Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time.

Use the equation

1. Motions, Forces and Energy d
v= t Where:
​

v is speed
1.1. Physical quantities and d is distance
measurement techniques t is time
Velocity is defined as the speed in a given direction.
Making measurements (apparatus):
Distance & Speed Time Graphs
Liquids: Measuring Cylinder.
A pipette (accurate for one specific measurement)
Time: Clock, Digital Timers (reading to 0.1s or better)
Length: Metre rule (graduated in mm)
Micrometer Screw Gauge
Vernier Calliper
Volume: Measuring Length, Width, Height
Distance-Time Graphs
Measuring volume by displacement
Mass: Top pan balance, precision of 0.1g 1 Acceleration
2 At rest
Vectors and Scalars: 3 Deceleration
4 Constant Speed
Scalar: has magnitude only
e.g. distance, speed, time, mass, energy and temperature
Vector: has magnitude and direction
e.g. force, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum, electric
field strength and gravitational field strength
Speed-Time Graphs
1 Increasing Acceleration
2 Constant Speed
3 Decreasing Acceleration
4 Uniform Acceleration
5 Uniform Deceleration
6 Decreasing Deceleration
7 Increasing Deceleration

Acceleration:

Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit of

time.
Δv
a = v−u
Δt
= Δt
Where:
​

a is acceleration
v is the final velocity
u is the initial velocity
Δt is the change in time.

Falling objects:

Acceleration of free fall (g - gravitational constant) for an

object near the surface of the Earth is constant and is
approximately 9.8 m/s².
At the beginning of the paper, the instructions will tell you
to use 10 m/s² or 9.8 m/s². This detail can be very
important.

1.2. Motion Terminal Velocity:

An object falling because of acceleration due to gravity The centre of mass is the place at which all of the object's
through the atmosphere is subjected to two external forces. mass is concentrated. Because gravity works only on one
One force is the gravitational force, expressed as the object's spot in the item. For regularly formed objects, the centre of
weight. The other force is the air resistance or drag of the mass is in the centre.
object. It is critical to understand where a body's centre of mass is
An object has terminal velocity when those two forces are located, as this dictates the body's stability. When a body is
equal. tilted slightly, the line of action of its weight passes through its
base, it is stable.
1.3. Mass and Weight
Resultant forces:
Mass: a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest
Determine the resultant of two or more forces acting along
relative to the observer. The mass of a body is a measure of
the same straight line.
the amount of matter in it.
An object either remains at rest (stationary) or continues in a
Weight: a gravitational force on an object that has mass.
straight line at constant speed unless acted on by a resultant
Gravitational field strength g is defined as force per unit
force.
mass.
A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by
The equation for gravitational field strength is :
changing its direction of motion or its speed.
g=W
m ​

Gravitational field strength is equivalent to the acceleration of Springs:

free fall.
Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance. Sketch, plot and interpret load-extension graphs for an elastic
The weight of an object is the effect of a gravitational field on solid (eg. metal wire) and be able to describe any
its mass. experimental procedures.
The limit of proportionality is a point on a load-extension
graph beyond which the graph is no longer a straight line.
1.4. Density Spring constant is defined as force per unit extension. \n
Recall and use the equation:
Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
The equation for density is: k = Fx ​ Where:
p = mv ​
F is the force or load
With this equation, you can determine the density of a liquid, x is the extension
of a regularly shaped solid and of an irregularly shaped solid k is the spring constant ( N/m, N/cm, N/mm)
which sinks in a liquid. You need to record its mass, then
volume and then substitute it through the equation. Hooke’s Law
Know whether an object floats based on density data. A
higher density means that the object will sink. A lower density F = kx
makes it float. This is called buoyancy. Recall and use the equation F = ma and know that the force
and acceleration are in the same direction.
How to determine whether one liquid will float on F = ma
another liquid based on density data given that the When F is the force in N
liquids do not mix: m is mass in kg
a is acceleration in m/s²
The liquid with a larger density will descend below the other
liquid. Centripetal Force
A liquid floats over the other liquid if it has a lower density.
Describe the motion in a circular path due to a force
1.5. Forces perpendicular to the motion.
In a circular motion, if speed increases, the force needed
A force is a push or a pull. increases (mass and radius are constants).
Forces may produce changes in the size, shape and In a circular motion, if radius decreases, the force needed
velocity of an object. increases (mass and speed are constants). In a circular
Solid friction is the force between two surfaces that may motion, if mass is increased, an increased force is
impede motion and produce heating. required to keep speed and radius constant.
Friction (drag) acts on an object moving through a liquid
or a gas (air resistance). Moments of forces

Centre of mass: Moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect.

