TVET CERTIFICATE III in COMPUTER SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY

I N T R O D UC T IO N T O C O MP UT E R N E T W O R K S

COSIC301 Introduce computer networks

Learning hours

Credits:4 40
Sector: ICT
Sub-sector: Computer maintenance

Module Note Issue date: October, 2020

Purpose statement

This core module describes the skills, knowledge and attitude required to describe the purpose and
functions of various network devices and protocols. The learner will be able to select the components
required to meet a network specification, Use the OSI and TCP/IP models and their associated protocols
to explain how data flows in a network, describe the purpose and basic operation of the protocols in
the OSI and TCP models, the components required for network and Internet communications, Explain
the technology and media access control method for Ethernet networks, network segmentation and
basic traffic management concepts, implement an IP addressing scheme and IP Services to meet
network requirements in a medium-size Enterprise branch office network, describe the operation
and benefits of using private and public IP addressing. At the end the learner will have a strong
foundation and an understanding of basic network functions, standards, and protocols.

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Table of Contents

Elements of competence and performance criteria Page No.

Learning Unit Performance Criteria
1.Introduce Network 1.1 Proper description of Network concepts and 3
Concepts technologies

1.2 Proper description of Network topology

1.3 Adequate study of network devices, components and

their functions

2.Apply network 2.1 Correct description of Network Protocols 16

protocols 2.2 Appropriate description of Network standards

2.3 Appropriate identification and application of

Network media

3.Apply IP addressing 3.1 Correct description of IP addressing concepts 44

(IP v4) 3.2 Convenient application of IPv4 assignment (
Internet protocol version 4

3.3 Convenient application of IPv4 subnetting

(CIDR&VLSM)

4.1 Accurate documentation of review process

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4. Document the work 4.2 Effective reporting procedures of the task
accomplished are in place and used
done
4.3 Methodical Writing of the technical journal and
recommendation

Total Number of Pages: 96

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Learning Unit 1-Introduce Network Concepts

LO 1.1 – Describe Network concepts and technologies

Content/Topic 1: Description of computer network

A. Definition of computer network

1. computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components
and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and
information.
2. A computer network is a group of computers that shares information across wireless or wired
technology.
3. A computer network is any set of computers or devices connected to each other with the ability to
exchange data.
B. Elements of network

The modern data network has become a critical asset for many industries. Most basic data networks are
designed to connect users and enable them to access various resources, like the Internet and other
computers connected to the network. Networks are comprised of four basic elements: hardware,
software, protocols and the connection medium. All data networks are comprised of these elements, and
cannot function without them.

1. Hardware

The backbone of any network is the hardware that runs it. Network hardware includes network cards,
routers or network switches, modems and Ethernet repeaters. Without this hardware, computers have no
means of accessing a network. Network cards give computers direct access to network media and enable
them to connect to other equipment, including routers, switches, modems and repeaters. Routers or
switches allow a single network connection from a modem to be divided between several computers.
Repeaters refresh the network signal between Ethernet cable segments, allowing Category 5 cables to
reach beyond their 300-foot maximum length without signal loss.

2. Software

In order for the hardware to interact with the network, it needs software to issue commands. The primary
form of networking software is protocols -- software that instructs network devices on how to connect to
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the network and how to interact with one another. Other examples of networking software include
connection monitoring software, networking clients and other tools designed to further facilitate your
computer's ability to connect to the network.

3. Client Devices

Client devices are the computers and mobile devices connected to the network. Client devices are vital
components of a network, as without clients requiring access the network is essentially pointless. In order
to classify as a client device, a computer or mobile device must be able to connect to the network and
utilize it. Depending on the network, client devices may also require specialized software to establish a
connection.

4. Connection Media

Without connections, a network cannot function. The medium used to connect the nodes of a network
varies with the type of network. Wired networks will often use network cables like Category 5 Ethernet
cables, while wireless networks make direct connections between devices using radio signals as the
medium.

Summary

Basic elements of a computer network include the following:

- Hardware
o Network devices (Ex: Router, Switch, …).
o Network Cables (Coaxial cables, Twisted pair cables, Fiber optic cable).
o End devices.
- Software (Ex: Internetwork Operating System).
- Protocols (TCP, HTTP, …).

The interrelationship of these basic elements constitutes the infrastructure of the network.

A network infrastructure is the topology in which the nodes of a local area network (LAN) or a wide area
network (WAN) are connected to each other. These connections involve equipment like routers, switches,
bridges and hubs using cables (copper, fiber, and so on) or wireless technologies (Wi-Fi).

C. Network benefits:

Main benefits of networks include:

 File sharing – you can easily share data between different users, or access it remotely if you keep it
on other connected devices.

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  Resource sharing – using network-connected peripheral devices like printers, scanners and copiers,
or sharing software between multiple users, saves money.
 Sharing a single internet connection – it is cost-efficient and can help protect your systems if you
properly secure the network.
 Increasing storage capacity – you can access files and multimedia, such as images and music, which
you store remotely on other machines or network-attached storage devices.

Networking computers can also help you improve communication, so that:

 staff, suppliers and customers can share information and get in touch more easily
 your business can become more efficient - eg networked access to a common database can avoid
the same data being keyed multiple times, saving time and preventing errors
 staff can deal with queries and deliver a better standard of service as a result of sharing customer
data

Content/topic 2: Distinguishing between network classification

A. Classifying network by components roles

1. Peer to peer network
A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two or more PCs are
connected and share resources without going through a separate server
computer

2. Client/server network
Client/server network. A computer network in which one centralized,
powerful computer (called the server) is a hub to which many less powerful personal computers or
workstations (called clients) are connected.

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 B. Classifying network by geographical area
1. WAN (Wide Area Network)
A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the entire world.

2. LAN
A local area network is a computer network that interconnects computers within a limited area such as a
residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building

3. MAN

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A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that interconnects users with computer
resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area network (LAN)
but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN).

Content/topic 3: Introduction to network technologies

A. IEEE802.3 Ethernet
Definition for Ethernet

IEEE stand for Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

Ethernet is a system for connecting a number of computer systems to form a local area network, with
protocols to control the passing of information and to avoid simultaneous transmission by two or more
systems

Ethernet is the most widely used local area network (LAN) technology, that defines wiring and signaling
standards for the physical layer of TCP/IP. Ethernet was originally standardized as IEEE 802.3 with a data
transmission rate of 10 Mb/s.Is LAN and Ethernet the same?

Ethernet is a type of network used extensively for setting up LAN. LAN port means your Local Area
Network port which invariably ends up being an Ethernet port. So for all practical purpose LAN port is the
same as Ethernet port. The connector used is RJ45.

IEEE 802.3 is a working group and a collection of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE)
standards produced by the working group defining the physical layer and data link layer's media access
control (MAC) of wired Ethernet. This is generally a local area network (LAN) technology with some wide
area network (WAN) applications. Physical connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure
devices (hubs, switches, routers) by various types of copper or fiber cable.
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 B. IEEE802.5 Token ring
"A token ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which all computers are connected in a ring or star
topology and a bit- or token-passing scheme is used in order to prevent the collision of data between two
computers that want to send messages at the same time.
PACKET
A packet is the unit of data that is routed between an origin and a destination on the Internet or any other
packet-switched network. When any file (e-mail message, HTML file, Graphics Interchange Format file,
Uniform Resource Locator request, and so forth) is sent from one place to another on the Internet, the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) layer of TCP/IP divides the file into "chunks" of an efficient size for
routing. Each of these packets is separately numbered and includes the Internet address of the destination.

In IEEE 802.5, the token passing scheme is used in place of Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) on a ring topology local area network (LAN). A token is circulated around a network.
The computer that has possession of the token has the right to transmit packets for a certain period of
time. If that computer has no packets to transmit then the token is passed to the next computer. Only one
computer at a time can transmit packets so this helps to avoid collision problems.
C. IEEE802.8 Fiber optic
The Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group was to create a LAN standard for fiber optic media used in token
passing computer networks likeFDDI. This was part of theIEEE 802 group of standards.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a standard for data transmission in a local area network
D. IEEE802.11 Wireless
IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of LAN protocols, and specifies the set of media access control
(MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) Wi-Fi
computer communication in various frequencies, including but not limited to 2.4, 5, and 60 GHz frequency
bands.
LO1.2- Describe Network topology
Content/Topic1: Description of Network topology

A. Definition of topology

 Is the way in which constituent parts are interrelated or arranged?

 Network topology is the interconnected pattern of network elements. A network topology may
be physical, mapping hardware configuration, or logical, mapping the path that the data must
take in order to travel around the network.

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  A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines.
There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical topology and the logical (or
signal) topology.
1. Logical
Logical (or signal) topology refers to the nature of the paths the signals follow from node to node.
In many instances, the logical topology is the same as the physical topology. But this is not always
the case. For example, some networks are physically laid out in a star configuration, but they
operate logically as bus or ring networks.
2. Physical
The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of workstations. There are
several common physical topologies, as described below and as shown in the illustration.

Types of network topology

 In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable called the bus.
Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in the
network.

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  In the star network topology, there is a central computer or server to which all the workstations
are directly connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to every other through the central
computer.

 In the ring network topology, the workstations are connected in a closed loop configuration.
Adjacent pairs of workstations are directly connected. Other pairs of workstations are indirectly
connected, the data passing through one or more intermediate nodes.

If a Token Ring protocol is used in a star or ring topology, the signal travels in only one direction, carried by
a so-called token from node to node.

 The mesh network topology employs either of two schemes, called full mesh and partial mesh. In
the full mesh topology, each workstation is connected directly to each of the others. In the partial
mesh topology, some workstations are connected to all the others, and some are connected only to
those other nodes with which they exchange the most data.

