 Amplitude modulation: It is a process to change the amplitude of carrier signal according to digital signal having
information.
6.2 Frequency modulation: It is a process to change the frequency of carrier signal according to digital signal having
information.
6.3 Phase modulation: It is a process to change the phase of carrier signal according to digital signal having information.
7. Data Transmission Service
The service used to transmit data from one place to another place is called data transmission service and the organization
which provides this service is called data transmission service provider.

7.1 Various Data Transmission Services

7.1.1 Dial up lines: Dialup internet service is a service that allows connectivity to the internet through a standard
telephone line. By connecting the telephone line to the modem in your computer and inserting the other end into
the phone jack, and configuring the computer to dial a specific number provided by your internet service
provider (ISP) you are able to access the internet on your computer.
7.1.2 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): Digital Subscriber Line, DSL is a method for home users and small businesses
to have high-speed access to the Internet over standard copper lines. Capable of receiving up to 6.1 megabits
per second, DSL is a great solution if it is available in your area.
7.1.3 Leased Line: A leased line connects the two locations for voice and data transmission. It is also called dedicated
line and it makes transmission possible near and far both. It is not only dedicated line between two points, it is
reserved circuit between two points. Generally leased lines are used by business to connect geographically
distant branch offices, because it makes sure to provide higher quality bandwidth in network traffic.

7.1.4 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital

Network): Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) is a
set of communication
standards for simultaneous
digital transmission of voice, video,
data, and other network services over
the traditional circuits of the public
switched telephone network.

8. Network Interface Card

A network interface card is a hardware component designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network
or enables our computer to connect to other computers. Computer sends and receives data packets in network under a
protocol.

9. Wireless Technology
It is a technology which make possible to send or receive data without cable and saves the cable cost. It uses
electromagnetic, microwave and infrared waves etc. at the place of cable. The applications of wireless technology are
television remote control, Cellular phone and Wi-Fi etc.
 10. WiMAX
Chap ter 10: Internet (Worldwide
Interoperability for
Microwave Access)
It is a wireless transmission of
1. Introduction data using a variety of
transmission mode. The technology provides up to 10 Mbit/s broadband speed without
the need for cables.

The Internet is a worldwide network of computer networks that connects university, government,
commercial, and other computers in over 150 countries. There are thousands of networks, tens of
thousands of computers, and millions of users on the Internet, with the numbers expanding daily.
Using the Internet, you can send electronic mail, chat with colleagues around the world, and obtain
information on a wide variety of subjects.

The internet is huge ocean of information of resources and services such as inter-linked hypertext documents of the World
Wide Web (www), online chatting, online banking, file transfer and sharing, online gaming, online education, books, movies,
sports and e-mail etc. it allows user to connect to server all around the world, view web pages and send e-mails etc.

During 1991 – 1993 commercial use of Internet took its speed. For the first time, on 15th August 1995 VSNL (Videsh Sanchar
Nigam Limited) and ISP (Internet Service Provider) launched Internet services in India. The first political party of India is
Bharatiya Janta Party, which created its own website on internet. First telephone directory on internet was made available
by Sikkim state.

2. Equipment requirement for using Internet

2.1 Computer: Any good IBM compatible, Macintosh or UNIX computer that has good storage space and specifications.
2.2 Modem: It is short form of modulation and demodulation. To connect the Internet through telephone or
telecommunications line a modem is required. It is a link between Internet Service Provider and browser. There are
two types of modems:
➢ External Modem ➢
Internal Modem
The external modem has to be connected to our computer and telephone line with cables and electric socket while
the Internal modem is already built inside our computer. The billing of our telephone starts from the moment we get
connected to Internet. So a modem with good speed ensures low telephone bills.

2.3 Web Browser: A web browser or Internet browser, a browser is a software program
created as a simplified means to present and explore content on the World Wide Web.
These pieces of content, including pictures, videos, and web pages, are connected
using hyperlinks and classified with Uniform Recourse Identifiers (URLs).
 2.4 Internet Service Provider (ISP): ISP is an
organisation that provides Internet access to users.
If we have a computer with a web browser, a
modem and a telephone line connected to our
computer, we also need an Internet connection. We
can get an internet connection from various ISPs.

3. Use of Internet
Internet has become a part of our everyday life. From being used in defence purposes by the United States military for
communication initially to being used worldwide for hundreds of thousands of different purpose of our everyday life now.
There are millions of applications of Internet and we are in fact as dependent on Internet as we are on other utility things
like electricity, water etc. before a few years, people used to get up in the morning and read the newspaper or watch
television. Now most people log onto the Internet first thing in the morning. So internet has become so essential in our daily
life.

3.1 These uses of the Internet

3.1.1 Search Engine: A search engine is a software program or script available through the Internet that searches
documents and files for keywords and returns the results of any files containing those keywords. Today, there
are thousands of different search engines available on the Internet, each with their own abilities and features.
The first search engine ever developed is
considered Archie, which was used to
search for FTP files and the first text-based
search engine is considered Veronica.
Today, the most popular and well-known
search engine is Google. Other popular
search engines include AOL, Ask.com,
Baidu, Bing and Yahoo.

3.1.2 Online Shopping: Shopping has become easier with the use of Internet. We can buy or sell online. It is a important
component of electronic commerce.

3.1.3 Net Banking: Net banking or internet banking means banking through internet. It has replaced the conventional
way of banking.

3.1.4 Communication: This is a major role of the internet. It helps people to communicate either with the use of social
networking websites or through e-mails or through chatting. A chat is a real time typed conversation that takes
place on a computer. Internet telephony allows voice conversation to travel over internet.

3.1.5 Studying: Now right from kindergarten children are exposed to Internet and computers. They find many useful
things to learn on the Internet though with supervision of the elders. up to doctorate level education, people rely
on Internet for their education. Online educational books have even reduced the need for a library.

3.1.6 File download and upload: To download or upload any file to the Internet FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a
common way for users, our Web browser can also make FTP requests to download programs we select from a
web page. Using FTP, we can also update files at a server.
 3.1.7 Video conferencing: Video conferencing is a service that allows multiple participants to converse with each other
regardless of their location through personal computers and Internet It uses telecommunications of audio
and video to bring people at different sites together for a meeting. It’s about connecting people. Besides the
audio and visual transmission of meeting activities, videoconferencing can be used to share documents,
computer displayed information etc.

3.1.8 E-Learning: A popular way to learn about computer without ever going to a classroom.

3.1.9 E-mail: e-mail or email is information stored on a computer that is exchanged

between two users over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a
message that may contain text, files, images, or other attachments sent
through a network to a specified individual or group of individuals. The first
e-mail was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971. By 1996, more electronic mail
was being sent than postal mail.

4. Internet Related Terms

4.1 URL: A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a form of URI and is a standardized
naming convention for addressing documents accessible over the Internet and
Intranet. An example of a URL is https://www.google.com/, which is the URL
for the Google website.

4.2 World Wide Web (www): World Wide Web, WWW, W3, or Web is a graphical interface for the Internet that was
first introduced to the public on August 6, 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee. A few days later on August 23, 1991 it was
available to everyone. The WWW is different from the Internet although most people today think the WWW is the
Internet. The world wide web consists of billions of pages linked to each other that contain text, graphics, multimedia
files, and other interactive software that are accessed using a browser.

4.3 Web Server: A Web server is a program that uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to serve the files that form
Web pages to users, in response to their requests, which are forwarded by their computers' HTTP clients. Dedicated
computers and appliances may be referred to as Web servers as well.

4.4 Bookmark: A bookmark is a saved link to a web page that has been added to a list of saved links. When we are
looking at a particular website and want to be able to quickly get back to it later, we can create a bookmark for it. if
we are going to a site that we often use, instead of having to type in the address every time we should bookmark it.

4.5 HTML (Hyper Text Markup language): It is a computer’s language used to create hypertext documents for the
www. Web pages are created using HTML.

4.6 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): TCP/IP is the communication protocol for the
Internet, it defines the rule which computers must follow to communicate with each other over the Internet.

4.7 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): File Transfer Protocol, FTP is the most common way of sending and receiving files
between two computers. A good example of how FTP is used today is by web developers, who will connect to their
web server using FTP and send updated versions of their web pages to the server.
4.8 HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, HTTP is a set of standards that allow users of the World Wide Web to exchange
information found on web pages. When accessing any web page entering http:// in front of the address tells
the browser to communicate over HTTP. For example, the URL for Computer Hope is https://www.google.com.
Today's browsers no longer require HTTP in front of the URL since it is the default method of communication.

4.9 IP Address: Internet Protocol address, an IP or IP address is a number (example shown right) used to indicate the
location of a computer or other device on a network using TCP/IP. These addresses are similar to those of your house,
allowing data to reach the appropriate destination on a network and the Internet.

4.10 Domain Name: A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of administrative autonomy, authority
or control within the Internet. Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System
(DNS). Any name registered in the DNS is a domain name.

4.11 Upload: Upload is a term used to describe the process of transferring (sending) a file to another computer through
a modem or network.

4.12 Download: Download is a term used to describe the process of copying data from another computer, either over a
network or modem. For example, each time you visit a web page on the Internet, you download the information on
the page, including any pictures, to your computer. The term download is often associated with pictures, songs,
videos, and programs.

4.13 Gateway: A gateway is a networked device which serves as an entry point into another network. For example, a
wireless router is commonly the default gateway in a home network.

4.14 Virus: A computer virus is a program, script, or macro designed to cause damage, steal personal information, modify
data, send e-mail, display messages, or some combination of these actions. When the virus is executed, it spreads by
copying itself into or over data files, programs, or boot sector of a computer's hard drive, or potentially anything else
writable. To help spread an infection the virus writers use detailed knowledge of security vulnerabilities, zero days,
or social engineering to gain access to a host's computer.
 Chapter11: Microsoft Windows

1. Introduction
Microsoft Windows is an operating system and GUI (Graphical User Interface) produced by Microsoft, the software
company. Bill Gates is the chairman of Microsoft, which he founded with Paul Allen. Nowadays approximately 90% of all
personal computers are running on windows. It was introduced as a GUI that simplified DOS commands and tasks by
converting programs and commands to icons.
In 1983 Microsoft announced the development of windows, a GUI for its own operating system MS-DOS, which has
developed for IBM PC and compatible computers since 1981.
The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on 20 November 1985, achieved little popularity.
It was originally going to be called "Interface Manager" but Rowland Hudson, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced
the company that the name would be more appealing to consumers. Windows 1.0 was not a complete operating system,
but it was an improved extended MS-DOS.
Microsoft Windows version 2 launched on 9 December 1987 became slightly more popular than its predecessor Microsoft
Windows version 1 because it had new graphical application, Excel and Word.
Microsoft Windows got major success when Adlus PageMaker appeared in a windows version. At the start it could run only
on Macintosh. It was beginning of the success of Windows. After that there were launched many versions of Microsoft
Windows suchas2.0X, 2.03, 3.0 etc. Microsoft Windows 3.0 released in 1990, that scored significant success. In this version
Windows introduced multitasking and virtual memory better
than older DOS.