 The moment of a force is defined as moment = force x
perpendicular distance from the pivot.
Apply the principle of moments to situations with one
force on each side of the pivot, including balancing of a
beam. When there is no resultant force and no resultant
moment, an object is in equilibrium.
Apply the principle of moments in situations with more
than one force on each side of the pivot.
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that there is no
resultant moment on an object in equilibrium.
The stability of an object depends on the position of its
centre of gravity.

1.6. Energy Work and Power Energy transfer diagrams :

Energy 'stores’ are: kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical,
elastic (strain), nuclear electrostatic and internal (thermal).
Energy is transferred between stores during events and
processes.
Energy is transferred by forces (mechanical work done),
electrical currents (electrical work done), heating, and by
electromagnetic, sound and other waves.

The principle of the conservation of energy.

The principle of energy conservation states that energy is

Sankey Diagrams:
neither created nor destroyed. It may transform from one
type to another.
Energy can only be used by converting it from one form to
another. Unless energy is added from the outside, a system
always possesses the same quantity of energy.
The chemical energy of the batteries is transformed into
electrical energy in a torch, which is then converted into light
and heat. This energy is either absorbed or reflected by the
environment.

Kinetic energy formula: Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy
transferred.
The equation for (mechanical) work done is:
W = F d = ΔE
Units : Joules (J)
Where:
W = Work Done
F = magnitude of the force
d = the distance in the direction of the force

Energy Resources

Useful energy may be obtained, or electrical power

generated, from:
Change in gravitational potential energy formula: Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy Sources
Sources
Fossil Fuels Wind
Oils Tidal
Coal Hydro-electric
Natural Gas Geothermal
 Non-Renewable Energy Power is defined as work done per unit time and also as
Renewable Energy Sources
Sources energy transferred per unit time.
Solar (EM Waves from the W
Nuclear P=
sun)
​

t
- Biofuels ΔE
P= ​

t
Some sources of energy derive their energy from the sun. P = power (watt)
These are: W = work done (J)
ΔE = energy transferred (J)
Coal - formed from dead trees that have used energy T = time (s)
from the sun to produce hydrocarbons that have become
coal under pressure 1.7. Momentum
Biofuels - organic matter that is burned in order to
produce energy Momentum is defined as mass x velocity (kg m/s)
Hydro-electric - energy relies on the sun’s energy to run
the water cycle so energy can be harnessed The equation for momentum is p = mv Where:
Wind - gets heated and rises up and cooler air flows to fill p is momentum
the space m is mass
Solar - Electromagnetic waves from the sun are captured v is velocity
by photocells and turned into energy Resultant force is defined as the change in momentum per
unit time:
Environmental Δp
Renewability Availability Reliability Scale
Impact
F= Δt ​

Wind ✓ high low high on birds ∴ F = mΔv

Δt ​

Solar ✓ high low high low impact Impulse of a force is defined as force x time for which force
Almost no acts:
Geothermal ✓ low high low Impulse = F Δt = Δ(mv)
impact
Biofuels ✓ high high high low impact
The principle of the conservation of momentum:
Hydro- impacts
✓ high high high
electric marine life
General law of physics according to which the quantity called
Tidal ✓ high low low - momentum that characterises motion never changes in an
Greenhouse isolated collection of objects; that is, the total momentum of a
Coal ☓ high high low
gases closed system remains constant.
Radioactive
Nuclear ☓ low high high
substances 1.8. Pressure
Boilers, turbines and generators are used to generate Pressure is defined as force per unit area and measured in
electricity in a power plant. N/m or Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m^2
The equation for pressure is: p = Fa ​ Where:
p is pressure
F is force
a is area
Pressure beneath the surface of a liquid changes with the
depth and density of the liquid. The equation gives the change
in pressure beneath the surface of a liquid:
change in pressure = density x gravitational field strength x
change in depth

Efficiency: Δp = ρgΔh Where:

Δp= pressure difference in pascals (Pa)
Useful energy output ρ = density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Efficiency = × 100 g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
Total energy input
​

Δh = change in height/height of vertical column (m)

Power:
2. Thermal Physics
 It is impossible to restrict the thermal expansion of solids
2.1. Kinetic Model of Matter
and liquids
Properties of the 3 States of Matter - The molecular In Solids, when temperature increases it makes the
particles vibrate faster and expands slightly in volume.
Model
In Liquids, when temperature increases particles move
faster around each other and expand.
In Gases, the volume increases by a large amount.
Increasing internal energy of an object :
Heating
Rubbing
Shaking
Increased Temperature → Increased Internal Energy →
Increase in average kinetic energy of particles