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  The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected together. The central
computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network is a bus network
of star networks.

Content/ Topic 2: Identification of advantages and disadvantages of topology

Bus topology
1. Advantages of bus topology:
b. Easy to implement and extend
c. Well suited for temporary networks that must be set up in a hurry
d. Typically the cheapest topology to implement
e. Failure of one station does not affect others

2. Disadvantages of bus topology:

f. Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
g. Limited cable length and number of stations
h. A cable break can disable the entire network; no redundancy
i. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
j. Performance degrades as additional computers are added
B. Star topology
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 1. Advantages of star topology
a. Easy to add new stations
b. Easy to monitor and troubleshoot
c. Can accommodate different wiring
2. Disadvantages of star topology
 Failure of hub cripples attached stations
 More cable required (more expensive to wire a building for networking)
C. Token ring and ring topology
1. Advantages of ring topology
• Growth of system has minimal impact on performance
• All stations have equal access

2. Disadvantagesof ring topology

• Most expensive topology
• Failure of one computer may impact others
• Complex

D. Mesh topology
1. Advantage of Mesh Topology

The arrangement of the network nodes is such that it is possible to transmit data from one node to many
other nodes at the same time.
2. Disadvantage of Mesh Topology

The arrangement wherein every network node is connected to every other node of the network, many of
the connections serve no major purpose. This leads to the redundancy of many of the network
connections.
E. Tree Topology

1. Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

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2.Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

L.O1.3-Study network devices, components and their functions

Content/Topic 1: Network devices classification

A. Interconnection devices
Many interconnection devices are required in a modern network, from the interface that allows a single
computer to communicate with other computers via a LAN cable or a telephone line, to the large and
complex switching devices that interconnect two or more entire networks. The main categories of
interconnection device used in computer networks are listed below:

1. Network Interface Card (NIC)

2. Repeater

3. Hub

4. Bridge
B. Access devices

When used in broadband a NAD (Network Access Device) is a term to describe all the subscriber
equipment required to make a connection to a wide area network (WAN) from a local area network
(LAN). The NAD normally includes a router, modem and a monitored power supply. Most NAD’s
have the ability to report power failures and automatically reconnect themselves back to the
network when disconnected.

In residential and business networks, Network Access Devices that are commonly seen include
Wireless Access Points and Ethernet switches.

C. End devices

The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices, or hosts. These devices
form the interface between users and the underlying communication network.

Some examples of end devices are:

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 1. Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web servers)
2. Network printers
3. Security cameras
4. Mobile handheld devices (such as smartphones, tablets, PDAs, and wireless debit/credit card
readers and barcode scanners)

Content/Topic 2: Network components

 Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the software required for
installing computer networks, both at organizations and at home.
The following figure shows a network along with its components −

 Hardware Components
Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the
network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they give
user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of various kinds: file servers,
database servers, print servers etc.
Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to
access and use the network resources.
Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers in a
workgroup network.
Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data is
transferred from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may be guided
media like coaxial cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided media like microwaves,
infra-red waves etc.
Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or
computers, by binding the network media together. Some of the common connecting
devices are:
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 a. Routers
b. Bridges
c. Hubs
d. Repeaters
e. Gateways
f. Switches

 Software Components
Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed in the
server and facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database, applications, printers
etc.
Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data
communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for computer
networks. The two popular protocol suites are −
o a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
o b. TCP / IP Model
Media
Network media refers to the communication channels used to interconnect nodes on a computer
network. Typical examples of network media include copper coaxial cable, copper twisted pair cables and
optical fiber cables used in wired networks, and radio waves used in wireless data communications
networks.
Message
A message is a buffer of text data sent to a user or application on the network
Protocol
A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices. Network
protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as
formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received.
D. Devices
They allow the network resources to be shared among computers.
1. Router

Routers are the most intelligent among all the network devices. They can be programmed to use the most
efficient route to transmit the data to the desired computers. They operate on the Network Layer 3 of OSI
model and can route data packets from one network to another based on their IP address. Also they don’t
forward broadcasts by default.

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Routers make each of its port into a separate segment and a separate collision domain. Thus routers have
many segments and many collision domains. The routers can separate broadcast domains unlike switches
that create separate collision domains but same broadcast domains.

By default, routers break the broadcast domains and keep all devices separate on a segment from other
segments. This means if messages are sent on a segment, the devices on that segment will be able to get
that broadcast message and not all other segments of the same network. The functions of a router are:
Path selection, Packet filtering, Packet switching, and Internetworking. The routers perform packet
switching and internetworking using logical addressing and packet filtering using access lists. Routers use
routing tables or map of the internetwork to make path selection and send data packets to remote
networks

2. Hubs

A hub a very basic network device that connects all the computers together in a network. It sends all the
network data to all the computers connected to it, without using any intelligence of its own. Each port on
the hub is on the same network segment. Thus a hub has one segment and one collision domain. The job
of a hub is simply sending out anything that comes to it to other computers connected to it.

Every computer connected to hub can see every other computer on the hub. With the increase in the
number of ports in a hub network, the possibility of collision also increases. A hub operates on the
Network Layer 1 of the OSI model and can only detect basic network errors such as network collisions

3. Switch

Switches do same what a hubs do but they do it intelligently. They learn the MAC address of the requester
and the port or the location of the device which responded to the request almost instantly. The first time, a
request received by a switch is sent to all the computers connected to it. However, as soon as the request
is responded by a computer, the switch learns the network location of the port that responded to the
request and the Mac address of the source computer to handle the similar subsequent requests.

For example, consider computers called CompA, CompB, and CompC are connected to a switch. When a
message destined for CompA is received by the switch, it broadcasts the message to all the computers.
Now as soon as CompA responds to the message, the switch learns the path and sends all messages
destined for CompA to CompA only.

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It does this by remembering the MAC address of the originator of the request and then it sends the
response from CompA to the same MAC address (originator of the request) only. Thus all subsequent
messages received from the same source for the same destination are delivered to the same source and
the destination computers only.

Switches operate on the Network Layer 2 of the OSI model and create many collision domains on the same
segment. The switches make each port its own collision domain.

4. NIC

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware
designed to allow computers to physically access a networking medium. It provides a low-level addressing
system through the use of MAC addresses.
5. Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it, and
retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover
longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required
for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters
work on the Physical Layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the
signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are
several repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a
row (e.g. Ethernet's 5-4-3 rule).
Today, repeaters and hubs have been made mostly obsolete by switches (see below).
6. Firewall

A firewall is an important aspect of a network with respect to security. It typically rejects access requests
from unsafe sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network
security grows in parallel with the constant increase in 'cyber' attacks for the purpose of
stealing/corrupting data, planting viruses, etc.

7. Access points
Access points are wireless network devices that are used to provide wireless access to a wired network.
The access points are similar to hubs because the RF frequency they use on the wireless side is a shared
media. It then further shares the frequency with all the computers accessing it just like a hub. The access
points have one segment and one collision domain.

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 8. Antenna
An antenna is a transducer that converts radio frequency (RF) fields into alternating current or vice versa.
There are both receiving and transmission antennas for sending or receiving radio transmissions. Antennas
play an important role in the operation of all radio equipment. They are used in wireless local area
networks, mobile telephony and satellite communication.
9. Gateways

Operates at or above the OSI transport layer and links LANs or networks that employ different
architectures and use dissimilar protocols. Enable communications between two different types of
networked systems.

A gateway is a node (router) in a computer network, a key stopping point for data on its way to or from
other networks. Thanks to gateways, we are able to communicate and send data back and forth. The
Internet wouldn't be any use to us without gateways (as well as a lot of other hardware and software).

In a workplace, the gateway is the computer that routes traffic from a workstation to the outside network
that is serving up the Web pages. For basic Internet connections at home, the gateway is the Internet
Service Provider that gives you access to the entire Internet.

Router: The routers are used to create internetworks. They use routing tables or map of the internetworks
to make path selection and send data packets to other networks.

Hubs: Hubs operate on the same network segment they cannot divide a network.

Bridge: A Bridge has just 2 interface devices. It can connect only two networks that do not communicate
very often.

The switches and bridges can create LANs and separate collision domains but they cannot be used to
create separate LANs.

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Learning Unit 2-Apply network protocols

LO 2.1. Describe Network Protocols

Content/Topic1: Introduction to network protocols

A. Definition
A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices. Network
protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as
formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received.
Network protocols are grouped such that each one relies on the protocols that underlie it sometimes
referred to as a protocol stack.
B. Types of most common network protocols
1. NetBEUI

NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System)

NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) is a program that allows applications on different
computers to communicate within a local area network (LAN). It was created by IBM for its early PC
Network, was adopted by Microsoft, and has since become a de facto industry standard. NetBIOS is used in
Ethernet and Token Ring networks and, included as part of NetBIOS Extended User Interface (NetBEUI), in
recent Microsoft Windows operating systems. It does not in itself support a routing mechanism so
applications communicating on a wide area network (WAN) must use another "transport mechanism"
(such as Transmission Control Protocol) rather than or in addition to NetBIOS.

2.NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface) is a new, extended version of NetBIOS, the program that lets
computers communicate within a local area network.

Pronounced net-booey, NetBEUI is short for NetBios Extended User Interface. It is an enhanced version of
the NetBIOSprotocol used by network operating systems such as LAN Manager, LAN Server, Windows for
Workgroups, Windows 95 and Windows NT.

Netbeui was originally designed by IBM for their Lan Manager server and later extended by Microsoft and
Novell.