After that Microsoft Windows became the most popular

operating system. Some popular versions of Microsoft Windows
are
» Microsoft Windows 95 - In 1995
» Microsoft Windows 98 - In 1998
» Microsoft Windows ME — In 2000
» Microsoft Windows XP - In 2004
» Microsoft Windows Vista — In 2007

2. MS-Windows related terms

2.1 GUI (Graphical User Interface): GUI uses graphics or pictures to help the user navigate and access programs. A
graphical user interface allows users to interact with
electronic device such as computers, MP3 players,
portable media player and gaming device etc. It offers
graphical icons, images and visual indicators instead of
text commands. There is no need to remember the
commands. It provides easy and effective interface
between users and electronic devices by direct
manipulation of the graphical elements. It is user
friendly because it provides easily understood
instruction. The Xerox Star was the first commercial
computer developed by Xerox Corporation, which uses
a graphical user interface with the desktop with icons and a mouse.

2.2 Icon: Icons arc small images on desktop that represent various computer's applications or programs, files, folders, printers
and other things. To activate the program or file or folder that an icon represents we have to simply double click on it with
the left mouse button. This will activate the icon and either start a program or open a file or folder. By right clicking we
have access to a menu offering options, actions and properties. The icons can be renamed by right clicking on them and
selecting rename. They can be deleted by right clicking and selecting delete. The user can put his own icons on the desktop
that will quickly access programs or files - like a shortcut. Icons can be moved around on the desktop by clicking and
dragging them.

2.3 Interface: It is a technique to communicate or meet two independent systems with each other. An interface allows a
human being to interact with a computer, a telephone system, or other electronic information system. It can be of several
types. The user interface allows the user to communicate with the operating system with the help of Keyboard and mouse
etc. Languages and codes that the applications use to communicate with each other and with the hardware are called
software interface. The hardware interfaces are wires, plugs and sockets that hardware devices use to communicate with
each other. Network interface allows users to communicate between two terminals or terminal and network.

2.4 Windows Desktop: The desktop is the main screen area that we see after we turn on our computer and log on to Windows.
When computer is booted up and ready to use, the screen we see is called the desktop. In other words, it is a screen that
comes on when we turn on our computer that shows all the icons. When we open any programs or folders, they appear on
the desktop. It is the background for all programs and contains the commands needed for accessing those programs.
Desktops vary from one operating system to another, and
even vary from version to Version of a particular OS. It is
the base for all computer operations. This background
graphic of desktop is called Wallpaper. It can be changed
to a different pattern or photo or picture by accessing
"Display" in the Control Panel. A small arrow or blinking
symbol on desktop is called cursor. When programs run on
top of the desktop, the desktop itself is often partially or
completely hidden. To see the whole desktop without
closing any open programs or windows click the 'Show
Desktop button' on the taskbar. The desktop is revealed.
Click the icon again to restore all of your windows to the
way they were
 Some important graphic features that we will find on a desktop is an icon. Icons are small pictures that are linked to
programs on the window desktop when we press F5, it refreshes the screen.

2.4.1 Some of the most important icons on the desktop are

2.4.1.1 My Computer: It is an important icon on the desktop which allows to access drives, printers, the Control Panel
and other system applications. The Control Panel gives the user access to the computer system and many support
applications, such as 'Add New Hardware', 'Add/Remove Programs' and 'Accessibility Options'. From the Control
Panel, we can access hardware settings for the keyboard, mouse speed, printers and modem; as well as settings
for the monitor display and sound. It tells about used and free space available in computers.

2.4.1.2 Recycle bin: It is another important icon on the desktop. When we delete a file or
folder, it goes into the Recycle Bin where it stays until the bin is emptied.
Doubleclicking on the Recycle bin icon will open a window that will show what is
stored in the Recycle Bin. If we delete something by mistake we can find it in the
Recycle Bin and restore it to its proper place. When the Recycle Bin is emptied,
everything in it is permanently deleted.

2.4.1.3 My Network Places: It shows all network connections, which makes possible to
connect the computer system from internet.

2.4.1.4 My Document: It is a location for storing all documents, such as text files, spreadsheets, and presentations. It is
available on the Start menu, and we can also create a shortcut to it on the desktop for faster access.

2.4.2 Organize the desktop icons

i. Click on the desktop with the right button of the mouse.
ii. Select on the menu "Arrange Icons By".
iii. As the menu is displayed you can choose to organize them by name, type, size or modified (date).

2.4.3 Create a shortcut

✓ Click on the desktop with the right button of the mouse.
✓ Select the option Shortcut on the New menu. A dialog box will appear so that we can indicate the program for which
we want the shortcut created.
✓ Click on Browse button, to find the program.
✓ Select the desired unit and look for the file or folder you want.
✓ After selecting the file or folder click on Ok.
✓ Click Next.
✓ Type a name for the Shortcut.
✓ Click Finish.

2.5 Taskbar:
The taskbar is the long horizontal bar at the bottom of desktop arid it is visible almost all the time. It has four main sections.
❖ The Start button, which opens the Start menu.
 ❖ The Quick Launch Toolbar, which let’s start
programs with one click. The middle section, which
shows programs and documents we have opened
and allows us to quickly switch between them.
❖ The notification area, on the far right side of the
taskbar, which includes a clock and icons that
communicate the status of certain programs and
computer settings.
❖ To do any changes in taskbar we select the setting
option in Start Menu then click on 'Taskbar and
Start Menu' in sub-menu of setting that opens the
'Taskbar and Start menu Properties'.
❖ 'Taskbar and Start menu Properties' window has several options, which we select upon own choice.

2.5.1 Lock the Taskbar: We can keep the taskbar in one place by locking it, which can prevent accidental moving or
resizing. If we unlock it, we can move it to the bottom, side, or top of the desktop. Right-click an empty space
on the taskbar, and if 'Lock the Taskbar 'has a check mark next to it, the taskbar is locked. If it does not have a
check mark, click on 'Lock the Taskbar' to lock the taskbar.
2.5.2 Auto-hide the Taskbar: The taskbar is usually located at the bottom of your screen. We can hide the taskbar to
create more space. To hide the taskbar, click to open 'Taskbar and Start menu Properties'. Clear the 'Lock the
taskbar' check box. Select the 'Auto-hide the taskbar' check box. If we don't see the taskbar anywhere on the
screen, it might be hidden. If the taskbar is hidden, point to where we last saw it to show it again. If we can't
remember where we last saw it, try pointing to the bottom of the screen first, and then to the side or top of the
screen, if necessary.
2.5.3 Keep the taskbar on top of the window: If selected, make sure the taskbar is visible at all times, even when
large maximized program windows are covering the rest of the screen.
2.5.4 Group similar taskbar buttons: If selected, allow multiple taskbar buttons to collapse into a single button so
the buttons don't become too small to see on the taskbar.
2.5.5 Show Quick Launch: If selected, display the optional Quick Launch toolbar to the right of the Start button.
2.5.6 Show the clock: If selected, display clock on right side of the taskbar.
2.5.7 Hide inactive Icons: If selected, hide the buttons which is not currently used.
3. Start Menu
At the edge of the screen usually the bottom,
we see a long, thin bar with a box labelled “Start”
on one end and a clock on the other end. If we
click on the “Start” button, a box called a start
menu will appear. It is the main gateway to
computer's programs, folders, and settings. It's
called a menu because it provides a list of
choices. Some choices have small arrows next to
them which access other menus. The Start Menu
can be personalized by adding and removing
programs, files and folders.

3.1 Start-menu has the following options

3.1.1 Programs: It is a list of installed
programs; we can access the
installed programs from here. If we
install a new program, it is typically added to the
program menu.
3.1.2 Favourites: It is a list of book-marked web pages; we can access book – marked web pages from here.
3.1.3 Documents: It is a list of most recently opened documents; we can access the most recently opened documents
from here.
3.1.4 Settings: It is a list of system applications, we can access system applications such as Control Panel, printers,
taskbar and Start Menu options from here.
3.1.5 Find: Searches for specific files or folders.
3.1.6 Help: Offers helpful topics related to computer and program.
3.1.7 Run: User can input commands to run specific programs or open any file, folder and document.
3.1.8 Log Off – Allows a password: Protected user to logoff and another to logon.
3.1.9 Turn off or Shut Down: Shuts down or restarts the computer.

4. Title Bar
Most of the programs, data or information and applications run within a rectangular area that is a window. The horizontal
bar at the top of a window that contains the name of the window are called title bar. Most title bars also contain three
control buttons in the far right hand side. These buttons are Minimize, Maximize/Restore and Close.
The left first control button in Minimize
button that is visually represented by a
minus sign (−). Minimizing the window clears
it from the screen and application will be
reduced to an icon on the task bar. But keeps
the program running. A raised button on
taskbar indicates a minimized or inactive
window, and a depressed button indicates
an open or active window. Minimizing a
window is helpful if the user is temporarily
not using the program, but plans to return to it soon. To redisplay the minimized window, click on the button on the taskbar.

The middle control button in these is Maximize button that is visually represented by or two small boxes on it. When we
click on it, it controls the size of the window display. Restore reduces the window to a smaller size on the desktop. Maximize
resize the window to full screen or expand it to fit the screen.

The far right control button in these is Close button and is visually represented by a. It closes the window, which also closes
the program. In MS-Word, if we have not saved our most recent edits, the system will prompt to save when we click on it.

5. Scroll Bar
When a document, webpage, or picture exceeds the size of its window, scrollbars appear to allow to see the information
that is currently out of view. It appears at right side and bottom of window, which are called horizontal and vertical scroll
bars. It has an arrow on both ends and a box in the middle that we use with the help of mouse to move the pages up and
down. We click the up or down scroll arrows to scroll the window's contents up or down in small steps and hold down the
mouse button to scroll continuously. When click an empty area of a scroll bar above or below the scroll box to scroll up or
down one page and drag a scroll box up, down, left, or right to scroll the window in that direction. To move down, up, right
and left a page in a document we use scroll bar.

6. Menu Bar
In the Windows operating system, each window contains its own menu that contains commands which perform specific
actions when they have been selected. It is found just under the title bar and menu contains several choices that will access
drop-down menus of options and actions. The menus of menu bar vary from one program to another.