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The mass of the object

The material of the object
The temperature change required
The amount of energy required to change the
temperature of a material depends on its Specific Heat
Particles that make up matter can be made of one or Capacity
more atoms
As particles of gas strike the walls of containers, their ΔE
c=
momentum changes and a force is created which can be
​

mΔθ
calculated using :
Where :
ΔP m = mass (kg)
Fnet = c = specific heat capacity ( J/K g o C )
Δt
​ ​

ΔE = energy provided ( J )
Temperature has an Absolute Zero : -273℃
Δθ = change in temperature ( o C )
Brownian Motion is the random motion of particles
suspended in a fluid resulting from their collision with fast Note : 1 Joule = 1 Watt for 1 sec \n J = W x t (s)
moving atoms or molecules in the fluid.
Melting, Boiling and Evaporation \n
Pressure and Volume at Constant Temperature
(Boyle’s Law) Melting Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a fixed Occurs at a fixed Occurs at any
P , V , T (Constant)
temperature temperature temperature
1
P ∝ P is inversely proportional to V
​

Speed depends on Relatively fast Relatively slow

V
energy supply process process
k Takes place at the Takes place
P = Takes place at the
surface of the solid throughout the
​

V
∴ k = PV surface only
only liquid
No bubbles Bubbles are formed No bubbles
P1 V1 = P2 V2
​ ​ ​ ​

Temperature Temperature Temperature may

Temperature Conversions : remains constant remains constant change
Heat from Heat from
External thermal
Celcius to Kelvin →K :K = + 273
oC oC surroundings or surroundings is
energy source
Kelvin to Celcius K → o C : o C = K − 273 external source enough required

2.2. Thermal Properties and 2.3. Thermal Energy Transfers

Temperature
Conduction Convection Radiation
All Materials expand as they get warmer
 Conduction Convection Radiation taking into account the fact that the sound has to travel
Infrared Radiation there and back.
Fluid Conductors and Sound travels at 343 metres per second in air, 1493
Thermal metres per second in water, and 5130 metres per second
Trapped air pockets Electromagnetic
conductors Particle in steel.
prevent convection waves All objects
to Particle For a healthy human ear, the audible frequency range is
flow emit and absorb
radiation 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
Ultrasound is defined as sound having a frequency of
Through movement Fluid with more more than 20000 Hz:
It depends on
and vibration of energy rises above Ultrasound is partially reflected back when it reaches a
temperature,
delocalised less energy to border between two media. The remaining waves pass
colour, surface
electrons \n Not for create convection through. A transceiver can produce ultrasound and collect
area and texture
Vacuums current the reflected waves to determine the distance of objects
Ex : Radiators or Ex : Vacuum of below the surface. Ultrasound is utilised for SONAR and
Ex : Kitchen Pans
heaters space medical imaging without the usage of ionising radiation.

Radiation vs Colour and Texture 3.2. General Properties of Waves

Wavelength (λ): distance between two crests or troughs,

measured in mm cm or m
Frequency: Number of complete waves that go past a given
point per unit of time.
Measured in hertz (Hz) 1Hz = 1 complete wave per unit
Radiation vs Temperature and Surface Area second
Amplitude: The maximum particle displacement of the wave
Temperature ∝ Surface area ∝ Energy emitted from the undisturbed position, measured in mm cm or m
Speed: Distance travelled by the wave per unit time,
measured in m/s, cm/s or mm/s
3. # Sound Wavefront: A line drawn to represent the peaks of a wave in
two dimensions. The distance between two adjacent
Longitudinal waves produced by vibrating sources are wavefronts is the wavelength of the wave. Wavefronts can be
known as sound waves. Sound waves require a medium to used to show some properties of waves.
be transmitted (such as air).
Compressions - high pressure ; Rarefactions - low Relationship between speed,
pressure
Solids transmit sound the fastest, liquids are slower, and frequency and wavelength:
gases are the slowest.
The louder a sound wave is, the greater its amplitude. wave speed = frequency × wavelength ; v =f ×λ
The higher the pitch of a sound wave, the higher its Reflection, refraction and diffraction (using water waves in a
frequency. ripple tank) :
An echo is a reflection of sound waves.
DESCRIBING A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE SPEED
OF SOUND IN AIR:
Make a noise at a known, significant distance from a solid
wall and record the time it takes for the echo (reflected
sound) to be heard, then use speed = distance/time,
 1 1
Frequency = f=
period (s)
​ ​