3. TCP/IP

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  TCP stands for “Transmission Control Protocol”
TCP software breaks messages into packets, hands them off to the IP software for delivery, and then orders
and reassembles the packets at their destination
 IP stands for Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal set of digital message formats and rules for exchanging messages
between computers across a single network or a series of interconnected networks, using the Internet
Protocol
Suite(often referred to as TCP/IP).
 TCP/IP
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol(TCP/IP) is the language a computer uses to access the
Internet. It consists of a suite of protocols designed to establish a network of networks to provide a host
with access to the Internet.

4. Apple talk

AppleTalk is a discontinued proprietary suite of networking protocols developed by Apple Inc. for their
Macintosh computers. AppleTalk includes a number of features that allow local area networks to be
connected with no prior setup or the need for a centralized router or server of any sort. Connected
AppleTalk-equipped systems automatically assign addresses, update the distributed namespace, and
configure any required inter-networking routing.

AppleTalk was released in 1985, and was the primary protocol used by Apple devices through the 1980s
and 1990s. Versions were also released for the IBM PC and compatibles and the Apple IIGS. AppleTalk
support was also available in most networked printers (especially laser printers), some file servers, and a
number of routers.

The rise of TCP/IP during the 1990s led to a reimplementation of most of these types of support on that
protocol, and AppleTalk became unsupported as of the release of Mac OS X v10.6 in 2009. Many of
AppleTalk's more advanced autoconfiguration features have since been introduced in Bonjour, while
Universal Plug and Play serves similar needs.

5. Novell NetWare(IPX/SPX)

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  IPX/SPX stands for Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange. IPX and SPX are
networking protocols used primarily on networks using the NovellNetWareoperating systems.

 NetWare is a discontinued computer network operating system developed by Novell, Inc. It initially
used cooperative multitasking to run various services on a personal computer, using the IPX
network protocol.

 Network operating system definitions:

 A specialized operating system for a network device such as a router, switch or firewall.
 An operating system oriented to computer networking, to allow shared file and printer access
among multiple computers in a network, to enable the sharing of data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions, typically over a local area network (LAN), or private
network. This sense is now largely historical; as common operating systems generally now have
such features included.
Content/Topic2: Description of IP terminologies

A. Definition

 IP Stands for "Internet Protocol." IP provides a standard set of rules for sending and receiving data
over the Internet. It allows devices running on different platforms to communicate with each other
as long as they are connected to the Internet.

In order for an Internet-connected host to be recognized by other devices, it must have an IP address. This
may be either an IPv4 or IPv6 address, but either way it uniquely defines a device on the Internet.

The Internet Protocol also provides basic instructions for transferring packets between devices. However, it
does not actually establish the connection or define the ordering of the packets transmitted. These aspects
are handled by the Transmission Control Protocol, which works in conjunction with the Internet Protocol to
transfer data between systems on the Internet. For this reason, connections between Internet-connected
systems are often called "TCP/IP" connections.

B. Two Types of IP

1. IPv4

IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long (four bytes). An example of an IPv4 address is 216.58.216.164,

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The maximum value of a 32-bit number is 232, or 4,294,967,296. So the maximum number of IPv4
addresses, which is called its address space, is about 4.3 billion. In the 1980s, this was sufficient to address
every networked device, but scientists knew that this space would quickly become exhausted.
Technologies like NAT have delayed the problem by allowing many devices to use a single IP address, but a
larger address space is needed to serve the modern Internet.

2. IPv6

IPv6 is also called IP next generation, or IPng, in honor of the favorite television show of most Internet
gurus, Star Trek: The Next Generation.

IPv6 offers several advantages over IPv4, but the most important is that it uses 128 bits for Internet
addresses instead of 32 bits. The number of host addresses possible with 128 bits is a number so large that
it would have made Carl Sagan proud. It doesn't just double or triple the number of available addresses, or
even a thousand-fold or even a million-fold. Just for the fun of it, here is the number of unique Internet
addresses provided by IPv6:

340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,21 1,456

This number is so large it defies understanding. If the IANA had been around at the creation of the universe
and started handing out IPv6 addresses at a rate of one per millisecond - that is, 1,000 addresses every
second - it would now, 15 billion years later, have not yet allocated even 1 percent of the available
addresses.

The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 has been a slow one. IPv6 is available on all new computers and has been
supported on Windows since Windows XP Service Pack 1 (released in 2002). However, most Internet
service providers (ISPs) still base their service on IPv4. Thus, the Internet will continue to be driven by IPv4
for at least a few more years.

LO 2.2. Describe Network standards

Content/Topic1: Network standards

A. Importance of standards

Standards provide people and organizations with a basis for mutual understanding, and are used as tools
to facilitate communication, measurement, commerce and manufacturing.

Standards are everywhere and play an important role in the economy, by:

 facilitating business interaction

 enabling companies to comply with relevant laws and regulations

22
  speeding up the introduction of innovative products to market

providing interoperability between new and existing products, services and processes.
B. Internet standards

An internet standard (STD) is a specification that has been approved by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF). Such standard helps to promote a consistent and universal use of the internet worldwide.
C. Types of standards
1. De Facto standards

A de facto standard is something that is used so widely that it is considered a standard for a given
application although it has no official status.

Here are a few examples of de facto standards:

 The QWERTY keyboard layout is the standard pattern in countries that use a Latin-based alphabet.
 Microsoft’s Windows operating system, along with commonly used business applications such as
Microsoft Word and Excel, has long been the de facto standard for business and home users.

2. De Jure standards

A de jure standard is a technology, method or product that has been officially endorsed for a given
application.

De jure, from Medieval Latin, means from law. The term refers not only to legally protected or enforced
standards but also to those that have been endorsed by an official standards organization, such as ANSI
(American National Standards Institute) or IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force).

Examples of de jure standards include:

 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), the most common format for
text files in computers and on the Internet.
 SCSI (Small Computer System Interface), a set of ANSI standard electronic interfaces that allow
personal computers to communicate with peripheral hardware.
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the IETF-endorsed standard
communication language or protocol of the Internet.

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De facto standards contrast with de jure standards, which have official status as confirmed by a standards
organization.

D. Standards organizations
There are a number of well-known international organizations that play an important role in the
development of open networking standards. Some of the most important of these are ISO, ANSI,
ITIC, IEEE, EIA/TIA, ITU-T and ETSI.
1. ISO

ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies.

ISO is a nongovernmental organization that comprises standards bodies from more than 160 countries,
with one standards body representing each member country. The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) for example, represents the United States.

2. Popular standards

Some of the most popular ISO standards for information technology include:

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI): Computer manufacturers and telecommunications providers

developed this universal reference model for communication protocols in 1983, and ISO later adopted it as
a standard.

3. IEEE

Stands for the "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers" and is produced "I triple E." The IEEE is a
professional association that develops, defines, and reviews electronics and computer science standards.
Its mission is "to foster technological innovation and excellence for the benefit of humanity."

While the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is based in the United States, IEEE standards
often become international standards. Below are a few examples of technologies standardized by the IEEE.

 IEEE 1284 (Parallel Port) – an I/O interface used by early desktop PCs
 IEEE 1394 (Fire wire) – a high-speed interface designed for external hard drives, digital video
cameras, and other A/V peripherals
 IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) – a series of Wi-Fi standards used for wireless networking
 IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) – a wireless communications standard for transferring cellular data

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 4. ANSI
The acronym ANSI stands for American National Standards Institute, an organization that has been
around for about a century. What is ANSI? Think of it as a large number of expert volunteers getting
together as committees under an umbrella term. They come together to establish a set of common
guidelines (expectations) for just about anything we depend on, so people can smoothly conduct business
and communicate with one another. ANSI doesn't actually make the standards, but it is an umbrella under
which standards are made.

ANSI's standard, Z535, looks more broadly at safety and accident prevention information. ANSI Z535
includes six specific standards, which are:

 ANSI Z535.1 - Safety colors

 ANSI Z535.2 - Environmental and facility safety signs
 ANSI Z535.3 - Criteria for all safety symbols
 ANSI Z535.4 - Product safety signs and labels
 ANSI Z535.5 - Safety tags and barricade tape
 ANSI Z535.6 - Product safety information used in manuals and other materials

5. ITU-Formally CCITT

Formerly known as CCITT, ITU (International Telecommunication Union) is the committee of the United
Nations that was founded on May 17, 1865. Its job is to make sure all telecommunications devices (e.g.,
telephones, fax machines, and modems) can "talk to" each other, no matter what company makes them or
in what country they're used.

6. EIA
The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA; until 1997 Electronic Industries Association) was a standards and
trade organization composed as an alliance of trade associations for electronics manufacturers in the
United States. They developed standards to ensure the equipment of different manufacturers was
compatible and interchangeable.
7. Telcodia

The Telcordia Software Module of ITEM ToolKit calculates the reliability prediction of electronic equipment
based on the Telcordia (Bellcore) TR-332 and SR-332 standards. These standards use a series of models for
various categories of electronic, electrical and electro-mechanical components to predict steady-state

25
failure rates which environmental conditions, quality levels, electrical stress conditions and various other
parameters affect.

The Telcordia standard also documents a recommended method for predicting serial system hardware
reliability. It contains instructions for suppliers to follow when providing predictions of their device, unit, or
serial system reliability. It can also be used directly by telecommunications service providers for product
reliability evaluation

L.O: 2. 3- Identify and apply Network media and connectors

Content/Topic1: Introduction to network media

A. Definition
Network media is the actual path over which an electrical signal travels as it moves from one component
to another.

Means used to transport information fall into two main categories: wired means which uses cables and
hertzian means or wireless which don’t use cables.
B. Types of media
1. Logical (wireless)
 Hertian support (Wireless)
Wireless methods do not use electrical (cables) or optical (fiber optics) conductors. It uses the earth’s
electromagnetic frequency spectrum. There are three main types of wireless media: radio wave,
microwave, and infrared.
Wireless signals are electromagnetic waves that can travel through the vacuum of outer
space and through a medium such as air.