6.1 There are some main options of menu bar

a. File menu: It contains options like new, open, close, save, save as send and print etc.
b. Edit menu: It contains options like undo, cut, copy, paste and clear etc.
c. View menu: It contains options for changing things appear on the screen such as Normal, Print Layout, and
Toolbar etc.
d. Insert menu: It contains options like Header, Footer etc
e. Help menu: It contains options to access tutorials or helpful information.

6.2 Types of Menu- Generally menu is two types.

 6.2.1 Pull-Down Menu: It is also called drop-down menu. It is a menu of options that appear just below the menu bar
which we access by clicking with mouse. Fields with a drop-down menu have a small down ward pointing arrow
next to them. You click the arrow and a list of options appears. You select the option you want from the list. You
can also open the dropdown menu by holding down the Alt key and pressing the down arrow. We can use the
arrow keys to move up and down in a drop-down menu. You can also move to an item by typing the first few
letters of the option. Some commands are faded or dimmed means the command is not currently accessible.
6.2.2 Pull-up menu: It is also a menu of options that appears just up of option which we select with mouse.
Any option of menu can open by clicking a mouse or pressing Ctrl key with underline letter of that option. Some
options have symbols such as
» Triangle ( ): A small triangle in right side of command indicates that has another submenu and after clicking
on it opens another submenu.
» Ellipses (...): It indicates that command needs additional information. So by using this command a dialog box
appears for selecting or inputting information.
» Dot (.): It appears at the left side of option, which indicates that only one option can be selected.
» Check Mark ( ): It appears at the left side of active options. Its boxes allow to select one or more options at
the same time.
» Gray option: If any command is currently inactive, unavailable and cannot be clicked, it is shown in gray or
light colour.

7. Toolbar
Under the Menu-bar, we will often find a toolbar. It is a bar of command icons that allow us to perform specific tasks within
a program. For example, in WordPad, the toolbar contains buttons which we can click to apply bold formatting to text, print
a file, or open a new document etc. The toolbar buttons provide shortcuts to common tasks frequently accessed from the
menus.

8. Shortcut Keys
It has been written in front of commands. It provides an easier and usually quicker method of navigating and using
programs. Shortcut keys enable the user to select a command without using the menus. Shortcut keys generally combine
the Alt, Ctrl or Shift key with a letter key. If a shortcut key is available, it is listed on the pull-down menu to the right of the
command. As example to open a file or folder we have to press ‘Ctrl+O’ and save the file ‘Ctrl+S’ etc as shortcut keys.
9. Dialog box
Dialog box is a small, secondary window that contains options and buttons for completing a task. For example, when the
user saves a file first time, a dialog box appears with options for naming the file and choosing which folder to save it in. Title-
bar of this box also contains name of the box and close button.

10. Elements of dialog box

These are the elements of dialog box.
✓ OK button: When clicking on the OK button, save the settings or carry out the commands specified in the
dialog box and close the dialog box.
✓ Cancel button: When clicking on the Cancel button, close the dialog box and restore the settings in the dialog
box to the state they were in when the dialog box was opened.
✓ Apply button: Use the Apply button to carry out the changes users specify in the dialog box without closing
the dialog box.
 ✓ Tab: In some dialog boxes, options are divided into two or more tabs. Tabs represent multiple pages of a dialog
box. Only one tab, or set of options, can be viewed at a time. Choosing a tab changes the options that appear in
the dialog box.

✓ Option button: Option buttons present a group of related choices from which we can choose only one. Simply
click on the option button which we want to select, and all others become deselected.
✓ Check box ( ): Check boxes present a single option or group of related options. A check mark appears in the
box next to an option to indicate that it is active.
✓ Combo box: It is a combination of a drop-down list or list box and a single-line text box, allowing the user to
either type a value directly into the control or choose from the list of existing options.
✓ Text box: A text box allows to type information, such as a search term, password, name for a file which we
want to save or a path we want to use to find a specific file. A blinking vertical line called the cursor indicates
where text that we type will appear.
✓ Drop-down list box: This box is a single-line list box with a down- arrow button to the right of it. When you
click on the arrow, the drop-down list box opens to display a list of choices. We choose a choice. When closed,
a drop-down list shows only the currently selected choice. The other available choices are hidden until we click
the control.
✓ Spin box: A text box with a set of arrow button on the right side that can be used to select one of a range of
options. The user may type into the spin box, or use the arrow buttons to scroll through available options. Often
used for numeric inputs. We use the up arrow to increment a value and the down arrow to decrement a value.
We can also type the value directly into the box.
✓ Group box: Group box is rectangular box with optional labels. It is a group of related controls such as option
buttons, check boxes, or closely related contents into one visual unit.
✓ Slider: A slider is a way to adjust a setting within a range of values, such as from slow to fast, small to large,
soft to loud etc. Simply hold down the mouse button on the lever and move it in the desired direction. A slider
along the bar shows the currently selected value.
11. Help in Windows
Windows Help and Support is the built-in help system for Windows. It's a place to get quick answers to common questions,
suggestions for troubleshooting, and instructions for how to do tilings. To open Windows Help and Support, click the Start
button, and then click Help and Support option. The fastest way to get help is to type a word or two in the search box. For
example, to get information about wireless networking, type wireless network, and then press ENTER. A list of results
appears, with the most useful results shown at the top.

12. To change the date and time in computer system

To change the date and time in computer system right-click on a clock located on the right side of the task bar. This is
commonly in the bottom right hand of taskbar. Then click the Adjust Date/Time menu item. This will open the Date/Time
Properties window. Double-click the time also open the Date / Time Properties window. In this window we can adjust the
time, date, and time zone. Once the proper date and time has been set, click Apply and then OK.
13. To change the desktop appearance and background
We can change the general look of desktop by changing the desktop appearance and background. To open the ‘Display
property’ dialog box, right-click an empty area of desktop and then click Properties. After changing click, Apply to test a
changes. If we don't like to change any settings click Cancel, and return. After that click OK to close the Display Properties
dialog box.

13.1 There are following options in display property window-

✓ Theme: Theme is a collection of visual elements and sounds for computer desktop. A theme determines the look of
the various visual elements of desktop, such as windows, icons, fonts, and colours, and it can include sounds.
✓ Desktop background: Desktop background is also called wallpaper. It can be a digital picture from personal
collection or one that comes with Windows. We can also select a colour for our desktop background or use a colour
to frame our background picture.
✓ Screen saver: A moving picture or pattern that appears on a computer screen when the mouse or keyboard has not
been used for a specified period of time.
✓ Appearance: It finetunes the colour and style of our window. It provides more potential customizations into one
area than any other in Windows between the Windows and Buttons, Colour Scheme, and Fonts etc.
✓ Settings: Using this option we adjust our monitor resolution, which changes the view, so more or fewer items fit on
the screen. We can also control monitor refresh rate.

14. Windows Explorer

The Explorer is a necessary tool in an operating system, since with it we can organize and control the files and folders of
the different storage systems such as the hard drive, disk drive, etc.

14.1 To start the Windows Explorer

➢ Click on ‘Start’
➢ Select ‘All programs’
➢ Select ‘Accessories’
➢ Select ‘Windows Explorer’
The explorer consists basically of two sections. On the left side there is the directory tree, which is the list of units and
folders that we have. On the right side there is another section, which will show the content of the folder that we have
opened on the left section. This section shows its folders and files.
Windows Explorer is also known as the ‘File Manager’. Through it we can delete, see, copy, or move files and folders. A file
is text documents, spreadsheets, digital pictures, and even songs etc., that has been given a name and is stored in secondary
memory. A folder is the place that a user can create to store group of files. Computer represents files and folders with icons.
Each folder has facility to Open, Explore, Search, Winzip, Cut, Copy, Delete, Rename and Create shortcut. Files are organized
by storing them in folder.

❖ Open: Opening a file or folder is needed to editing, viewing, printing, and sharing information. First find the file or
folder that we want to open. Then double-click the file or folder to open it. Double-clicking a file automatically opens
its associated program.
❖ Search: When we need to find a particular file, we will know that it is located somewhere in a common folder like
Documents or Pictures etc. Search box is located at the top of every folder. To find a file, open the folder that contains
 the file, click the Search box, and start type the of that file or part of file name. The Search box filters the current
view based on the text that typed. Files are displayed as search results if search term matches the file's name.
❖ WinZip: Compressed files take up less storage space and can be transferred to other computers more quickly than
uncompressed files. To compress a file locate the file or folder that we want to compress. Right-click the file or folder
then click on winzip option. A new compressed folder is created. To rename it, right-click the folder, click Rename,
and then type the new name.
❖ Cut and paste: This option is used to store the file any other places. Cut is a command used to remove text, graphics
and files and it is then stored on a clipboard so we can paste it.
❖ Delete: To delete locate a file or folder that we want to delete. Rightclick the file or folder then click Delete. When
we delete a file or folder, it is not deleted right away. Instead, it is stored in the Recycle Bin and we can get the
deleted file by using Restore option in Recycle Bin until the Recycle Bin is emptied.
❖ Rename: Using it we give a new name to a file. To rename a file, we do not need to open the file. Right-click the
file that we want to rename, and then click Rename. Type the new name, and then press ENTER.
❖ Properties: Properties are descriptive information that help us to find and organize files. To view the properties of
any file and folder Right-click the file whose properties we want to see, and then click Properties. They provide
information such as type, location, size, created date and many other properties of files.

There are two more options

A. Read only: Setting a file to read-only helps to protect the file from accidental deletion and changes to the file's
content. If a file is set to read-only, we will not be able to save changes to it unless we turn off the file's readonly
status.
B. Hidden: Setting a file to hidden it shows in tree view.

15. In a system running Windows XP, to conserve PC power, we actually have three
choices: shut down, hibernate, and standby.

15.1 Stand by
Standby drops the computer into a very low power mode. This mode saves significant electrical consumption compared
to leaving a device fully on and idle but allow the user to avoid having to reset programming codes or wait for a machine to
reboot. When the is system placed in this mode, aside from the RAM which is required to restore the machine's state, the
computer attempts to cut power to all unneeded parts of the machine. Because of the large power savings, most laptops
automatically enter this mode when the computer is running on batteries and the lid is closed. The display turns off, the disk
drive stops spinning, and the processor shuts down almost completely. In standby, power is used mainly to keep the contents
of random access memory refreshed.

15.2 Hibernate
It is a feature of many computer operating systems where the contents of RAM are written to non-volatile storage such as
a hard disk, before powering off the computer. When the computer is restarted it reloads the content of memory and is
restored to the state it was in when hibernation was invoked. While starting from a hibernated state is usually quicker than
starting up and opening all applications, it still requires a few seconds or more, depending on the system's general speed.