T
1 1
Period (s) = T=
Frequency Frequency
​ ​
 Describe the use of optical fibres, particularly in
Waves telecommunications.
A thin converging lens converges a parallel beam of light.
Thin diverging lens diverges a parallel beam of light.
3.3. Light
The principal focus (focal point) is the point on the
Light is an electromagnetic wave that is capable of principal axis where parallel waves passing through the
passing through free space or through a material medium lens meet.
in the form of varying electric and magnetic fields. The principal axis is a line of symmetry passing through
Normal is a line drawn at right angles between the the centre of the lens.
boundary of two materials. The focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens
The angle of incidence is the angle made by the incident to the principal focus
ray to the normal. The angle of reflection is the angle How to draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a
made by the reflected ray to the normal. real image by a converging lens.
The image formed by a plane mirror has the following Describe the characteristics of an image using the
characteristics: same size, same distance from the terms enlarged/same size/ diminished,
mirror, and virtual. upright/inverted and real/virtual.
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is Know that a virtual image is formed when diverging
equal to the angle of reflection. rays are extrapolated backwards and do not form a
How to use simple constructions, measurements and visible projection on a screen.
calculations for reflection by plane mirrors. Draw and use ray diagrams for the formation of a
The angle of refraction is the angle made by the refracted virtual image by a converging lens.
ray to the normal.
Position of Relative size of Nature of
Describe an experiment to show the refraction of light by Position of Image
Object image Image
transparent blocks of different shapes.
Describe the passage of light through a transparent Point sized, Real and
At Infinity At Focus
material. very small Inverted
The critical angle is the angle made to the normal in the Real and
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished
denser material when the angle of refraction is 90°. Inverted
The equation for critical angle is: Real and
At 2F At 2F Same size
Inverted
Between F Real and
Beyond 2F Enlarged
and 2F Inverted
Huge, very Real and
At Focus F At Infinity
large Inverted
On the same side of
Between F Virtual and
the lens as the Enlarged
and O Erect
object

Describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass.

Describe internal reflection and total internal reflection. A converging lens is used to correct long-sightedness.
Refractive index, n, is defined as the ratio of the speeds of A diverging lens is used to correct short-sightedness
a wave in two different regions The dispersion of light as shown by the refraction of white
The equation for refractive index is: light passing through a glass prism.

Know the seven colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue,

indigo and violet) of white light, and that frequency
 increases from red to violet and wavelength decreases are the best electrical conductors as they have free
from red to blue. electrons. E.g. copper
Visible light of a single frequency or wavelength is
described as monochromatic. Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their
electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly move, but
they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber Charging
4. Electricity and Magnetism insulators by friction

4.1. Magnetism Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle

and a length of string so that the material can rotate
A magnet has a north pole and a south pole. freely Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order
The magnetism is strongest at the poles. to give it a charge) Now take a second piece of insulating
Unlike poles attract and like poles repel. material and charge that by rubbing with a cloth
A magnetic material is defined as something that can be Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the
magnetised temporarily or permanently. charged end of the first piece: If the first piece rotates
When we refer to a 'magnet', we are referring to a away (is repelled) from the second piece then the
permanent magnet, made of magnetically hard materials. materials have the same charge If the first piece moved
Permanent magnets remain magnetic (hard) whereas towards (is attracted to) the second piece then they have
temporary magnets lose their magnetism (soft). opposite charges
A soft magnetic material can be induced by attracting it to
a strong magnet, however it loses its magnetism once it is Simple Electrostatic Experiments
removed.
A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic pole
experiences a force.
The direction of a magnetic field at a point is the direction
of the force on the north pole of a magnet at that point.

Magnetic field lines can be plotted using a compass or

iron filings.
The spacing between the magnetic field lines shows how
strong the field is. As the field lines get further away, the
force gets weaker.
Electromagnetism is explained in the next few lessons.