Wireless communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or infrared (IR) waves to transmit data between
devices on a LAN. For wireless LANs, a key component is the wireless hub, or access point, used for signal
distribution.

To receive the signals from the access point, a PC or laptop must install a wireless adapter card (wireless
NIC).
Some common applications of wireless data communication include the following:
• Accessing the Internet using a cellular phone
• Establishing a home or business Internet connection over satellite
• Beaming data between two hand-held computing devices
• Using a wireless keyboard and mouse for the PC.
Advantages and disadvantages of wireless LAN

 Benefits of Wireless LAN

The popularity of wireless LANs is a testament primarily to their convenience, cost efficiency, and ease
of integration with other networks and network components. The majority of computers sold to
consumers today come pre-equipped with all necessary wireless LAN technology.

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  The benefits of wireless LANs include:
 Convenience - The wireless nature of such networks allows users to access network
resources from nearly any convenient location within their primary networking environment
(home or office). With the increasing saturation of laptop-style computers, this is
particularly relevant.
 Mobility - With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the internet
even outside their normal work environment. Most chain coffee shops, for example, offer
their customers a wireless connection to the internet at little or no cost.
 Productivity - Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant
affiliation with their desired network as they move from place to place. For a business, this
implies that an employee can potentially be more productive as his or her work can be
accomplished from any convenient location.
 Deployment - Initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network requires little more
than a single access point. Wired networks, on the other hand, have the additional cost and
complexity of actual physical cables being run to numerous locations (which can even be
impossible for hard-to-reach locations within a building).
 Expandability - Wireless networks can serve a suddenly-increased number of clients with
the existing equipment. In a wired network, additional clients would require additional
wiring.
 Cost - Wireless networking hardware is at worst a modest increase from wired counterparts.
This potentially increased cost is almost always more than outweighed by the savings in cost
and labor associated to running physical cables. Wi-Fi chipset pricing continues to come
down, making Wi-Fi a very economical networking option and driving inclusion of Wi-Fi in an
ever-widening array of devices.

 Disadvantages of Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN technology, while replete with the conveniences and advantages described above, has its
share of downfalls. For a given networking situation, wireless LANs may not be desirable for a number of
reasons. Most of these have to do with the inherent limitations of the technology.

 Security - Wireless LAN transceivers are designed to serve computers throughout a structure with
uninterrupted service using radio frequencies. Because of space and cost, the "antennas" typically
present on wireless networking cards in the end computers are generally relatively poor. In order to
properly receive signals using such limited antennas throughout even a modest area, the wireless
LAN transceiver utilizes a fairly considerable amount of power. What this means is that not only can
the wireless packets be intercepted by a nearby adversary's poorly-equipped computer, but more
importantly, a user willing to spend a small amount of money on a good quality antenna can pick up
packets at a remarkable distance; perhaps hundreds of times the radius as the typical user. In fact,
there are even computer users dedicated to locating and sometimes even hacking into wireless
networks, known as wardrivers. On a wired network, any adversary would first have to overcome
the physical limitation of tapping into the actual wires, but this is not an issue with wireless packets.
To combat this consideration, wireless network users usually choose to utilize various encryption
technologies available such as WPA. Some of the older encryption methods, such as WEP, are
known to have weaknesses that a dedicated adversary can compromise.
 Range - The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard equipment is on the order
of tens of meters. While sufficient for a typical home, it will be insufficient in a larger structure.
Range varies with frequency band, as Wi-Fi is no exception to the physics of radio wave
propagation. To obtain additional range, repeaters or additional access points will have to be

27
 purchased. Costs for these items can add up quickly. Other technologies are in the development
phase, however, which feature increased range, hoping to render this disadvantage irrelevant.
 Reliability - Like any radio frequency transmission, wireless networking signals are subject to a wide
variety of interference, as well as complex propagation effects (such as multipath, or especially in
this case Rician fading) that are beyond the control of the network administrator. In the case of
typical networks, modulation is achieved by complicated forms of phase-shift keying (PSK) or
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), making interference and propagation effects all the more
disturbing. As a result, important network resources such as servers are rarely connected
wirelessly. Also, many 2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g Access points default to the same channel,
contributing to congestion on certain channels.
 Speed - The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-108 Mbps) is reasonably slow compared
to the slowest common wired networks (100Mbit/s up to several Gbit/s). There are also
performance issues caused by TCP and its built-in congestion avoidance. For most users, however,
this observation is irrelevant since the speed bottleneck is not in the wireless routing but rather in
the outside network connectivity itself. For example, the maximum ADSL throughput (usually
8Mbit/s or less) offered by telecommunications companies to general-purpose customers is already
far slower than the slowest wireless network to which it is typically connected. That is to say, in
most environments, a wireless network running at its slowest speed is still faster than the internet
connection serving it in the first place. However, in specialized environments, the throughput of a
wired network might be necessary. Newer standards such as 802.11n are addressing this limitation
and will support peak throughputs in the range of 100-200 Mbit/s.
 Energy - Power consumption is fairly high compared to some other standards, making battery life
and heat a concern.

 (Infrared, Bluetooth, Wifi, Line of sight)

Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital
cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable
communication between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of open-standards wireless radio-
wave technology is IEEE 802.11.

 Infrared

 Infrared signals are used for short-range wireless communication in a closed area (not more
than 10 meters) using line-of-sight propagation. Theline-of-sight propagation limits the
physical positioning of communicating devices. This technology is used to connect various
computing devices such as handheld computers. They can transfer files and other digital
data bidirectional. Computer infrared adapters both transmit and receive data through
ports on the rear or side of a device.

Unlike WIFI and Bluetooth technologies, infrared network signals cannot penetrate walls or other
obstructionsand work only in the direct line of sight.

 Working Principle

An infrared connection is communication between an infrared receiver and emitter. The infrared emitter
sends pulses of infrared light to the receiver. Infrared light is used because it has less problems with
interference than other types of light in the visible spectrum. Usually, there are only two devices in the
connection, but the system still needs a computer name and a common protocol. The computer name is
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needed in case there are multiple devices in the range of the connection. This way, the right devices can be
selected for the connection. The use of the protocol has to be explained with the way the devices
recognize the infrared signal. A chip inside the device analyses the infrared pulses that come in to detect
any patterns. If a pattern is recognized, the appropriate action is executed. In computing devices, these
patterns are binary codes. If the infrared light of the emitter is activated, it is sending a binary 1 and if it is
off it is sending a 0. The protocol ensures that both devices use the same frequency and packet length for
the codes to avoid miscommunication.

 Performance

Slow speed(IrDA-SIR)-up to 115 Kps

Medium speed(IrDA-MIR)-up to 1.15 Mbps

Fast speed(IrDA-FIR)-up to 4 Mps

 Advantages of infrared networking

- Transmission speeds up to 16 Mbit/s.

- The technology uses a little amount of energy.

- The directed transmission is safe, while it uses a short range direct line of sight signal which is not
diffused.

- The infrared technology has been available for a long time, which means that the technology is well
developed and that there is a lot of knowledge.

- No cables are needed to enable the connection.

 Disadvantages of infrared networking

- The connection is restricted to a small range, with a maximum area depending on the used equipment.
(0.3 meters for directed signals and up to five meters for diffused infrared)

- The signal can be of bad quality or can be interrupted due to a wrong angle, distance, noise, heat or light
waves.

- Primarily only usable for a connection between two devices.

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  Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances
(using short wavelength radio transmissions in the ISM band from 2400-2480 MHz) from fixed and mobile
devices, creating personal area networks (PANS) with high levels of security. It has been created by
telecoms vendor Ericsson in 1994. It was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data
cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization. Examples of use:
- Wireless control of and communication between a Bluetooth mobile phone and a handsfree
headset.
- Wireless control of and communication between a Bluetooth mobile phone and a Bluetooth
compatible car stereo system.
- Wireless Bluetooth headset and intercom.
- Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the mouse,
keyboard and printer.
- Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with
OBEX.
- GPS receivers
- Medical equipment
- Bar code scanners
- Traffic control devices
- For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and cable-free
connection desired.
- Wireless bridge between two industrial Ethernet.

 Wifi(Wireless Fidelity)
Wi-fi is a mechanism that allows electronic devices to exchange data wiresslly over computer network. A
device enabled with wi-fi such as a personal computer, video game console, Smartphone, tablet or digital
audio player, can connect to a network resource such as the internet via a wireless network access point.
The access point or hotspot has a range of about 20 meters indoors and greater range outdoors. Hotspot
coverage can comprise an area as small as a single room signals or a large area, as much as many square
miles, covered by multiple overlapping access points.

 Uses
To connect to a Wi-Fi LAN, a computer has to be equipped with a wireless network interface controller.
The combination of computer and interface controller is called a station. All stations share a single radio
frequency communication channel. Transmissions on this channel are received by all stations within range.
30
The hardware does not signal the user that the transmission was delivered and is therefore called a best-
effort delivery mechanism. A carrier wave is used to transmit the data in packets, referred to as "Ethernet
frames". Each station is constantly tuned in on the radio frequency communication channel to pick up
available transmissions.
A Wi-Fi-enabled device can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network connected to
the Internet.

 Advantages

- Wi-Fi allows cheaper deployment of local area networks (LANs). Also spaces where cables cannot
be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
- Manufacturers are building wireless network adapters into most laptops. The price of chipsets for
Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more devices.
- Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards compatible. Unlike
mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the world.
- The current version of Wi-Fi Protected Access encryption (WPA2) as of 2010 is widely considered
secure, provided users employ a strong passphrase. New protocols for quality-of-service (WMM)
make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive applications (such as voice and video); and power
saving mechanisms (WMM Power Save) improve battery operation.