15.3 Shutdown
It turns a machine off. To shutdown check that if any users are currently on the system. If they are, ask them to log off.
Once all of the users are logged off of the system, we may execute the ‘Shutdown’ command.
16. Useful programs inside windows
a. Notepad: Notepad is a basic text editing program and it is most commonly used to view or edit text files. A
text file is a file type typically identified by the .txt file name extension. To open a Notepad: Click Start
Programs Accessories Notepad

b. WordPad: Word Pad is a text-editing program and we can use to create and edit documents. Unlike Note
pad, WordPad documents can include complex formatting and graphics such as pictures or other documents
within a WordPad document. To open a WordPad: Click Start Programs Accessories WordPad.

c. Paint: Paint is a drawing program that we can use to create drawings or edit digital pictures. We can also use
Paint to save picture files using different file formats. To open a Paint: Click Start Programs Accessories Paint

d. Calculator: We can use Calculator to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Calculator
also offers the advanced capabilities of scientific and statistical calculators. To open a Calculator: Click Start
» Programs » Accessories Calculator.

e. Phone Dialer: To open a Phone Dialer: Click Start » Programs » Accessories » Phone Dialer

f. Imaging: To open a imaging: Click Start» Programs » Accessories » Scanner and Camera wizard.

g. Media Player: Windows Media Player provides an easy-to-use interface to play digital media files, organize
digital media collection, burn CDs of favorite music, rip music from CDs etc. To open a Media Player: Click
Start » Programs » Accessories » Entertainment » Media Player

h. CD Player: Using this we can use our computer system as a powerful CD Player. To open a CD Player :
Click Start » Programs » Accessories » Entertainment» CD Player

i. Sound recorder and Volume control: Using Sound Recorder, we can record sound as a digital media file
on computer from a variety of devices, such as a microphone that is plugged in to sound card. To open a
Sound recorder: Click Start » Programs » Accessories » Entertainment» Sound recorder. We can control the
overall level of sound using Windows.To open a Volume control: Click Start » Programs » Accessories »
Entertainment » Volume control

j. Game: Windows comes with a small set of games that we can play. To open a Game : Click Start » Programs
» Accessories » Entertainment» Game

k. Clipboard: The Clipboard is a temporary storage area for information that we have copied or moved from
one place to somewhere else. We can select text or graphics and then use the Cut or Copy commands to move
our selection to the Clipboard, where it will be stored until we use the Paste command to insert it elsewhere.
Chapter 12: Microsoft Office

1. Introduction
Microsoft Office is an office suite of interrelated desktop applications, servers and services for the Microsoft
Windows. It is a horizontal market software that is used in a wide range of industries. Microsoft Office was introduced by
Microsoft in 1989 for Macintosh. Again it introduced Windows in 1990. After that many new versions were released.
Microsoft Office for Windows 1.0 started in October 1990 with three applications Microsoft Word for Windows 1.1,
Microsoft Excel for Windows 2.0, and Microsoft PowerPoint for Windows 2.0. In 1994, Microsoft Office 4.0 was released
containing Word 6.0, Excel 5.0, PowerPoint 4.0, Mail, and Access. More versions are Microsoft Office 95, Microsoft Office
97, Microsoft Office 2000, Microsoft Office XP, Microsoft Office 2003, Microsoft Office 2003 and Microsoft Office 2007.

2. Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word is a popular word processing package which provides facilities to write common letters
to desktop publishing. This means that it is useful for typing and storing letters, articles, broachers, tests,
quizzes and anything that consists mainly of words. Many organisations now use computers to produce
and organize written material, correspondence, membership lists and so on. These are possible with the
most common program MS-Word, that is used on most computers. It provides an incredibly powerful
tool to create and share documents.

2.1 To open or start Microsoft Word

There are two methods to open or start Microsoft Word.
1. Double click on Microsoft Word icon on desktop.
2. Click on the Start button in the bottom left hand corner of computer screen. When the menu pops up, move our mouse
up to Programs. A sub menu will appear showing all the software we have.Now click Microsoft office then select
Microsoft Word from them. Microsoft Word will start up. Click Start » Program » MS-Office » MS-Word

2.2 Viewing the Toolbar

In Microsoft Word the toolbar is the line of boxes and symbols that are shortcuts of many commands and appear across the
top of the computer screen. It increases the working capacity of a user. We may recognize it by the picture of a file folder,
scissors, and paint brush etc.

If the toolbar does not appear at the top of the screen, pull down the View menu in Menu-bar and select Toolbars. In the
Toolbars dialog box, click standard, formatting, drawing and then OK.
In all toolbars a standard toolbar is used more than others. The standard toolbar has tools such as New, Open, Close, Save,
Spelling and Grammar etc. and Formatting toolbar has tools such as Font Style, Font Name, Font Size, Margin, Paragraph
and Bullets etc. When we format a document, we change its appearance.
2.3 Creating a document
When we create a document, we enter text or number, insert images and perform other tasks using input devices. To create
a document, we start word, a new document window opens. This is a blank page, where we start typing. After the first page
gets over we automatically go to the next page.

Another method to create a new document is ➢ On

the File menu from Menu-bar, click New.
➢ Select the Blank Document in pull-down menu.

2.4 Save a document

After we create or edit a document, we try to save it. A command that saves our work on into the hard drive, or onto a disk
is Save. When we save a document, the computer transfers the document from memory to a storage medium such as hard
disk or USB flash drive. A saved document is referred to as a file. Hence, to save any file.
1. Select File option from Menu-bar, click Save.
2. Select the location or drive to store a file and enter a name for the file or filename in the File name box.
3. Click Save.

A file name is a unique name that a user gives to a file, but two different files can have the same name if they are in different
folders. In Microsoft Word .doc is file name extension by default. Filename extension represents a file type such as .bas for
Basic source code file, .htm for Hypertext Markup Language file, .bat for DOS batch file and .doc for word document file etc.

2.5 Close a document

When we want to close a document without leaving the application, we use on the File menu from Menu bar, click Close.

2.6 Editing a document

We can open a document and modify it the way we want. It can be possible by using the Edit features in word such as Cut,
Copy and Paste etc. To edit a document means to make changes to its existing content. Cut is the process of removing a
portion of the document and storing it in a temporary storage location, called a clipboard. Paste is a process of transferring
an item from a clipboard to a specific location in a document. Editing a document consists of reading through the document
created by a user and correcting the errors. The edit buttons are also found in standard tool bar. After editing document
must be saved again to store the changes.

3. Formatting Text
When we format a document, we change its appearance. We can format a text by changing fonts, font size, and font style
etc. A font is a name assigned to a specific design of characters. Font size indicates the size of characters in a particular font.
Font style adds emphasis to a font, Bold, Italic, Underline and color. MS-Word provides a wide variety of text formatting,
which add a professional look to documents.

✓ Select or highlight the text by holding

down left mouse button click which we
want to format.
✓ Go to the Format toolbar menu and select
buttons such as Font tab, Font, Font Style,
Font Size, Font colour, Bold, Italics and
Underline etc. which we want to use.

4. Inserting a Table
Tables are an easy way to arrange data in a Word document. With tables, we can align data in columns and rows easily.
There are many ways to insert tables in Word document. (Numbers and text in table columns are usually left aligned).
1. To insert a table, click the Insert Table toolbar button when our cursor is positioned at the place in our document
where we would like the table.
2. A grid will pop up allowing to select how many rows and columns we would like in table.
3. After selecting the number of rows and columns, click on OK. A table will be inserted.
4. While this method will create a table with uniform columns and rows, we can still customize a table.

5. Inserting a picture
1. To insert a picture click the Insert option in Menu bar when cursor is positioned at the place in the document where
we would like to insert a picture.
2. Select a Picture option in pull-down menu.
3. Select a Clip art or From File.
4. Select a picture and click insert.

6. Inserting page number and date/time

1. To insert a picture, click the 'Insert' option in Menu bar.
2. Select one by one 'Page Number' and 'Date and Time'.

7. Spell check in document

The spell check looks for spelling mistakes in the text area. To remove spelling and grammar mistakes in a document we
use an Auto spellcheck tool. It indicates the wrong word by underlining it.
✓ With the document open, click the Check Spelling and Grammar tools.
✓ If a spelling error is found, a window opens with suggested corrections.
✓ To accept the default correction, click Replace. If the initial suggestion is not the correct word, click on the correct
word in the list of suggestions, or enter the word into the Replace with field, then click the Replace button.
✓ Repeat these steps to correct all spelling errors. When there are no more errors, the message Spell check complete
appears.
✓ Click OK to return to editing the document.
8. File operations in word

8.1 Opening a document

To open a document or get a file from the memory where it was stored we use Open command. It retrieves a saved
document from computer's memory and bring it up on the screen to view. To open a document, complete the following
steps—
✓ Select File option from Menubar.
✓ Click on the Open option in pull-down menu.
✓ Click on the file from the available list.
✓ Click on Open button.

8.2 Copy a document:

The copy function can create a new copy of a document. To copy a document, complete the following steps—
✓ Select File option from Menubar.
✓ Click on the Open option in pull-down menu..
✓ Find the document that we want to copy.
✓ Select the document, then Right click. We get a pull-down menu where we select Copy option. It creates a copy
of the document and places it on the clipboard.
✓ Find the folder where we want to place the copy, then click Paste. We can place a document copy in the same
folder or a different folder. The document copy is now placed in the selected folder, with the name "Copy of
<Document Name>"

8.3 Send a document: In order to e-mail a word document from within— ✓

Select file option from menu bar.
✓ select the option send to/mail recipient.

8.4 Move a document

We use the move functions to rearrange and create new documents. The move function deletes the document in the
original location and pastes it into a new location. The move function can also move a folder, including all the
documents in that folder. To move a document, complete the following steps— ✓ Select File option from Menu bar.
✓ Click on the Open option.
✓ Find the document that we want to move.
✓ Select the document, then Right click. We get a pull-down menu where we select Cut option.
✓ Find the folder where you want to place the moved document, then click Paste.

8.5 Rename a document

To rename a document, complete the following steps—
✓ Select File option from menu-bar.
✓ Click on the Open option in pull-down menu.
✓ Find the document that we want to rename.
✓ Select the document, then Right click.
✓ We get a pull-down menu where we select Rename option.
✓ Give the new name to a file and press Enter.
 To save a file into new location with new name we use 'Save as' option in File option from menu-bar.

8.6 Delete a document

Deleting a document removes the document permanently. To delete a document, complete the following steps— ✓
Select File option from menu bar.
✓ Glick on the Open option in pull-down menu.
✓ Find the document that we want to delete.
✓ Select the document, then Right click.
✓ We get a pull-down menu where we select Delete option.