4.2. Electrical Quantities

Electric Charge (measured in Coulombs)
Attraction and Repulsion of Point Charges
positive or negative
similar charges repel, opposite charges attract
Electrical conductors and insulators Conductors:
materials that let electrons pass through them. Metals
 Alternating Current vs Direct Current
Direct Current (dc)

Direct current is produced when using dry cells and

batteries (and sometimes generators, although these are
usually ac)
The electrons flow in one direction only, from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal.
Conventional current flows from the positive to the
negative terminal
Current
Alternating Current (ac)
Current: a flow of charge, the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is Alternating current typically comes from mains electricity
connected in series and generators
Current is a rate of flow of charge It is needed for use in transformers in the National Grid
In metals, current is caused by a flow of electrons (covered later in this topic)
The direction of electron flow changes direction
regularly
A typical frequency for the reversal of ac current in
mains electricity is 50 Hz

Electromotive Force (EMF)

The energy supplied by the source in driving a unit charge
around a complete circuit.
The maximum voltage a cell can produce is called the
Current follows path of least resistance
electromotive force (EMF), measured in volts.
Conventional current flows in the direction opposite to When a current is being supplied, the voltage is lower
that which electrons flow in. because of the energy wastage inside the cell.
Red = Conventional Current A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit and
Green = flow of electrons not supplying current.

Potential Difference (P.D)

Potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as

voltage.
Voltage is the amount of energy the cell gives the
electrons it pushes out. Voltage is measured in volts (V)
and is measured by a voltmeter (connected in parallel). If
a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each
coulomb of charge (J/C).
Measuring potential difference and voltage

Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter.

Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component
being tested. The potential difference is the difference in
electrical potential between two points, therefore the
voltmeter has to be connected to two points in the circuit.

Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to current. For a given potential
difference, the higher the resistance, the lower the current.
Therefore resistors are used in circuits to control the current.
The unit of resistance is the ohm Ω.
Voltage
Resistance (Ω) =
Current
​

Factors affecting resistance:

Length

Ω∝L
The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus
encounter more resistance.
Cross-sectional area
 1 Component Symbol Function
Ω∝
A
​

Supplies the
More electrons can flow per unit time, increasing the
Cell electrical energy to
current and therefore decreasing the resistance.
the circuit
Current Voltage (IV Graphs)

As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is

increased, the current in the component also increases. The A battery is more
precise relationship between voltage and current can be Battery
than one cell.
different for different types of components and is shown by
an IV graph:

A power supply is a
device that converts
one voltage to
Power Supply d.c.
another more
and a.c.
convenient voltage
while delivering
(Ohmic Conductor = Resistor) power.
Electrical Energy and Electrical Power Electrical energy is Instrument used to
transferred from the battery or power source to the circuit Ammeter measure electrical
components then into the surroundings. current.
ΔE Instrument used to
1 Watt is 1 J/s P =
measure potential
​

t Voltmeter
P = IV ∴Electrical power = Voltage (V) × Current (A)
difference.
ΔE
IV = ∴Electrical energy = Voltage (V) × Current (A) ×
t Converts electrical
​

Time (s) Lamp

energy to light.
E = V It
Restricts the flow of
The Kilowatt Hour ​ electrical current.
Can be used to limit
Fixed Resistor
This energy is commonly measured in kilowatt-hour (kW h), the flow of current to
which is then used to calculate the cost of energy used. 1 kWh a particular
is the electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW appliance in 1 component.
hour Used to control
Energy in kWh = power in kW x time in hours. current and
Variable Resistor
To convert between Joules and kWh: resistance in a
circuit.

Converts heat to
Thermistor
electrical resistance.
Explanation:
ΔE = Pt ⟹ 1kWh = 1kW × 1h Light-Dependent Converts light to
1J Resistor electrical resistance.
1Watt = and 1kW = 1000W ⟹ 1kW =
​

s Converts electrical
1000J Heater
​
energy to heat.
s
⟹ 1kWh = 1000J × 3600s = 3.6 × 106 J To provide a variable
Circuit diagrams and components potential difference.
Component Symbol Function To split the potential
Potential Divider difference of a
In open position the
power source
Switch circuit is broken so
between two or
no current flows
more components.
Component Symbol Function Component Symbol Function
A transformer is a A motor is a device
device that transfers that can convert
Motor
electric energy from electrical energy into
one alternating- mechanical energy.
current circuit to one
Transformer or more other A device which only allows
circuits, either Diode
current to flow in one direction
increasing (stepping
up) or reducing Light Emitting
A diode that emits light
(stepping down) the Diode (LED)
voltage.
Electromagnetic
coils are used in 5. Atomic Physics
electrical
engineering, in
applications where 5.1. Nuclear Model of The Atom
electric currents
All matter is made up of atoms.
Magnetising interact with
Coils magnetic fields, in
devices such as
electric motors,
generators,
inductors,
electromagnets and
transformers.
A safety device
which melts to break
the circuit if the
Fuse electrical current
flowing through it
exceeds a specified
value.
The relay permits a
small amount of
electrical current to
control high current
loads. When voltage
is supplied to the
coil, small current
Relay
passes through the The structure of an atom is simple.
coil, resulting in a
larger amount of Alpha Scattering Gold Foil experiment
current passing (Rutherford’s)
through the contacts
to control the
electrical load.
An electric generator
is a device that
converts mechanical
Generator energy obtained
from an external
source into electrical
energy as the output.
 Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars. In a