 Disadvantage

Due to reach requirements for wireless LAN applications, Wi-Fi has fairly high power consumption
compared to some other standards.

 Range

Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical wireless access point using 802.11b or 802.11g with a stock
antenna might have a range of 32 m indoors and 95 m outdoors. IEEE 802.11n, however, can exceed that
range by more than two times. Range also varies with frequency band. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency
block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz frequency block which is used by 802.11a. On
wireless routers with detachable antennas, it is possible to improve range by fitting upgraded antennas
which have higher gain. Outdoor ranges can be improved to many kilometers through the use of high gain
directional antennas at the router and remote device(s). In general, the maximum amount of power that a
Wi-Fi device can transmit is limited by local regulations, such as FCC Part 15 in the US.

 Line of sight
Line-of-sight propagation refers to electro-magnetic radiation or acoustic wave propagation.
Electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line. The rays or waves may be
diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and obstructions with material and generally
cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles.
Microwave system uses very high frequency radio signals to transmit data through space. The transmitter
and receiver of a microwave system should be in line-of-sight because the radio signal cannot bend. With
microwave very long distance transmission is not possible. In order to overcome the problem of line of
sight and power amplification of weak signal, repeaters are used at intervals of 25 to 30 kilometers
between the transmitting and receiving end.

31
Line of sight is used in microwave communication systems which to transmit information from one place to
another without interruption, and have clear reproduction at the receiver.Microwaves are widely used for
point-to-point communications because their small wavelength allows conveniently-sized antennas to
direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving antenna. This allows nearby
microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other, as lower
frequency radio waves do.microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation. Their disadvantages is that
they cannot pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.
Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-pointcommunication systems on the surface
of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space radio communications. Other parts of the
microwave radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio astronomy.

 Satellite, line of sight

 Satellite
- Communications satellites are relay stations that receive signals from one earth station and
rebroadcast them to another

- They use microwave radio signals

The satellites are stationed in space, typically 35,400 km (22,000 mi) (for geosynchronous satellites) above
the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

 Line of sight

 Transmitting terrestrial

Terrestrial microwave

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– Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The equipment looks similar to satellite
dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight.
Path between relay stations spaced approx, 48 km (30 mi) apart.

Bands

2. Physical
Wired means use Ethernet cables and network adapters. This allows connecting two computers using an
Ethernet crossover cable. It may also require a central device like hub, switch or router to accommodate
more computers.
 Coaxial

• A coaxial cable or coax, is a cable which consists of an inner conductor wire surrounded by insulation,
called the dielectric.

• The dielectric is surrounded by a conductive shield, which is surrounded by a non-conductive jacket.

Coaxial cable has better data transmission rate than twisted pair

Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by the cabletelevision industry and is also widely used
for computer networks.

33
Although more expensive than standard telephone wire, it is much less susceptible to interference and can
carry much more data.
Note: The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference.

It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single

inner wire conductor.

 Categories of coaxial cables

Category Use

RG-59 Cable TV

RG-58 Thin Ethernet

RG-11 Thick Ethernet

BNC

The following summarizes the features of coaxial cables:

Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
Average cost per node—Inexpensive
Media and connector size—Medium
Maximum cable length—500 m (medium)

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  Thinnet Vs Thicknet coaxial cable

Ethernet based LANs using thick cable for inter-connection is referred as Thicknet. While ethernet systems
using thinner coaxial cable is referred as Thinnet.

Thicknet is also referred as 10Base5 systems, where 10 means 10Mbps speed. Base means baseband and 5
denotes 500meter max. distance between nodes/repeaters. RG-8/U cable is used as thick cable in thicknet
based LAN network.

Thinnet is also referred as 10Base2, where 2 denotes 200 m max. distance between two nodes or
repeaters. RG-58/U is used as thin cable in thinnet based LAN network.

 Twisted pair

 UTP, STP

- Twisted pair cable

Twisted pair(TP) cable is similar to telephone wiring and consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper
wires. The more twists per inch in a pair of wires, the more resistant the pair will be to all forms of noise.
Higher-quality, more expensive twisted-pair cable contains more twists per foot. The number of twists per

meter or foot is known as the twist ratio.

Twisted-pair cable is the most common form of cabling found on LANs today. It’s inexpensive, flexible,
and easy to install, and it can span a significant distance before requiring a repeater (though not as far
as coaxial). Twisted-pair cable easily accommodates several different topologies, although it is most
often implemented in star or star-hybrid topologies

35
 One drawback to twisted-pair is that, because of its flexibility, it is more prone to physical damage than
coaxial cable. All twisted-pair cable falls into one of two categories:
 Shielded twisted-pair (STP)
 Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
 Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

As the name implies, shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable consists of twisted wire pairs that are not only
individually insulated, but also surrounded by a shielding made of a metallic substance such as foil. Some
STP uses a braided metal shielding. The shielding acts as a barrier to external electromagnetic forces, thus
preventing them from affecting the signals traveling over the wire inside the shielding. The shielding may
be grounded to enhance its protective effect.

 Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling consists of one or more insulated wire pairs encased in a plastic
sheath. As its name implies, UTP does not contain additional shielding for the twisted pairs. As a result,
UTP is both less expensive and less resistant to noise than STP

 UTP Types

 UTP cabling
 UTP straight through cable

36
2)Coaxial cable

In a UTP implementation of a straight-through cable, the wires on both cable ends are in the same order.
You can determine that the wiring is a straight-through cable by holding both ends of the UTP cable side by
side and seeing that the order of the wires on both ends is identical
You can use a straight-through cable for the following tasks

 Connecting a router to a hub or switch

 Connecting a server to a hub or switch
 Connecting computer to a hub or switch
 UTP Crossover Cable

In the implementation of a crossover, the wires on each end of the cable are crossed
Transmit to receive and receive to Transmit on each side, for both tip and ring

37
Notice that pin 1 on one side connects to pin 3 on the other side, and pin 2 connects to pin 6 on the
opposite end
You can use a crossover cable for the following tasks:

 Connecting switch to switch

 Connecting hubs to switch
 Connecting a hub to another hub
 Connecting router to router
 Connecting router to computer
 Connecting computer to computer
 UTP cable connectors
 RJ-11 – Defined for telephone connectors
 RJ-45 – Defined for UTP connectors

RJ 11 RJ 45

 Fiber optic

Fiber optic cable is considered the default choice for connections involving high speed [large bandwidth
requirements like video, large database systems], long distances and interconnecting networks. It costs
more than either twisted pair or coax, and requires special connectors and jointing methods.
Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metalcommunications lines:
 Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means that they
can carry more data

 Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to interference

 Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires

 Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data) rather than
analogically.

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The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are expensive to install. In addition, they are more
fragile than wire and are difficult to split.
Fiber optics is a particularly popular technology for local-area networks. In addition, telephone companies
are steadily replacing traditional telephone lines with fiber optic cables. In the future, almost all
communications will employ fiber optics.

Fiber-optic cable is a networking medium capable of conducting modulated light

Transmission.

The features of fiber-optic cable systems are,

 expensive

 used for backbones [linking LANs together]

 high capacity [100Mbps]

 immune to electromagnetic interference

 low loss

 difficult to join

 connectors are expensive

 long distance

 Types of fiber optic cables

 Single Mode
 Multi-Mode

 Multimode fiber

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Multi-mode consists of a core of glass surrounded by another kind of glass with a different refractive
index. Multimode fiber is characterized by the bandwidth-distance product which tells how far a signal can
be transmitted before it becomes too spread out. A typical value is 200 MHz-km.
Multi-mode fiber optic cables are used in campus. The fiber inside buildings is 160 MHz-km and the fiber
outside buildings is 200 MHz-km bandwidth-distance product. Multi-mode fiber can carry data up to about
100 Mb/s for about 2000 meters. Either a light emitting diode or a laser can drive multi-mode fiber.

 Single mode fiber

Single-modefiber optic cable consists of a smaller glass fiber than multi-mode fiber. Single mode fiber can
transmit data for longer distances at higher rates than multi-mode fiber. A laser drives single mode fiber

Content/Topic2: Description of Types of network connectors

1. RJ45,RJ11

 RJ-11 (Registered Jack)

Standard telephone cable connectors, RJ-11 has 4 wires (and RJ-12 has 6 wires). RJ-11 is the acronym for
Registered Jack-11, a four- or six-wire connector primarily used to connect telephone equipment.

 RJ-45 (Registered Jack)

The acronym for Registered Jack-45 is RJ-45. The RJ-45 connector is an eight-wire connector that is
commonly used to connect computers to a local area network (LAN), particularly Ethernet LANs. Although
they are slightly larger than the more commonly used RJ-11 connectors, RJ-45s can be used to connect
some types of telephone equipment.

40
 2. BNC

The Bayonet Neill-Concelman Connector (BNC connector) is a type of coaxial RF (Radio frequency)
electrical connector that is used in place of coaxial connectors. A BNC connector connects various radio
frequencies up to 3GHz and voltages under 500V DC and are used in electronic architectures such as audio,
video and networking.

3. USB (Universal Serial Bus)

Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is a computer standard designed to eliminate the guesswork in connecting
peripherals to a PC. It is expected to replace serial and parallel ports. A single USB port can be used to
connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems, keyboards, digital camera's, printers,
scanners, MP3 players and many more. USB also supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot plugging.

 USB 1.1 standard supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.

 USB 2.0 (Also referred to as Hi-Speed USB) specification defines a new High-speed transfer rate of
480 Mb/sec.