8.7 Undo and redo

Every time the document is changed, we save the previous state on a list. To undo, we take the data at the
current position in the list, and use it to restore the document. We also need to save the document state before we
restore it. This enables us to redo. To delete a document, complete the following steps—
✓ Press arrow mark of "Undo" button in the standard toolbar and we get a list of current work which we can undo.
✓ If we do not want modification done by undo, then press 'Redo' to get back.

8.8 Page preview

We can see all pages of documents in page preview mode but cannot edit the document.

9. Print a document
Print is a command that takes what has been typed and can be seen on the screen and sends it to the printer for output on
paper. When we print a document, the computer prints the contents of the document on paper. By default it prints in
portrait mode. To print a document, complete the following steps— ✓ Select File option from menu-bar.
✓ Click on the Print option in pull-down menu.
✓ We get a print dialog box where we fill the needed information and after that click OK. Finally we get a print of a
document.

10. Create a header and footer

Sometimes we want some information to appear on every page. This information would normally appear either in top or
bottom of the page. We can insert it by using Header and Footer option. To create a header and footer, we can take the
following steps—
✓ Open an existing document and select View option of the menu bar.
✓ Click on the Header and Footer option.
✓ Click on Insert Page Number on the 'Header and Footer' toolbar to insert page number on the header. ✓ Click on
Insert Date icon on the 'Header and Footer' toolbar to insert date on the header.
✓ Click on Insert Time icon on the ‘Header and Footer’ toolbar to insert time on the header.
✓ Click on 'Switch between header and footer' to create a footer and repeat step.
✓ Click 'Close header and footer' on header and footer toolbar.

11. Insert a picture from the clipart

✓ Move the cursor where we want clip art.
✓ Click on 'Insert Clip-art' of Drawing toolbar.
 ✓ Click on picture that we want to insert.
✓ Close the clip art gallery.

12. Text operations in MS-Words

Find text: To find text in a document, complete the following steps— ✓
Select Edit option from Menubar.
✓ Click on the Find and Replace option in pull-down menu.
✓ Type the text in Find what window which we want to find.
✓ Click on Find Next button.
✓ Cursor will be placed at the first occurrence of the text.
✓ Click on Find Next button to get the next occurrence.

Find and Replace a text

Find and Replace is the easiest way to locate and change a particular word or phrase in a document and modify it. To
Find and Replace a text in a document, complete the following steps— ✓ Select Edit option from Menubar.
✓ Click on the Find and Replace option in pull-down menu.
✓ Type the text in Find what window which we want to find and replace.
✓ Click on Replace tab.
✓ Type the text in the replace with text box.
✓ Click on Replace button if we want to replace the text at only one place or Click on Replace All button if we
want to replace the text all over document.

13. Autocorrect Text

The autocorrect feature in word automatically corrects certain spelling, typing, capitalization or grammar errors.

14. Change case

Sometimes we type a document in capitals by mistake. Rather than retyping the whole section we can take the
following stapes—
✓ Select or highlight a text.
✓ Go to Format option in Menubar.
✓ Go to Change case and select any option from Sentence case, Lower case and Uppercase. It will correct it.

Sentence case: It changes first letter of sentence into capital letter and rest changes in small letter.
Lower case: It changes all letters into small letters.
Uppercase: It changes all letters into capital letters.
Delete Text: Deleting text means removing text and other contents.

Table-I: Standard toolbar

Keyboard
Tools Name Description
Operation
 Creates a new blank document based on
New Blank Document Ctrl + N
the default template.
Open Ctrl + O Opens or finds a file.
Saves the active file with its current file
Save Ctrl + S
name, location and file format.
Mail Recipient Sends document as e-mail body.
Prints the active file: for more print
Print Ctrl + P options go to the File menu and select
Print.
Print Preview: Shows how the document
Print Preview Ctrl + F2
will look when you print it.
Spelling, grammar and writing style
Spelling and Grammar F7
checker.
Cut: Removes the selection from the
Cut Ctrl + X
document and places it on the clipboard.
Places the content of the clipboard at the
Paste Ctrl + V
insertion point.
Reverses the last command, uses pulldown
Undo Ctrl + Z
menu to undo several steps.
Reverses the action of the Undo button,
Redo Ctrl + Y uses the pull-down menu to redo several
steps.
Inserts hyperlink and displays the
Hyperlink Ctrl + K
destination object, document or page.
Tables and Borders Displays the Tables and Boarders toolbar.
Inserts a table into the document, or makes
Insert Table
a table of selected text.
Inserts an Excel spreadsheet into the Word
Insert Excel Worksheet
document.
Enlarges or reduces the display of the active
Zoom
document.
Provides help topics and tips to accomplish
Office Assistant F1
our task.
Copies the format from a selected object
Format Painter
or text and applies to other objects or text.

Table – II: Formatting Toolbar

Keyboard
Tool Name Description
Operation
 Style Ctrl + Shift + S Selects the style to apply to paragraphs
Font Ctrl + Shift + F Changes the font of the selected text.
Changes the size of the selected text and
Font Size Ctrl + Shift + P
numbers.
Bold Ctrl + B Makes selected text and numbers bold
Italic Ctrl + I Makes selected text and numbers italic.
Underline Ctrl + U Underlines selected text and numbers.
Aligns to the left with a ragged right
Align Left Ctrl + L
margin.
Centre Ctrl + E Centers the selected text.
Aligns to the right with a ragged left
Align Right Ctrl + R
margin.
Aligns the selected text to both the left and
Justify Ctrl + J
right margins.
Makes a numbered list or reverts back to
Numbering
normal.
Adds, or removes, bullets in a selected
Bullets
paragraph.
Decrease Decreases the indent to the previous tab
Indents stop.
Indents the selected paragraph to the next
Increase Indents
tab stop.
Adds or removes a border around selected
Outside Borders
text or objects.
Marks text so that it is highlighted and
Highlight
stands out.
Formats the selected text with the colour
font colour
we click.

Table III: Tables and Boarders Toolbar

Tool Name Description
Creates a table by inserting horizontal and vertical lines
Draw Table
using the mouse.

Eraser Deletes unnecessary lines and borders from a table.

 Assigns a line weight or thickness of the lines of the border
Line Weight
for the next table or line drawn or inserted.

Line Style Assigns a style of border for the next table or line drawn.

Chooses from the colour palette the colour of the border

Border colour
for the next table or line drawn.

Outside Border Assigns borders or lines to the selected table cells.

Fills colour for the selected table cells or changes the prior
Fill colour
colour.

Insert Table Inserts a table into the document or into an existing table.

Combines the selected cells within a row or column into on

Marge Cells
cell.
Splits the selected cells into the specified number of rows
Split Cells
and columns.

Align Top Left Aligns top left the contents of the selected cells.

Adjusts all the rows in the current selection to the same

Distribute Rows Evenly
row height.
Adjusts all the columns in the current selection to the same
Distribute Columns Evenly
column width.
Table Auto Displays the Table Auto Format dialog box.

Change Text direction Changes the text orientation.

Sorts the contents of the selected cells into ascending order

Sort Ascending
(A to Z).
Sorts the contents of the selected cells into descending
Sort Descending
order (Z to A).

Insert a formula field into the active cell containing the

Auto Sum
sum of cell above or to the left of this cell.

Table – IV: Drawing Toolbar

Tools Name Description
 Draw
A pull down menu with several drawing options.
Select Objects Changes the pointer to a selection arrow.

Free Rotate
Rotates the selected object to any degree.

Auto shapes
A pull down menu with several libraries of shapes.

Line Draws a line where you click and drag. Holds the Shift key
down to make the line straight.

Arrow
Inserts a line with an arrowhead where you click and drag.
Draws a rectangle where you click and drag. Holds down
Rectangle
Shift to draw a square.
Draws an oval where you click and drag. Holds down Shift
Oval
to draw a circle.

Text Box
Draws a text box where you click and drag.
Word Art Creates text effects with Word Art.
Adds, modifies or removes filled colour from a selected
Fill Colour
object.
Clip Art

Font Colour
Formats the selected text with the colour you click.
Line Colour Adds, modifies or removes line colour.
Line Style Changes the thickness of lines.
Dash Style Selects dash style fo dashed lines.

Arrow Style
Selects arrow style; placement and shape of arrow head.
Shadow A pull down menu offers shadow choices.
3-D Add 3-D effect to rectangles or ovals.

15. Footnote and Endnote

Footnote is a term used to describe additional information found at the bottom of a page and endnote is additional
information at the end of the document.
Within Microsoft Word move the cursor to where you want to insert the number that points to the footnote.
✓ Select Insert option from Menubar.
✓ On the Insert menu, click Footnote.
 ✓ Specify whether or not you wish to insert a Footnote or Endnote and click Ok.

By default, Word places footnotes at the end of each page and endnotes at the end of the document.

16. The Ruler

The ruler is generally found below the main toolbars. The ruler is used to change the format of your document quickly.

16.1 To display the ruler

1. Click View on the Menu bar.
2. The option Ruler should have a check mark next to it. If it has a check mark next to it, press Esc to close the menu.
If it does not have a check mark next to it, continue to the next step.
3. Click Ruler. The ruler now appears below the toolbars.

17. View a document: In Word, we can display our document in five views
✓ Normal View: Normal view is the most often used and shows formatting such as line spacing, font, point size, and
italics.
✓ Web Layout: Web layout view enables us to view our document as it would appear in a browser such as Internet
Explorer.
✓ Print Layout: The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when it is printed. It is also called page
layout.
✓ Reading Layout: Reading Layout view formats our screen to make reading our document more comfortable.
✓ Outline view: Outline view displays the document in outline form. Headings can be displayed without the text. If
we move a heading, the accompanying text moves with it.

18. Text area

Text area is a large area at just below the ruler. We type document in the text area. The blinking vertical line in the text is
the cursor which shows our position. It marks the insertion point of text. As we start type, our work shows at the cursor
location.

19. Meaning of different colours underlines in document

If text on our document is underlined, without applying underline formatting to it, it could be of the following reasons.

✓ Red and green wavy underlines: When we automatically check spelling and grammar, Microsoft Word uses wavy
red underlines to indicate possible spelling errors and wavy green underlines to indicate possible grammatical errors.
✓ Blue wavy underlines: Word uses wavy blue underlines to indicate possible instances of inconsistent formatting.
✓ Blue or other colour underlines: Hyperlink display text is blue and underlined by default.

20. Word wrap

Word wrap is the additional feature of most text editors, word processors and web browsers of breaking lines between
and not within words, except when a single word is longer than a line.
21. Exit from MS-Word
When we have completed and saved our work we exit from MS-Word. To exit from Word Select File
option from Menubar.