The Atom fusion reaction, two light nuclei merge to form a single
heavier nucleus. The process releases energy because the
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons (positively total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the
charged) and neutrons. These two types of particles are mass of the two original nuclei. The leftover mass becomes
called nucleons. They are bound together by the strong energy.
nuclear force.
Electrons: almost massless particles which orbit nucleus
in shells
Proton number: number of protons in an atom
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in an atom
The following is the nuclide notation for atoms

5.2. Radioactivity
Detecting radiation

ISOTOPES It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to

radiation
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a GM Tube
of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14. detector connected to a radiation counter.
They have identical chemical properties but can have Count rate is the number of decays per second recorded
different physical properties eg: radioactive by a detector and recorded by the counter. It is measured
in counts/s or counts/min
Nuclear Fission The count rate decreases the further the detector is from
the source. This is because the radiation becomes more
Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom spread out the further away it is from the source
splits into two or more smaller nuclei, because of the addition
of an electron. The fission process often produces gamma
photons, and releases a very large amount of energy.
 - Helium Nucleus \n - - Relative -short wavelength
Relative charge of +2 \n - charge of -1 EM waves \n -
2p and 2n \n -1e− uncharged

Effects of electricity & magnetism on radioactive

emissions, and ionisation caused by them.

Alpha Beta Gamma

Electric Move away from Move towards
No change
fields + particles + particles
Magnetic Use the left hand Use the left
No change
fields rule hand rule
Ionises most Ionises least
Ionises lesser
Ionisation particles due particles because
particles
great mass no charge

Radioactive Decay

During α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to a

different element
Background Radiation The initial nucleus is often called the parent nucleus
The nucleus of the new element is often called the
It is important to remember that radiation is a natural daughter nucleus
phenomenon During α-decay, 2p and 2n is lost and hence the nucleon
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in number and proton number changes and a new element
outer space is formed.
However, human activity has added to the amount of During β-decay, one neutron from the nucleus changes
radiation that humans are exposed to on Earth. into a proton and electron. The electron is removed from
Background radiation is defined as the radiation that the atom and given out as radiation.
exists around us all the time. During gamma ray decay, the nucleus releases an EM
The sources of it include : radioactivity in air, cosmic rays, wave and rearranges itself internally. No change is made
rocks and buildings, food and drink, medical, nuclear in the number of subatomic particles.
power and testing.

The three types of nuclear emission

Atomic nuclei of most isotopes are unstable.

To become stable they give out radiation. As the radiation
moves away it takes some energy with it. This makes the
nucleus more stable. This is called radioactive decay.
This cannot be controlled by external factors so it is
known as a spontaneous and random event.
The 3 types of radioactive emissions are:

Half Life
 It is impossible to know when a particular unstable
nucleus will decay
But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases
can be known. This is known as the half-life. Half-life is
defined as:

The time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any
sample to decay
Nuclide notation is the notation of an element when it is
The activity of a source is measured in becquerels. (Bq)
written with its proton number and nucleon number. \n A
Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives
nuclear reaction would take place like this.
can vary from a fraction of a second to billions of years in
length
Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph

The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease

from 100 % to 50 % is the half-life
It is the same length of time as it would take to
decrease from 50 % activity to 25 % activity 6. Earth and The Solar
The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
System
Uses of isotopes
6.1. Earth and Other Bodies
Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of
cancer The Earth rotates around its axis, which is tilted 23.5
Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria)
degrees from West to East and revolves around the sun in
Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays) 365.25 days.
Checking the thickness of materials
The Earth has a Southern Hemisphere and a Northern
Smoke detectors (alarms)
Hemisphere divided by the Equator.
Medical and industrial tracers
Hemisphere: half of a sphere; Earth is divided into 2
hemispheres.
Safety Precautions

Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and

return them to their boxes as soon as you have finished
using them
During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from
the sources as feasible. When handling the sources do not
point at human tissue, using a pair of tweezers
Store the sources in lead-lined boxes.
Sometimes you can wear lead lined aprons

Nuclide Notation and Nuclear reactions.