USB 2.0 is fully compatible with USB 1.1 and uses the same cables and connectors. USB has with two
connector types. The first is Type A (on the right), This connector connects to the PC's USB port. The Type B
(on the left) connector and is for connecting to the relevant peripheral. Whereas the type A connector is
truly standard, the Type B connector could be changed in size etc. with individual peripherals meaning they
require their own unique cables.

4. Fire wire

FireWire is Apple Computer's version of a standard, IEEE 1394, High Performance Serial Bus, for connecting
devices to your personal computer. FireWire provides a single plug-and-socket connection on which up to
63 devices can be attached with data transfer speeds up to 400 Mbps (megabits per second). The standard

41
describes a serialbus or pathway between one or more peripheral devices and your computer's
microprocessor. Many peripheral devices now come equipped to meet IEEE 1394

In time, IEEE 1394 implementations are expected to replace and consolidate today's serial and parallel
interfaces. The first products to be introduced with FireWire include digital cameras, digital video disks
(DVDs), digital video tapes, digital camcorders, and music systems.

Fire wire 400 6 Pin cable, IEEE-1394a

5. VGA

A VGA cable is used to connect an analog PC monitor to a PC or laptop. VGA cables utilize an HD15
connector (male or female depending on the equipment being attached) to connect the monitor and
PC/laptop. L-com offers a very extensive selection of off the shelf VGA cable assemblies and can
custom manufacture VGA video cable assemblies to your exact specifications.

HD15 Connector Configuration Typical VGA Cable

6. BNC-T

42
A tee connector is an electrical connector that connects three cables together. It is usually in the shape of
a capital T. It is usually used for coax cables and the three connector points can be either female or male
gender, and could be different or the same standard, such as F type, BNC or N type.

Tee connectors can be used to split radio frequency power from a cable into two. They can be used to
attach a piece of electronic test equipment. T connectors were much used on co-axial 10M Ethernet
networks.

7. F type

The F connector is a type of RF connector commonly used for cable and universally for satellite television.
They are also used for the cable TV connection in DOCSIS cable modems, usually with RG-6 tri-shield cable.
The F connector is inexpensive, yet has good performance up to 1 GHz. One reason for its low cost is that it
uses the center wire of the coaxial cable as the pin of the male connector. The male connector body is
typically crimped onto the exposed outer braid. Female connectors have a 3/8-32 thread. Most male
connectors have a matching threaded connecting ring, though push-on versions are also available.

8. RS-232

In telecommunications, RS-232, Recommended Standard 232[1] is a standard introduced in 1960[2] for

serial communication transmission of data. It formally defines the signals connecting between a DTE (data
terminal equipment) such as a computer terminal, and a DCE (data circuit-terminating equipment or data
communication equipment), such as a modem.

43
 C. Advantages and disadvantages of media
Advantages of a Wireless Network over Wired

 As I mentioned in the introduction, the main advantage of a wireless network over a wired one is
that users can move around freely within the area of the network with their laptops, handheld
devices etc and get an internet connection.
 Users are also able to share files and other resources with other devices that are connected to the
network without having to be cabled to a port.
 Not having to lay lots of cables and put them through walls etc. can be a considerable advantage in
terms of time and expense. It also makes it easier to add extra devices to the network, as no new
cabling is needed.
 If you are a business such as a café, having a wireless network that is accessible to customers can
bring you extra business. Customers generally love wireless networks because they are convenient.
 Wireless networks can sometimes handle a larger amount of users because they are not limited by
a specific number of connection ports.
 Instant transfer of information to social media is made much easier. For instance, taking a
photograph and uploading it to Facebook can generally be done much quicker with wireless
technology.

C. Disadvantages of a Wireless Network

 It can require extra costs and equipment to set up, although increasingly routers have built-in
wireless capability, as do devices such as laptops, handheld devices, modern DVD players, and TVs.
 Setting up a wireless network can sometimes be difficult for people who are not experienced with
computers. (Although there are issues with setting up a wired network too, off course!)
 File-sharing transfer speeds are normally slower with wireless networks than they are with cabled.
The speeds can also vary considerably according to your location in relation to the network.
 The general speed of a wireless connection is also usually much slower than a wired one. The
connection also gets worse the farther you are from the router, which can be a problem in a large
building or space.
 Wireless connections can be obstructed by everyday household items and structures such as walls,
ceilings, and furniture.
 Wireless networks are generally less secure. There can also be problems with neighbors stealing
bandwidth, if the network hasn’t been set up to be password protected. Information is also less
secure too and can be easier to hack into.

D. ACCESS METHODS

1. CSMA/CA Carrie Sense Multiple Access with collision Avoid is a protocol that allows multiple
accesses method in which carrier sensing used, but nodes attempt to avoid collision by
transmitting only when the channel is sensed to be “unused” when they do transmit, nodes
transmit their packet data in its entirety. Is also a protocol for carrier transmission in 802.11
networks?
 Carrier-Sense: This means the NIC (or network interface card) on each computer on the
network "listens" and senses whether there is traffic on the cable before sending.
 Carrier-Sense: This means the NIC (or network interface card) on each computer on the
network "listens" and senses whether there is traffic on the cable before sending.

44
  Multiple Access: This means all computers have access to the cable at any given time (making
this a contention method of access control)
 Multiple Access: This means all computers have access to the cable at any given time (making
this a contention method of access control)
 Collision Detection: This means that collisions may occur, if two computers send data at exactly
the same time--but the NICs of the sending computers will detect that a collision has occurred
so they can re-send their data
 Advantages of CSMA/CA

 Effective; Avoids data collisions.

 Reliable; Intent signals are sent until the cable is clear so that data will travel and reach its
destination safely.

 Disadvantages of CSMA/CA
 Relatively slow; A signal of intent must be sent every time a computer wants to transmit causing
signal traffic.
 Inappropriate for large/active networks; The slowdown increases, as the network grows larger.
 Limited; suffers from same distance limitations as CSMA/CD since it must listen for the signals of
intent.
2. CSMA/CD Carrie Sense Multiple Access with collision detection is a media access control
method used most especially in early Ethernet technology for local area networking. It user
carrier sensing schema in which a transmitting station detects collisions by sensing
transmission from other station while transmitting a frame.
 Advantages of CSMA/CD

 Reliable; Collisions are detected and packets are re-sent, so no data is lost.
 Relatively fast; A computer does not have to wait its "turn" to transmit data.

 Disadvantages of CDMA/CD

 Limited to 2500 meters/11/2 mile; the collision detection mechanism restricts the length of cable
segment that can be used.
 Inappropriate for large/active networks; Collisions slow the network and clog bandwidth with
retransmissions.

 Summary

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a modification of CSMA in which each
computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the
computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and
try again when the line is clear. Sometimes two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant. When
this happens, a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time before
attempting to retransmit.

45
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) is similar to CSMA/CD except that a
computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually does so. This removes the possibility for collisions
to occur.

3. Token Passing in telecommunication, token passing is a channel access method where a signal
called token passed between nodes that authorizes the node to communicate.
 Advantages of Token Passing

 Non-contention method; Computers do not compete for access to the cable. Each computer will
get its "turn" as the token comes around the network.
 Effective; Collisions are prevented altogether.
 Reliable; the maximum amount of time before a given computer will be able to transmit can be
calculated.
 Disadvantages of Token Passing

 Slow; a large amount of network bandwidth is consumed in the process.

 Costly; Implementation is expensive due to the media and equipment used.

Summary
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)
In CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) Access Method, every host has equal
access to the wire and can place data on the wire when the wire is free from traffic. When a host want to
place data on the wire, it will “sense” the wire to find whether there is a signal already on the wire. If there
is traffic already in the medium, the host will wait and if there is no traffic, it will place the data in the
medium. But, if two systems place data on the medium at the same instance, they will collide with each
other, destroying the data. If the data is destroyed during transmission, the data will need to be
retransmitted. After collision, each host will wait for a small interval of time and again the data will be
retransmitted, to avoid collision again.

CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance)

In CSMA/CA, before a host sends real data on the wire it will “sense” the wire to check if the wire is free. If
the wire is free, it will send a piece of “dummy” data on the wire to see whether it collides with any other
data. If it does not collide, the host will assume that the real data also will not collide.

Token Passing
In CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA the chances of collisions are there. As the number of hosts in the network
increases, the chances of collisions also will become more. In token passing, when a host want to transmit
data, it should hold the token, which is an empty packet. The token is circling the network in a very high
speed. If any workstation wants to send data, it should wait for the token. When the token has reached the
workstation, the workstation can take the token from the network, fill it with data, mark the token as
being used and place the token back to the network.

46
LEARNING UNIT 3 - Apply IP addressing (IP v4)
L O 3.1- Describe IP addressing concepts
Content/Topic1: Introduction to IP address
A. Definition
1. An IP address is a logical address for a network adapter. The IP address uniquely identifies
computers on a TCP/IP network.
An IP address can be private - for use on a local area network (LAN) - or public - for use on the Internet or
other wide area network (WAN).

Internet Protocol (IP) technology was developed in the 1970s to support some of the first research
computer networks. Today, IP has become a worldwide standard for home and business networking as
well. Our network routers, Web browsers, email programs, instant messaging software - all rely on IP or
other network protocols layered on top of IP.

An IP address is a number that uniquely identifies every host on an IP network. IP addresses operate at the
Network layer of the TCP/IP Network protocol stack, so they are independent of lower-level Data Link layer
MAC addresses, such as Ethernet MAC addresses.

2. Address Space
A protocol like IPv4 that defines addresses has an address space. An address space is the total number of
addresses used by the protocol. If a protocol uses b bits to define an address, the address space is 2b
because each bit can have two different values (0 or 1).
IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296 (more than four
billion). Theoretically, if there were no restrictions, more than 4 billion devices could be connected to the
Internet.