✓ Click on the Exit in pull-down menu.

✓ If we have typed any text, we will be prompted: "Do you want to save your changes" To save our changes, click Yes.
Otherwise, click No.
✓ Specify the correct folder in the Save In box.
✓ Name our file in the File Name field.
✓ Click Save.

Microsoft Excel
1. Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is an electronic spreadsheet. It is a tool for numeric and statistical calculation, evaluation, analysis, and it
also offers capabilities for creating charts, reports and presentations to communicate what analysis reveals. It is used by
people to perform quick numeric calculations, store and analysis data periodically, for preparing financial statements and
tax worksheet. A program that works like a calculator for keeping track of money and making budgets. It is a program that
works like a calculator for keeping track of money and making budgets. It is a utility software package.
Microsoft Excel is a logical worksheet consisting of cells organised into rows and columns. A cell is the intersection of a row
and a column. In which we can enter a single piece of data. The data is usually text, a numeric value, or a formula. The entire
spreadsheet is composed of rows and columns of cells.
Each row and column creates a unique cell. Each cell refers to a cell reference, or cell address, that is the row and column
label of cells, cell address is a unique co-ordinate system used to identify a specific cell. Cell address contains first column
then row's name. They identified by a column letter and a row number of a cell, such as C4 or D8. Each cell is displayed on
the screen as a rectangular shape which can store text, value, or a formula. Once formula is specified, calculations are done
automatically and the results are displayed for the user to see. Often text is left align in column, we can change it according
to our need. A workbook is the MS Excel file in which we enter and store related data in worksheet. A worksheet is also
known as a spreadsheet, that is a collection of cells on a single "sheet" where we actually keep and manipulate the data.
Each workbook can contain many worksheets.

1.1 There are some examples of electronic spreadsheets

✓ Lotus 1-2-3
✓ Quartpro
✓ VPP
✓ MS-Excel

2. To open or start Microsoft Excel

There are two methods to open or start Microsoft Word.
✓ Double click on Microsoft Excel icon on desktop.
✓ Click on the Start button in the bottom left hand corner of computer screen.
 ✓ When the menu pops up, move our mouse up to Programs. A sub menu will appear showing all the software we have.
✓ Now click Microsoft office then select Microsoft Excel from them. Microsoft Excel will start up. Click Start >
Program > MS-Office > MS-Excel.

3. Creating Formula
 ✓

Start Microsoft Excel and open the file.

✓ Double-click on the cell where you want to insert the formula.
✓ Type = key on the keyboard. This tells Excel that we are entering a formula into the cell.
✓ Enter the formula, then press Enter to accept the formula.
✓ We can also enter a formula into a range of cells by copying a formula from another cell.

4. Adding borders to a cell: To add borders to cells, follow these steps

✓ Select the cell or range of cells that we want bordered.
✓ Select the Cells option from the Format menu. We will get the Format Cells dialog box.
✓ Click on the Border tab.
✓ In the Border section of the dialog box, select where you want the border applied. (Outline will surround the entire
cell or cell range.)
✓ Select a line type from the Style area.
✓ Click on OK.

5. Adding shading to a cell: To add shading to cells, follow these steps

✓ Select the cells or ranges of cells that we want to apply shading.
✓ To fill cells with a solid colour, click the arrow next to Fill Colour on the Formatting toolbar and then click the
colour that you want on the palette.
✓ To apply the most recently selected colour, click Fill Colour.
✓ To fill cells with a pattern, click Cells on the Format menu. On the Patterns tab, under Cell shading, click the
background colour that you want to use for the pattern. Then click the arrow next to the Pattern box, and click the
pattern style and pattern colour.

6. Inserting a chart in Spreadsheet

Charts are used to display series of numeric data in a graphical format to make it easier to understand large quantities of
data. To create a chart in Excel, you start by entering the numeric data for the chart on a worksheet.
✓ On the worksheet, arrange the data that you want to plot in a chart. The data can be arranged in rows or columns.
✓ Select the cells that contain the data that you want to use for the chart.
✓ Click on the Insert, then click the chart option in drop-down menu. Chart Wizard will appear on computer.
✓ Chard Wizard is now asking for Chart Type, Data Range etc.
✓ After selecting and updating in Chart Wizard, click finish.

Microsoft Power Point

1. Microsoft Power point

Microsoft Power point is a part of MS- Office. It was introduced to generate business presentation, slide show and graphics
on computer system.
2. Use of Power point
✓ Creating business application presentation slide.
✓ Creating graphical objects with animations.
✓ Create artistic slides for general use using art gallery.
✓ To provide training in business world.

3. Starting Power point: There are two methods to open or start Power point.
✓ Double click on Microsoft Power point icon on desktop.
✓ Click on the Start button in the bottom left hand corner of computer screen.
✓ When the menu pops up, move our mouse up to Programs. A sub menu will appear showing all the software we
have.
✓ Now click Microsoft office then select Microsoft Power point from them. Microsoft Power point will start up. Click
Start > Program > MS-Office> MS. Power point.

4. The Power Point Screen

We use Power Point to create effective slide show presentations. The power point screen has many elements.
✓ Title Bar: The title bar generally appears at the top of the screen. The title bar displays the title of the current
presentation.
✓ Menu Bar: The menu bar displays the menu. You use the menu to give instructions to Power Point.
✓ Standard and Formatting Toolbars: Power Point has several toolbars. Toolbars provide shortcuts to menu
commands. The most commonly used toolbars are the standard and formatting toolbars. You use the standard toolbar
to do such things as open a file; save a file; print a file; check spelling; cut, copy, and paste; undo and redo; or insert
a chart or table. You use the formatting toolbar to change the font, font size or font colour; bold, underline or italicize
text; left align, right align, center, or justify, bullet or number lists; highlight; or decrease or increase the indent.
✓ Rulers: Rulers are vertical and horizontal guides. You use them to determine where you want to place an object.
They are marked in inches.
✓ Placeholders: Placeholders hold the objects in your slide. You use placeholders to hold text, clip art, and charts.
✓ Status Bar: The Status bar generally appears at the bottom the screen. The Status bar displays the number of the
slide that is currently displayed, the total number of slides, and the name of the design template in use or the name
of the background.
✓ Outline Tab: The Outline displays the text contained in your presentation.
✓ Slides Tab: The Slides tab displays a thumbnail of all your slides. You click the thumbnail to view the slide in the
slide pane.
✓ View Buttoms: The view buttons appear near the bottom of the screen. You use the view buttons to change between
Normal view. Slider sorter view, and the Slide Show.
✓ Drawing Toolbar: The drawing toolbar generally appears near the bottom of the screen. It contains tools for
creating and editing graphics.
✓ Common Tasks Buttons: Using the common tasks buttons, you can select the type of tasks you want to perform.
✓ Task Pane: The task pane enables you to select the specific task you want to perform.
✓ Vertical Splitter Bar: You can click and drag the vertical splitter bar to change the size of your panes.
✓ Minimize Button: You use the minimize button to remove a window from view. While a window is minimized, its
title appears on the taskbar.
 ✓

✓ Maximize/Restore Button: You use the maximize button to cause a window to fill the screen. After you maximize
a window, if you click the restore button, the window returns to its former size.
Close Button: You use the close button to exit the window and close the program.

5. Create a new presentation

We can create a new presentation in many ways. It will cover everything from creating a simple blank presentation to one
that is created from our favorite photograph.
✓ Auto Content Wizard: It creates new presentation by providing information about title, subject, style and output.
It will help to create presentations quickly by asking a number of questions about what users want and then create a
presentation based on answers. A user can modify the contents of the presentation according to his needs once he
has finished.
✓ Design Template: It is created so that different slide types can have different layouts and graphics, the whole
presentation goes together as an attractive package. It creates new presentation based on provided power point design
template.
✓ Blank presentation: It is displayed as blank presentation to create own design. It starts with a blank presentation
with all values for colour scheme, fonts and other design features set to default value. After selecting blank
presentation a user selects layout from layouts window.

5.1 These layouts are of different types

✓ Blank slide
✓ Title slide
✓ Bulleted list
✓ Two column text
✓ Table
✓ Text and chart
✓ Chart and text
✓ Organisational chart
✓ Chart
✓ Text and clip art
✓ Clip art and text
✓ Title only

6. To save a presentation
When we create a presentation, it needs to save. So to save a presentation.
1. Select File option from Menubar, click Save.
2. Select the location or drive to store a presentation and enter a name in the File name box.
3. Click Save.
To save a presentation into new location with new name we use 'Save as' option in File option from menu-bar.

7. Different Ways to View Slides: Slides in any power point presentation can be viewed in a
variety of ways depending on the task.
7.1 Normal View
Normal view splits you screen into three major sections: The outline and slides tabs, the slide pane, and the task pane. The
outline and slides tabs are on the left side of your screen. They enable you to shift between two different ways of viewing
your slides. The slides tab shows thumbnails of your slides. The outline tab shows the text on your slides. The slide pane is
located in the center of your screen. The slide pane shows a large view of the slide on which you are currently working. The
task pane is located on the right side of your screen. The tasks pane enables you to select the task you want to perform.

7.2 Slide Sorter View

Slide sorter view enables you to view thumbnails of all your slides. In slide sorter view you can easily add, delete, or change
the order of your slides. When you are in slide sorter view, a special formatting toolbar appears. It has options that allow
you to make changes to your slides.

7.3 Slide Show

Use the slide show view when you want to view your slides, as they will look in your final presentation. When in Slide Show
view.
Esc Returns you to the view you were using previously.
Moves you to the next slide or animation effect. When you reach the last slide, you
Left-clicking
automatically return to your last view.
Opens a pop-up menu. You can use this menu to navigate the slides, add speaker
Right-clicking
notes, select a pointer and mark your presentation.

8. Adding Notes in Power Point

There are two ways to insert notes in Power Point
1. To insert short notes: In the normal view, click on the notes box at the bottom of our screen and type our text.
2. To insert longer notes: Click on the view tab. Under presentation views select the notes page button. Type our notes in
the space that appears below our slide.

9. Inserting Headers & Footers

Headers and / or footers are used on Power point slide to include important information about the slides. This can be
information for the presenter or audience, such as the date this presentation was created or delivered, to brand the slides
with your company name or simply to automatically place a slide number on each slide. To add a header and footer, click
on the insert tab, then on the Header & Footer button. The date and time and slide number buttons will bring up the same
dialog box.