Countries at the equator do not experience season
There are 2 basic types of questions:
changes as the sun hits them at the same angle at all
times.
 The solar system consists of eight planets: Mercury, together.
Venus, Earth, and Mars, which are the inner, rocky
planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the Our Solar System
outer gas giants.
Millions of asteroids and meteoroids orbit the sun, mainly The Sun makes up about 99.8% of the mass of the solar
found between Mars and Jupiter. system. It has a strong gravitational pull keeping all the
planets in orbit.
Comets are balls of ice, dust and gas. They orbit the sun in a
very elliptical orbit leaving a trail of gas and dust behind. We know from the chapter on circular motion that in order for
However, this is not the tail of the comet because the tail an object to move in a circular path, a force needs to act on
always faces away from the Sun. the object towards the centre of its orbit.

All the planet’s orbits are elliptical, and the measure of

how elliptical it is is called eccentricity.
The centre of the orbit is not directly on the sun but close
enough to the centre that we say that we orbit the sun.

The Formation of A Solar System

Our solar system was formed when a molecular cloud
collapsed into itself because of its own gravity. Gasses and
dust particles start to come together, getting closer and
faster. They gain speed in a spinning motion. This process is The reason all orbits are not perfectly circular is because of
called accretion. The disk formed by accretion is called the the energy changes during its orbital period.
accretion disk. The star pulls the body of mass towards itself. This pull
generates speed which, we know, will cause the body to move
away from the star. (Increasing speed increases the size of
the orbit.)
There are only two main types of energy we need to consider
in space.

1. Kinetic Energy
2. Gravitational Potential Energy

A planet close to the sun has a low GPE but a high KE. A
planet far away from the sun has a high GPE and a low KE.
How to calculate orbital speed:

The formula for speed is distance/time. We consider the

Gravity pulls heavier particles close together toward the
centre. orbits to be perfectly circular in this situation. The formula
is:
The gasses get hot and pressurised enough to start
nuclear fusion. 2πr
The dust particles clump together and form the inner Orbital speed = ​

rocky planets, while gasses orbit the centre farther away t

and form gas giants.
The centre of the accretion disk starts to form a new star Universe and Stars
called a protostar. At this point, gravity is still pulling mass
 Radiation pressure - the outward force due to the high
6.2. Sun
temperature of the star.
The Sun produces energy through the nuclear fusion of
hydrogen into helium.

It is made of 75% hydrogen, and 24% helium and the rest

is made of other elements like oxygen and carbon.
40% of its energy is visible light, 50% of it is infrared
radiation, and 10% is ultraviolet.
Matter exists as plasma in the sun’s core which has a
temperature of 15 000 000K and a surface temperature
of 5800K.
It has a mass of 2 × 10 30 Kg, which is often referred to as
solar mass.

Light Year and Distances

A light-year is the distance travelled by light in one year. So:
one light-year = 3 × 10 8 m/s × 365.25 days ×
Life Cycle of a Star Less Than Eight Solar Masses
24 hours × 3600 seconds = 9.5 × 10 15 m
Astronomers can also use other ways to measure distances. Like the sun, a stable star fuses hydrogen into helium. This is
They can be done using parallax. This is when the stars a stable main sequence star. Our sun is 4.5 billion years old
appear to move across the sky when we view them from and about halfway through its time as a stable star.
different points in our orbit.
Main sequence - a stable star that is burning up hydrogen
in its core; once it has used up 12% of its hydrogen, it goes
onto another stage of its life cycle.

Once it burns through the hydrogen, it starts to fuse helium.

This requires a higher temperature at the core. It becomes a
red giant, which are larger star with cooler surfaces.
Eventually, the core will collapse into a white dwarf star not
exceeding 1.4 solar masses.
It is not hot enough to fuse the elements inside it and cools to
become a black dwarf.
Point A is Earth in the summer, and point B is Earth in the The outer shell is blown off by radiation pressure and
winter. The telescope is pointed towards X at point A, and the becomes a planetary nebula.
stars are seen. The telescope is pointed in the direction of X
at point B - denoted by the dotted line - and shows that the Red Giant - a star that began with fewer than eight solar
same stars cannot be seen. The telescope is moved twice the masses and is burning helium at its core; the shell of
parallax angle to see the point Y. hydrogen has expanded and cooled.
We can use trigonometry to calculate the distance between White dwarf - the final stage of a star that started with
the stars and the Earth. fewer than eight solar masses after all its fuel has been
used up

Stars and Star Life Cycles

There might be 200 billion stars in the Milky Way. A star starts
out as a protostar. Interstellar clouds are dust clouds that
exist between stars. Molecular clouds are clouds mostly of
hydrogen that is cold and dense enough to collapse and form
stars.