3. IPv4 Addressing Notation

An IPv4 address consists of four bytes (32 bits). These bytes are also known as octets. Octets can take any
value between 0 and 255.

For readability purposes, humans typically work with IP addresses in a notation called dotted decimal. This
notation places periods between each of the four numbers (octets) that comprise an IP address. For
example, an IP address that computers see as

00001010 00000000 00000000 00000001

is written in dotted decimal as10.0.0.1Because each byte contains 8 bits, each octet in an IP address ranges
in value from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 255. Therefore, the full range of IP addresses is
from0.0.0.0 through 255.255.255.255. That represents a total of 4,294,967,296 possible IP addresses.
47
 B. IP addressing classification

IP addresses, when started a few decades ago, used the concept of classes. This architecture is called class
full addressing.
IP address classes include:
a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D: multicast
E. Class E: reserved

Class A
This class is assigned to very large Networks, such as major international companies.
Class A licenses assigns numbers to be used in the first octet (leftmost) of the address, which becomes the
network address.
The other three octets on the right of the IP can be used for host addresses that identify each host on this
network.
Example:
If a company assigns 87 as its class A network address, then 87 is issued as the first octet for every host on
that network.
Example of IP addresses for hosts on this network are 87.0.0.1, 87.0.0.2, 87.0.0.3 etc.
NET HOST OR NODE
87.0.0.2
The last octet does not use 0 or 255 as a value. Example, 87.0.0.0 or 87.0.0.255 are not valid on class A.
48
The number of hosts in class A are approximately 16,000
i.e.
87.255 * 255 * 254 = 16,516.350
Class B
Class B is used for the medium sized networks.
The class B license assigns a number for each of the first two left most octets, leaning the last two octets
for host addresses.
The possible number of hosts in class B are about 65,000.
I.e. 255 * 255 = 65,536
The first octet for class B license is between 128 and 191, which gives about 63 different values for a class B
first octet.
The second number can be between 0 and 255.
There are approximately 16,000 networks in
class B.
L.e 63 * 255 = 16,128
Example:
Suppose a company assigned an IP address 135.18 as the network address for its class B license. The first
octets for all the networks will be 135.18 and the last two octets are used for host addresses.
Example:
NET HOST OR NODE
135.18 .0.1
Class c addresses are commonly used for small to mid- size networks.
A class C license assigns three octets as the network addresses and can have 254 host addresses.
The three first octets are assigned to the Network ID

The first number of the class C is between 192 and 254.

Example:
A company can be assigned a class C license for its network with a network address of 200.80.15.
Some of the IP addresses in such a network are
200.80.15.1, 200.80.15.0,200.80.15.0 etc.
Determining Available Host Addresses

49
IP Address Classes Exercise

Content/Topic2: IP addresses grouping

A. IP protocols enforce the following grouping concept
All hosts in the same group must not be separated by an IP router. A corollary to the grouping concept is
this: Hosts separated by an IP router must be in separate groups. Without sub netting, the
smallest group is a single, entire Class A, B, or C network number.
B. IP Grouping Concepts and Sub netting

The creators of the Internet realized the impracticality of the original network-numbering conventions
early on. Computing history shows many examples of people being unable to conceive the idea that
computing technology would grow as fast as it has. Needless to say, the Internet would have run out of

50
Class A, B, and C networks long ago if additional addressing features had not been created. Sub netting
provided the first significant addressing feature that conserved the global IP address space.

IP sub netting creates vastly larger numbers of smaller groups of IP addresses, compared with simply using
Class A, B, and C conventions. The Class A, B, and C rules still exist—but now, a single Class A, B, or C
network can be subdivided into many smaller groups. Sub netting treats a subdivision of a single Class A, B,
or C network as if it were a network itself. By doing so, a single Class A, B, or C network can be subdivided
into many non-overlapping subnets.

The needs for sub netting are both technical and administrative, as documented in the following list:

• All organizations connected to the Internet (and not using IP address translation) are required to use IP
networks registered with the NIC.

• IP protocols enforce the following grouping concept: All hosts in the same group must not be separated
by an IP router.

• A corollary to the grouping concept is this: Hosts separated by an IP router must be in separate groups.

• Without sub netting, the smallest group is a single, entire Class A, B, or C network number.

• Without sub netting, the NIC would be woefully short of assignable networks.

• With sub netting, the NIC can assign one or a few network numbers to an organization, and then the
organization can subdivide those networks into subnets of more usable sizes.

c. Rules for Grouping IP Addresses

The original specifications for TCP/IP grouped IP addresses into sets of consecutive addresses called IP
networks. The addresses in a single IP network have the same numeric value in the first part of all
addresses in the network.

Content/Topic3: IP addressing scheme and subnet masks

A. IP addressing scheme

The IP header has 32 bits assigned for addressing a desired device on the network. An IP address is a
unique identifier used to locate a device on the IP network. To make the system scalable, the address
structure is subdivided into the network ID and the host ID. The network ID identifies the network the
device belongs to; the host ID identifies the device. This implies that all devices belonging to the same
network have a single network ID. Based on the bit positioning assigned to the network ID and the host ID,
the IP address is further subdivided into classes A, B, C, D (multicast), and E (reserved), as shown in Figure1.

51
Figure1. Classes of IP addresses

Consider the lengths of corresponding fields for each class shown in this figure1:

 Class A starts with 0 followed by 7 bits of network ID and 24 bits of host ID.
 Class B starts with 10 followed by 14 bits of network ID and 16 bits of host ID.
 Class C starts with 110 followed by 21 bits of network ID and 8 bits of host ID.
 Class D starts with 1110 followed by 28 bits. Class D is used only for multicast addressing by which a
group of hosts form a multicast group and each group requires a multicast address. Chapter 6 is
entirely dedicated to multicast techniques and routing.
 Class E starts with 1111 followed by 28 bits. Class E is reserved for network experiments only.

For ease of use, the IP address is represented in dot-decimal notation. The address is grouped into four
dot-separated bytes. For example, an IP address with 32 bits of all 0s can be shown by a dot-decimal form
of 0.0.0.0 where each 0 is the representation of 00000000 in a logic bit format.

A detailed comparison of IP addressing is shown in the Table 1.1. Note that in this table, each of the
“number of available network addresses” and the “number of available host addresses per network” has
already been decreased by 2. For example, in class A, the size of the network ID field is indicated in the
table to be N = 7; however, the number of available network addresses is presented as 2 N – 2 = 128 – 2 =
126. The subtraction of 2 adjusts for the use of the all-bits-zero network ID (0 in decimal) and the all-bits-
one network ID (127 in decimal). These two network IDs, 0 and 127, are reserved for management and
cannot be available for any other use. The same argument is true for the number of available host
addresses, where with the size of the host ID field indicated as N = 24, we can have 2N – 2 = 16,777, 216 – 2
= 16,777, 214 host addresses per network available for use. The last two columns of the table show the
start address and the end address of each class, including the reserved addresses explained earlier.

52
Table 1.1 Comparison of IP addressing schemes

Class Bits Size of Size of Number of Number of Start End Address

to Network Host Available Available Host Address
Start ID Field ID Network Addresses per
Field Addresses Network

A 0 7 24 126 16,777,214 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255

B 10 14 16 16,382 65,534 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255

c 110 21 8 2,097,150 254 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255

D 1110 N/A N/A N/A N/A 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255

E 1111 N/A N/A N/A N/A 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

Example. A host has an IP address of 10001000 11100101 11001001 00010000. Find the class and decimal
equivalence of the IP address.

Solution. The host’s IP address belongs to class B, since it starts with 10. Its decimal equivalent is
136.229.201.16.

C. Subnet Addressing and Masking

The concept of sub netting was introduced to overcome the shortcomings of IP addressing. Managing a
large number of hosts is an enormous task. For example, a company that uses a class B addressing scheme
can support up to 65,535 hosts on one network. If the company has more than one network, a multiple-
network address scheme, or subnet scheme, is used. In this scheme, the host ID of the original IP address is
subdivided into subnet ID and host ID, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure2. A subnet ID and host ID in class B addressing

Depending on the network size, different values of subnet ID and host ID can be chosen. Doing so
would prevent the outside world from being burdened by a shortage of new network addresses. To
determine the sub netting number, a subnet mask—logic AND function—is used. The subnet mask
has a field of all 0s for the host ID and a field of all 1s for the remaining field.
53
 Example. Given an IP address of 150.100.14.163 and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.128, determine
the maximum number of hosts per subnet.

Solution. Figure shows the details of the solution. Masking 255.255.255.128 on the IP address
results in 150.100.14.128. Clearly, the IP address 150.100.14.163 is a class B address. In a class B
address, the lower 16 bits are assigned to the subnet and host fields. Applying the mask, we see
that the maximum number of hosts is 27 = 128.

Figure 3. An example of subnet and masking

Example. A router attached to a network receives a packet with the destination IP address
190.155.16.16. The network is assigned an address of 190.155.0.0. Assume that the network has
two subnets with addresses 190.155.16.0 and 190.155.15.0 and that both subnet ID fields have 8
bits. Demonstrate the details of routing the packet.

Solution. When it receives the packet, the router determines to which subnet the packet needs to
be routed, as follows: The destination IP address is 190.155.16.16, the subnet mask used in the
router is 255.255.255.0, and the result is 190.155.16.0. The router looks up its routing table for the
next subnet corresponding to the subnet 190.155.16.0, which is subnet 2. When the packet arrives
at subnet 2, the router determines that the destination is on its own subnet and routes the packet
to its destination.
Content/Topic4: Examining the prefix length and Public and private addresses

 Examining the prefix length

The prefix length is the number of bits set to 1 in the subnet mask. It is written in “slash notation”, a “/”
followed by the number of bits set to 1. For example, if the subnet mask is 255.255. 255.0, there are 24 bits
set to 1 in the binary version of the subnet mask, so the prefix length is 24 bits or /24.