✓ Fixed and Automatic dates: Power Point gives the option to add either a fixed date and time, which will remain the
same, or a date and time that automatically update. If we choose to have a date and time that automatically update,
the date and time will always match the data and time that we run our slide show.
✓ Slide Number: Check this box to show the slide number.
✓ Footer: Check the Footer box and add text to have text appear at the bottom of the slide.
 ✓

✓ Apply / Apply to All: To insert our chosen elements into our slide, select apply to have the information appear only
on our current slide, or Apply to all to have it appear on every slide. If any of the information is repeated on the title
slide, check the Don't show on title slide box to avoid repeating the information.
✓ Preview: The Preview box shows us where on our slide the information will appear. We cannot change this from
within this screen, but once we insert the information we can click and drag the box anywhere in our slide, just like
any other text box.
Notes and Handouts: Under this tab, we can choose our header and footer preferences for our handouts.

10. Power Point Shortcut Keys

Power Point
Action Shortcut
Bold Ctrl + B
Close Ctrl + W
Close Ctrl + F4
Copy Ctrl + C
Find Ctrl + F
Italics Ctrl + I
Menu bar F10
New Slide Ctrl + N
Next Window Ctrl + F6
Open Paste Ctrl + O
Paste Ctrl + V
Print Ctrl + P
Repeat Find Shift + F4
Repeat / Redo Ctrl + Y
Replace Ctrl + H
Save Ctrl + S
Slide Show: Begin F5
Slide show: Black screen show/hide B
Slide show: End Esc
Slide show: Erase annotations Esc
Slide show: Go to next hidden slide H
Slide show: Hide pointer and button always Ctrl + L
 Slide show: hide pointer and button temporarily Ctrl + H
Slide show: Mouse Pointer to arrow Ctrl + A
Slide show: Mouse pointer to pen Ctrl + P
Slide show: Next slide N

Microsoft Access
Microsoft Access is a relational DBMS (Database Management System). It handles data management tasks. Microsoft
Access allows users to manipulate large amounts of information and retrieve any part of the information. It is a structured
database containing data tables that are arranged in a uniform structure of records and fields. A spreadsheet is a table used
by small organisations that operates with a limited amount of data but for big organisations a Database Management System
is preferred because it needs storing huge amount of data and retrieves it much faster.

1. Terms related to Microsoft Access

✓ Database File: A database is a collection of related information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed,
managed, and updated. We organize files by storing them in folders. It is a collection of data organized in a
manner that allows access, retrieval, and use of that data. It is an integrated collection of logically-related records
that provide data for one or more multiple uses. We can also perform operations on the data that is in a database.
For example, retrieve data and modify data. Periodically reviewing and altering the records in a file to ensure
that the information they contain is accurate and up-to-date. We can use a database as a computerized
recordkeeping system that maintains information and that makes the information available when we want the
information. For example, addresses of employees in an organisation or maintain details of students etc.

✓ File updating: In computing, reviewing and altering the records in a file to ensure that the information they
contain is accurate and up-to-date. Three basic processes are involved: adding new records, deleting existing
records, and amending existing records. The updating of a file is a continuous process because records can be
accessed individually and changed at any time. This type of updating is typical of large interactive database
systems, such as airline
✓

ticket-booking systems.
Each time a ticket is
booked, files are
immediately updated so
that double booking is
impossible.
In large
commercial applications,
however, millions of
customer records may be
held in a large sequentially
ordered file, called the
master file. Each time the
records in the master file
are to be updated such as,
when quarterly bills are
being drawn up, a
transaction file must be
prepared. This will contain
 all the additions, deletions, and amendments required to update the master file. The transaction file is sorted
into the same order as the master file, and then the computer reads both files and produces a new updated
generation of the master file, which will be stored until the next file updating takes place.
✓ Database engine: A database engine is a part of a DBMS. It provides a link between the DBMS and the physical
data on the hard disk.

✓ Data dictionary: The data dictionary contains data about data or list of data files. It means that it contains the
actual database descriptions used by the DBMS, no original data. In most DBMS, the data dictionary is active
and integrated. It means that the DBMS checks the data dictionary every time the database is accessed.

✓ Directory: It is a hierarchical structure used to organize folders and files. It has information about files. It is a
virtual container in which groups of computer files and other folders can be kept and organized. The topmost or
main directory in any file is called the root directory. A directory that is below another directory is called a sub
directory. A directory above a subdirectory is called the parent directory.

✓ Table: A table is a collection of data about a specific topic that is stored in rows and columns or in relational
database a table is a data structure that is organized using a structure of columns and rows. A table has a specified
number of columns, but can have any number of rows. When we create a new table, Access asks to define fields,
giving each a unique name and data type. In one database there can be multiple tables.

✓ Field: A space allocated for a particular item of information is field. A field is a column in a table. SQL Server
supports more fields, but only 255 fields are visible in Access. The definition of a field includes the name of the
field, the type of data that is stored in the field, and any validation rules that you must have to validate the stored
data. For example, a tax form, contains a number of fields such as name, address, income and so on. In database
systems, fields are the smallest units of information. In spreadsheets, fields are called cells.

✓ Record: In database management systems, a record is a row in a table. We may store any number of records in
a table. Records are composed of fields, each of which contains one item of information. A set of records makes
a file. For example, a personnel file contains records that have fields such as name, address and a phone number
etc.

✓ Data type: A data type determines the type of data that the field can store. After naming a field, we must decide
what type of data the field will hold. Before you begin entering data, you should decide the data types that our
system would use such as in any database numeric field can store numbers used to perform calculations. Data
type can be Text, Memo, Numeric, Date / Time, Currency, Auto-Number etc.

✓ Forms: Forms are screens for displaying data from and inputting data into tables. In Access, we can use a form
as the graphical user interface to data. Forms do not store any data but they fetch data from tables or from queries
and then present this data for us. We can use a form to insert data in a table, to modify the existing data in a table,
or to delete data from a table.

✓ Reports: Reports are output. Anything we decide to print deserves a report, whether it is a list of names and
addresses, a financial summary for a period, or a set of mailing labels. Access Wizards allow us go through the
process of defining reports. A report presents the data from a table or from a query in a pre-formatted and useful
 manner. You can control the appearance of a report. Reports can use controls to improve the graphical
representation of data and to make the reports more useful.

✓ Page: We use pages to enter or display data via Internet. Pages are stored as HTML files, with data read from
and written to the database.

✓ Macros: An Access Macro is a script for doing some job. For example, to create a button which opens a report,
you could use a macro which fires off the "Open Report" action. Macros can also be used to set one field based
on the value of another. Each line of a macro performs some action, and the bottom half of the macro screen
provides the details of how the action is to apply.

✓ Primary Key: Primary key is a field or group of fields that uniquely identify records in a table. Every table can
have only one primary key. Primary key cannot be null value; it always has unique value. Primary key is used to
relate one table to another as a foreign key.

✓ Foreign key: Foreign key is a key in a table that refers to primary key field in another table.

✓ Relationship: A relationship is a link that is created between two tables and enables us to accessed data from
both tables simultaneously. A relationship is an association between access tables or queries that use related
fields. It can be one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, or many-to- ma
 CHAPTER 13- ABBREVIATIONS

ADC Analog Digital Converter

AI Artificial Intelligence
ALGOL Algorithmic Language
ALU
Arithmetic Logic Unit
ASCII
ATM American Standard Code for Information Interchange
BARC Automated Teller Machine
BASIC The Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
BIOS Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BSNL
Basic Input output System
CAD
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited
CAM
CD Computer Aided Design
CD ROM Computer Aided
CD RW Compact Disc
COBOL Compact Disc Read Only Memory
CPU
Compact Disc Read and Write
CRT
CU Common Business Oriented Language
D RAM Central Processing Unit
Cathode Ray Tube
Control Unit
Dynamic Ram
DAC Digital Analog Converter
DBMS Database Management System
DCL Digital Command Language
DFD Data Flow Diagram
DNS Domain Name System
DPI Dots Per Inch
DRDO The Defence Research and Development Organisation DVD-Digital Versatile
Disc or Digital Video Disc
E Mail Electronic Mail
E-Commerce Electronic Commerce
E-PROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
EDP Electronic Data Processing
EDSAC Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
EE-PROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrated and Computer

FORTRAN Formula Translation
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GUI
Graphical User Interface
HTML
HTTP Hyper Text Markup Language
IBM Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
ISDN International Business Machine
IT Integrated Services Digital Network
KBPS
Information Technology
LAN
LCD Kilo Byte Per Second
LSI Local Area Network
MAN Liquid Crystal Display
Large Scale Integration
Metropolitan Area Network
MB Mega Byte
MICR Magnetic Ink Character Reader
MODEM Modulator - Demodulator
MS-ACCESS Microsoft Access
MS-DOS Microsoft-Disc Operating System
MS-EXCEL Microsoft-Excel
MS-WINDOWS Microsoft-Windows
MS-WORD Microsoft -Word
MTNL
Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited
NAL
National Aerospace Laboratories
NIC
OCR Network Interface Card
OMR Optical Character Reader
OS Optical Mark Reader
PC Operating System
PDL
Personal System
PL 1
POS Program Design Language
PROM Programming Language 1
PSTN Point of Sales
RAM Programmable Read Only Memory
ROM
Public Switched telephone Network
RPG Random Access Memory
S RAM Read Only Memory
SCSI Port Report Program Generator
TCP/IP
Static Ram
TFT
ULSI Small Computer System Interface Port
UNIVAC Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
Thin- Film Transistor
Ultra Large Scale Integration
1-Universal automatic computer
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
URL Uniform Resource Locator

USB Universal Serial Bus

VDU Visual Display Unit
VLSI Very Large Scale Integration
VSNL
Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited
WAN
WIMAX Wide Area Network
WLL Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WORM Wireless Local Loop
WWW
Write Once Read Many
World Wide Web
 Decision Support Systems
Broadly speaking, decision support systems are a set of manual or computer-based tools that assist in some
decision-making activity. In today's business environment, however, decision support systems (DSS) are
commonly understood to be computerized management information systems designed to help business owners,
executives, and managers resolve complicated business problems and/or questions. Good decision support
systems can help business people perform a wide variety of functions, including cash flow analysis, concept
ranking, multistage forecasting, product performance improvement, and resource allocation analysis.
Previously regarded as primarily a tool for big companies, DSS has in recent years come to be recognized as a
potentially valuable tool for small business enterprises as well.

THE STRUCTURE OF DECISIONS

In order to discuss the support of decisions and what DSS tools can or should do, it is necessary to have a
perspective on the nature of the decision process and the various requirements of supporting it. One way of
looking at a decision is in terms of its key components. The first component is the data collected by a decision
maker to be used in making the decision. The second is the process selected by the decision maker to combine
this data. Finally, there is an evaluation or learning component that compares decisions and examines them to
see if there is a need to change either the data being used or the process that combines the data. These
components of a decision interact with the characteristics of the decision being made.