Accretion begins to pull matter in.

A protostar is formed (refer to previous card for revision)
A stable star is born when gravity is equal to the radiation
pressure exerted by the high temperature and nuclear
fusion.
The Life Cycle of A Star Exceeding Eight Solar
Masses

It begins as a protostar, but the core is more massive and hot

enough to fuse heavier elements further from the core. The
outer shell expands into a red supergiant.

Red Supergiants - similar to red giants, they form when

stars with at least 8 times the mass of the sun run out of
hydrogen fuel in their core but fusion of hydrogen
continues in their outer shell

The top line represents the absorption spectrum observed in

an experiment in earth, and the bottom line is a redshifted
one from a distant galaxy.

Redshift is the shifting of light to the red end of the

spectrum which has longer wavelengths.
The Doppler effect causes redshift

The Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect is the rise or fall in pitch as the source of
the wave moves closer or away from us. Here is an example.

The layers go in order of outer-most to inner-most:

HYDROGEN, HELIUM, CARBON, OXYGEN, NEON,
MAGNESIUM, SILICON and then IRON.

It is not possible to make elements heavier than iron by

nuclear fusion.
Once all the fuel runs out, the star collapses in a
supernova, providing the energy to fuse the iron into
heavier elements and pushing matter out into space as a
The ambulance is moving at a certain speed towards the
nebula. right.
After the supernova, the core becomes one of two things:
As the siren rings once, the sound wave is produced and
a neutron star or a black hole. starts to move away from that point.
A neutron star is formed if the mass of the core is less
By the time the siren rings again, the ambulance has
than about 3 solar masses. It forces protons and moved.
electrons together to form neutrons. The ambulance closes that gap between itself and the
A heavier core will keep collapsing till it becomes so wave in front of it.
dense that not even light can escape it. It becomes a
This causes the second wave to be released closer to the
black hole. first wave. The waves ahead of the vehicle compress as it
approaches and observer B hears a rising pitch.
Spectroscopy The wave emitted behind the car is moving in the opposite
direction. The car is moved away before emitting a
There are many dark lines in the wavelengths of visible light second wave.
coming from the Sun. This is because the cool gas in the Sun’s The waves behind the ambulance are further apart giving
atmosphere absorbs them. A spectrum with these absorption it a receding pitch as the waves are stretched behind the
lines is known as an absorption spectrum. vehicle. Observer A hears a receding pitch.
The Doppler effect is a property of all waves including light. It
is proof that the Universe is expanding and suggests that the
galaxies must have been close together in the past.

The Big Bang Theory and Cosmic Microwave

Background Radiation

The theory that the Universe had a beginning is the Big

Bang Theory which states that the Universe (space, time,
matter, energy) was created at a single point 13.8 billion
years ago and has been expanding and cooling ever
since.
The Big Bang was not an explosion. The singularity was
unimaginably hot and dense which has been expanding
and cooling. Neutral atoms could not form due to the heat The line of best fit is Hubble’s Law:
of the early Universe; they would ionise. V = Ho d where v is the recession speed of the galaxies, d is
​

Light continuously scattered around until the universe their distance from us, and Ho is the Hubble Constant
​

cooled. The Hubble constant is the gradient of this graph:

The expansion of the Universe has caused the wavelength v
of the light to redshift.
Ho = ​ ​

d
Estimate for the age of the Universe:
( For a detailed understanding, refer to the new textbook, d 1
Chapter 25, Pages 477 - 478 ) =
​ ​

v Ho ​

The reciprocal (inverse) of the Hubble constant is known as

Hubble’s Law Hubble time because it can be used to work out the age of the
universe. The current estimate for Ho is 2.2 x 10^-18 per
The Doppler effect can be used to work out how fast galaxies second.
are moving away from us. The speed at which galaxies are We know that:
moving away from us is proportional to the distance away distance
from us. time = So: ​

speed
d 1
tuniverse = = ​ ​

v Ho ​

Therefore the age of the Universe is:

1 1
tuniverse = = = 4.5 × 1017 s =
2.2 × 10−18
​ ​

Ho ​

14.4 × 109 years

The Universe began at a single point (called a singularity)
about 14.5 billion years ago.