Structured Decisions
Many analysts categorize decisions according to the degree of structure involved in the decision-making
activity. Business analysts describe a structured decision as one in which all three components of a decision—
the data, process, and evaluation—are determined. Since structured decisions are made on a regular basis in
business environments, it makes sense to place a comparatively rigid framework around the decision and the
people making it.

Structured decision support systems may simply use a checklist or form to ensure that all necessary data are
collected and that the decision making process is not skewed by the absence of data. If the choice is also to
support the procedural or process component of the decision, then it is quite possible to develop a program
either as part of the checklist or form. In fact, it is also possible and desirable to develop computer programs
that collect and combine the data, thus giving the process a high degree of consistency or structure. When there
is a desire to make a decision more structured, the support system for that decision is designed to ensure
consistency. Many firms that hire individuals without a great deal of experience provide them with detailed
guidelines on their decision making activities and support them by giving them little flexibility. One interesting
consequence of making a decision more structured is that the liability for inappropriate decisions is shifted
from individual decision makers to the larger company or organization.

Unstructured Decisions
At the other end of the continuum are unstructured decisions. While these have the same components as
structured ones—data, process, and evaluation—there is little agreement on their nature. With unstructured
decisions, for example, each decision maker may use different data and processes to reach a conclusion. In
 addition, because of the nature of the decision there may only a limited number of people within the
organization qualified to evaluate the decision.

Semi-Structured Decisions
In the middle of the continuum are semi-structured decisions—where most of what are considered to be true
decision support systems are focused. Decisions of this type are characterized as having some agreement on
the data, process, and/or evaluation to be used, but are also typified by efforts to retain some level of human
judgment in the decision-making process. An initial step in analyzing which support system is required is to
understand where the limitations of the decision maker may be manifested (i.e., the data acquisition portion,
the process component, or the evaluation of outcomes).

DSS UNCERTAINTIES AND LIMITATIONS

While decision support systems have been embraced by small business operators in a wide range of industries
in recent years, entrepreneurs, programmers, and business consultants all agree that such systems are not
perfect.

Level of "User-Friendliness"
Some observers contend that although decision support systems have become much more user-friendly in
recent years, it remains an issue, especially for small business operations that do not have significant resources
in terms of technological knowledge.

Hard-to-Quantify Factors
Another limitation that decision makers confront has to do with combining or processing the information that
they obtain. In many cases these limitations are due to the number of mathematical calculations required. For
instance, a manufacturer pondering the introduction of a new product can not do so without first deciding on a
price for the product. In order to make this decision, the effect of different variables (including price) on
demand for the product and the subsequent profit must be evaluated. The manufacturer's perceptions of the
demand for the product can be captured in a mathematical formula that portrays the relationship between
profit, price, and other variables considered important. Once the relationships have been expressed, the
decision maker may now want to change the values for different variables and see what the effect on profits
would be. The ability to save mathematical relationships and then obtain results for different values is a feature
of many decision support systems. This is called "what-if" analysis, and today's spreadsheet software packages
are fully equipped to support this decision-making activity. Of course, additional factors must be taken into
consideration as well when making business decisions. Hard-to-quantify factors such as future interest rates,
new legislation, and hunches about product shelf life may all be considered. So even though the calculations
may indicate that a certain demand for the product will be achieved at a certain price, the decision maker must
use his or her judgment in making the final decision.

If the decision maker simply follows the output of a process model, then the decision is being moved toward
the structured end of the continuum. In certain corporate environments, it may be easier for the decision maker
to follow the prescriptions of the DSS; users of support systems are usually aware of the risks associated with
certain choices. If decision makers feel that there is more risk associated with exercising judgment and
opposing the suggestion of the DSS than there is in simply supporting the process, the DSS is moving the
 decision more toward the structured end of the spectrum. Therefore, the way in which a DSS will be used must
be considered within the decision-making environment.

Processing Model Limitations

Another problem with the use of support systems that perform calculations is that the user/decision maker may
not be fully aware of the limitations or assumptions of the particular processing model. There may be instances
in which the decision maker has an idea of the knowledge that is desired, but not necessarily the best way to
get that knowledge. This problem may be seen in the use of statistical analysis to support a decision. Most
statistical packages provide a variety of tests and will perform them on whatever data is presented, regardless
of whether or not it is appropriate. This problem has been recognized by designers of support systems and has
resulted in the development of DSS that support the choice of the type of analysis.
 Computing Security
Why Security?
Cyberspace (internet, work environment, intranet) is becoming a dangerous place for all
organizations and individuals to protect their sensitive data or reputation. This is because
of the numerous people and machines accessing it. It is important to mention that the
recent studies have shown a big danger is coming from internal threats or from
disappointed employees like the Edward Snowden case, another internal threat is that
information material can be easy accessible over the intranet.
One important indicator is the IT skills of a person that wants to hack or to breach your
security has decreased but the success rate of it has increased, this is because of three
main factors:
1. Hacking tools that can be found very easily by everyone just by googling and they
are endless.
2. Technology with the end-users has increased rapidly within these years, like
internet bandwidth and computer processing speeds.
3. Access to hacking information manuals.

Computer Security – Terminologies

Unauthorized access – An unauthorized access is when someone gains access to
a server, website, or other sensitive data using someone else's account details.
Hacker – Is a Person who tries and exploits a computer system for a reason which
can be money, a social cause, fun etc.
Threat – Is an action or event that might compromise the security.
Vulnerability – It is a weakness, a design problem or implementation error in a
system that can lead to an unexpected and undesirable event regarding security
system.
Attack – Is an assault on the system security that is delivered by a person or a
machine to a system. It violates security.
Antivirus or Antimalware – Is a software that operates on different OS which is
used to prevent from malicious software.
Social Engineering – Is a technique that a hacker uses to stole data by a person
for different for purposes by psychological manipulation combined with social scenes.
Virus – It is a malicious software that installs on your computer without your consent
for a bad purpose.
Firewall – It is a software or hardware which is used to filter network traffic based
on rules.

Computer security also known as cyber security is the protection of information systems from theft or damage
to the hardware, the software and to the information on them, as well as from disruption of the services they
provide.
Security is based on the following issues:

Privacy: The ability to keep things private/confidential.

Trust: we trust data from an individual or a host.
Authenticity: Are security credentials in order.
Integrity: Has the system been compromised/altered already.

Why do I need to learn about Computer Security ?

Good Security Standards follow the "90 / 10" Rule:

10% of security safeguards are technical.

90% of security safeguards rely on the computer user ("YOU") to adhere to good computing practices
We need both parts for effective security.
Example: The lock on the door is the 10%. You remembering to lock the lock, checking to see if the door is
closed, ensuring others do not prop the door open, keeping control of the keys, etc. is the 90%.

Threats classified into one of the categories below:

Back doors : A back door in a computer system, a cryptosystem is any secret method of bypassing normal
authentication or security controls. They may exist for a number of reasons, including by original design or from
poor configuration.
Denial-of-service attack : It designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users.
Direct-access attacks : An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to directly
download data from it.
Eavesdropping: It is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation, typically between hosts on a
network.
Spoofing : Spoofing of user identity describes a situation in which one person or program successfully
masquerades as another by falsifying data.
Tampering: It describes a malicious modification of products. So-called "Evil Maid" attacks and security
services planting of surveillance capability into routers.
Phishing: It is the attempt to acquire sensitive information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details
directly from users.
Good computing practices and tips that apply to most people who use a computer.

Use passwords that can't be easily guessed and protect your passwords.
Minimize storage of sensitive information.
Beware of scams.
Protect information when using the Internet and email.
Make sure your computer is protected with anti-virus and all necessary security "patches" and updates.
Secure laptop computers and mobile devices at all times: Lock them up or carry them with you.
Shut down, lock, log off, or put your computer and other devices to sleep before leaving them unattended and
make sure they require a secure password to start up or wake-up.
Don't install or download unknown or unsolicited programs/apps.
Secure your area before leaving it unattended.
 Make backup copies of files or data you are not willing to lose.

Computer Viruses:

A virus is a parasitic program that infects another legitimate program, which is sometimes called the host. To
infect the host program, the virus modifies the host so that it contains a copy of the virus.

Boot sector viruses: A boot sector virus infects the boot record of a hard disk. The virus allows the actual boot
sector data to be read as through a normal start-up were occurring.
Cluster viruses: If any program is run from the infected disk, the program causes the virus also to run. This
technique creates the illusion that the virus has infected every program on the disk.
Worms: A worm is a program whose purpose is to duplicate itself.
Bombs: This type of virus hides on the user’s disk and waits for a specific event to occur before running.
Trojan Horses: A Trojan Horses is a malicious program that appears to be friendly. Because Trojan Horses do
not make duplicates of themselves on the victim’s disk. They are not technically viruses.
Stealth Viruses: These viruses take up residence in the computer’s memory, making them hard to detect.
Micro Viruses: A macro virus is designed to infect a specific type of document file, such as Microsoft Word or
Microsoft Excel files. These types of documents can include macros, which are small programs that execute
commands.
The following are some well-known viruses.

CodeRed : It is a worm that infects a computer running Microsoft IIS server. This virus launched DOS attack
on White House’s website. It allows the hacker to access the infected computer remotely.
Nimba : It is a worm that spreads itself using different methods. IT damages computer in different ways. It
modified files, alters security settings and degrades performance.
SirCam : It is distributed as an email attachment. It may delete files, degrade performance and send the files to
anyone.
Melisa : It is a virus that is distributed as an email attachment. IT disables different safeguards in MS Word. It
sends itself to 50 people if Microsoft Outlook is installed..
Ripper :It corrupts data from the hard disk.
MDMA :It is transferred from one MS Word file to other if both files are in memory.
Concept :It is also transferred as an email attachment. It saves the file in template directory instead of its original
location.
One_Half :It encrypts hard disk so only the virus may read the data. It displays One_Half on the screen when
the encryption is half completed.
A computer system can be protected from virus by following precautions:

The latest and updated version of Anti-Virus and firewall should be installed on the computer.
The Anti-Virus software must be upgraded regularly.
USB drives should be scanned for viruses and should not be used on infected computers.
Junk or unknown emails should not be opened and must be deleted straight away.
Unauthorized or pirated software should not be installed on the computer.
An important way of protection against virus is the use of back up of data. The backup is used if the virus deletes
data or modifies it. So, back-up your data on regular basis.
Freeware and shareware software from the internet normally contain viruses. It is important to check the software
before using them.
Your best protection is your common sense. Never click on suspicious links, never download songs, videos or
files from suspicious websites. Never share your personal data with people you don’t know over the internet.