The prefix length is another way of expressing the subnet mask. The prefix length is the number of bits
set to 1 in the subnet mask. It is written in “slash notation”, a “/” followed by the number of bits set to
1. For example, if the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, there are 24 bits set to 1 in the binary version of
the subnet mask, so the prefix length is 24 bits or /24. The prefix and the subnet mask are different
ways of representing the same thing - the network portion of an address.

54
 Networks are not always assigned a /24 prefix. Depending on the number of hosts on the network,
the prefix assigned may be different. Having a different prefix number changes the host range and
broadcast address for each network.

D. Public and private addresses

1. Private IP address is used with a local network and

2. public IP address is used outside the network. Public IP address is provided by ISP, Internet
Service Provider. ... Private IP Address is used to communicate within the
network. Public IP Address is used to communicate outside the network.
Private IP Address and Public IP Address are used to uniquely identify a machine on the internet.
Private IP address is used with a local network and public IP address is used outside the network.
Public IP address is provided by ISP, Internet Service Provider.
Following are the important differences between Private IP Address and Public IP Address.

Sr. Key Private IP Address Public IP Address

No.

Scope Private IP address scope is local to Public IP address scope is

1
present network. global.

Communication Private IP Address is used to Public IP Address is used to

2 communicate within the network. communicate outside the
network.

Format Private IP Addresses differ in a uniform Public IP Addresses differ in

3
manner. varying range.

Provider Local Network Operator creates ISP, Internet Service Provider

4 private IP addresses using network controls the public IP address.
operating system.

Cost Private IP Addresses are free of cost. Public IP Address comes with a
5
cost.

Locate Private IP Address can be located using Public IP Address needs to be

6 ipconfig command. searched on search engine like
google.

7 Range Private IP Address range: Except private IP Addresses,

rest IP addresses are public.

55
 Sr. Key Private IP Address Public IP Address
No.

10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255,

172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255,

192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255

Example Private IP Address is like Public IP Address is like

8
192.168.11.50. 17.5.7.8.

L.O 3.2: Apply IPv4 assignment

Content/Topic1: Introduction to IPv4

A. IPv4

1. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision of the Internet Protocol and a widely used
protocol in data communication over different kinds of networks. IPv4 is a connectionless protocol
used in packet-switched layer networks, such as Ethernet. ... IPv4 is defined and specified in IETF
publication RFC 791.
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol (IP). It is one of the core
protocols of standards-based internetworking methods in the Internet and other packet-
switched networks. IPv4 was the first version deployed for production on SATNET in 1982 and on
the ARPANET in January 1983. It still routes most Internet traffic today,[1] despite the ongoing deployment
of a successor protocol, IPv6.
IPv4 uses a 32-bit address space which provides 4,294,967,296 (232) unique addresses, but large blocks are
reserved for special networking methods.

2. History
The IP layer was originally separated in the v3 of the TCP for design improvement, and stabilized in version
4.
IPv4 is described in IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981), replacing an earlier definition (RFC 760,
January 1980). In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all
military computer networking.

3. Purpose
The Internet Protocol is the protocol that defines and enables internetworking at the internet layer of
the Internet Protocol Suite. In essence it forms the Internet. It uses a logical addressing system and
performs routing, which is the forwarding of packets from a source host to the next router that is one hop
closer to the intended destination host on another network.

56
IPv4 is a connectionless protocol, and operates on a best-effort delivery model, in that it does not
guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing or avoidance of duplicate delivery. These aspects,
including data integrity, are addressed by an upper layer transport protocol, such as the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP).

4. Addressing

Decomposition of the quad-dotted IPv4 address representation to its binary value

IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses which limits the address space to 4294967296 (232) addresses.
IPv4 reserves special address blocks for private networks (~18 million addresses) and multicast addresses
(~270 million addresses).
5. Address representations
IPv4 addresses may be represented in any notation expressing a 32-bit integer value. They are most often
written in dot-decimal notation, which consists of four octets of the address expressed individually
in decimal numbers and separated by periods.
For example, the quad-dotted IP address 192.0.2.235 represents the 32-bit decimal number 3221226219,
which in hexadecimal format is 0xC00002EB. This may also be expressed in dotted hex format as
0xC0.0x00.0x02.0xEB, or with octal byte values as 0300.0000.0002.0353.
CIDR notation combines the address with its routing prefix in a compact format, in which the address is
followed by a slash character (/) and the count of leading consecutive 1 bits in the routing prefix (subnet
mask).
Other address representations were in common use when classful networking was practiced. For example,
the loopback address 127.0.0.1 is commonly written as 127.1, given that it belongs to a class-A network
with eight bits for the network mask and 24 bits for the host number. When fewer than four numbers are
specified in the address in dotted notation, the last value is treated as an integer of as many bytes as are
required to fill out the address to four octets. Thus, the address 127.65530 is equivalent to 127.0.255.250.
6. Allocation
In the original design of IPv4, an IP address was divided into two parts: the network identifier was the most
significant octet of the address, and the host identifier was the rest of the address. The latter was also
called the rest field. This structure permitted a maximum of 256 network identifiers, which was quickly
found to be inadequate.
To overcome this limit, the most-significant address octet was redefined in 1981 to create network classes,
in a system which later became known as classful networking. The revised system defined five classes.
Classes A, B, and C had different bit lengths for network identification. The rest of the address was used as
previously to identify a host within a network. Because of the different sizes of fields in different classes,
each network class had a different capacity for addressing hosts. In addition to the three classes for

57
addressing hosts, Class D was defined for multicast addressing and Class E was reserved for future
applications.
Dividing existing classful networks into subnets began in 1985 with the publication of RFC 950. This division
was made more flexible with the introduction of variable-length subnet masks (VLSM) in RFC 1109 in 1987.
In 1993, based on this work, RFC 1517 introduced Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), which expressed
the number of bits (from the most significant) as, for instance, /24, and the class-based scheme was
dubbed classful, by contrast. CIDR was designed to permit repartitioning of any address space so that
smaller or larger blocks of addresses could be allocated to users. The hierarchical structure created by CIDR
is managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and the regional Internet registries (RIRs).
Each RIR maintains a publicly searchable WHOIS database that provides information about IP address
assignments.
7. Special-use addresses
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and IANA have restricted from general use various reserved IP
addresses for special purposes. Notably these addresses are used for multicast traffic and to provide
addressing space for unrestricted uses on private networks.

B. Anatomy of IPv4 address

The IPv4 address is a 32-bit number that uniquely identifies a network interface on a machine. An IPv4
address is typically written in decimal digits, formatted as four 8-bit fields separated by periods. Each 8-bit
field represents a byte of the IPv4 address.

1. Parts of the IPv4 Address

Each network running TCP/IP must have a unique network number, and every machine on it must have a
unique IP address. It is important to understand how IP addresses are constructed before you register your
network and obtain its network number.

The IPv4 address is a 32-bit number that uniquely identifies a network interface on a machine. An IPv4
address is typically written in decimal digits, formatted as four 8-bit fields separated by periods. Each 8-bit
field represents a byte of the IPv4 address. This form of representing the bytes of an IPv4 address is often
referred to as the dotted-decimal format.

The bytes of the IPv4 address are further classified into two parts: the network part and the host part. The
following figure shows the component parts of a typical IPv4 address, 129.144.50.56.

Figure 7-3 Parts of an IPv4 Address

2. Network Part

This part specifies the unique number assigned to your network. It also identifies the class of network
assigned.

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 3. Host Part

This is the part of the IPv4 address that you assign to each host. It uniquely identifies this machine on your
network. Note that for each host on your network, the network part of the address will be the same, but
the host part must be different.

4. Subnet Number (Optional)

Local networks with large numbers of hosts are sometimes divided into subnets. If you choose to divide
your network into subnets, you need to assign a subnet number for the subnet. You can maximize the
efficiency of the IPv4 address space by using some of the bits from the host number part of the IPv4
address as a network identifier. When used as a network identifier, the specified part of the address
becomes the subnet number. You create a subnet number by using a net mask, which is a bit mask that
selects the network and subnet parts of an IPv4 address.

Content/Topic2: Assigning IP addresses

A. Introduction on how to assigning IP addresses

If you configure the networking software on your host for standalone operation (for instance, to be able to
run the INN net news software), you can safely skip this section, because you will need an IP-address just
for the loopback interface, which is always 127.0.0.1.

Things are a little more complicated with real networks like Ethernets. If you want to connect your host to
an existing network, you have to ask its administrators to give you an IP-address on this network. When
setting up the network all by yourself, you have to assign IP-addresses yourself as described below.

Hosts within a local network should usually share addresses from the same logical IP-network. Hence you
have to assign an IP-network address. If you have several physical networks, you either have to assign
them different network numbers, or use sub-netting to split your IP-address range into several
subnetworks.

If your network is not connected to the Internet, you are free to choose any (legal) network address. You
only have to make sure to choose one from classes A, B, or C, else things will most likely not work properly.
However, if you intend to get on the Internet in the near future, you should obtain an official IP-
address now. The best way to proceed is to ask your network service provider to help you.

To operate several Ethernets (or other networks, once a driver is available), you have to split your network
into subnets. Note that sub-netting is required only if you have more than one broadcast network; point-
to-point links don't count. For instance, if you have one Ethernet, and one or more SLIP links to the outside
world, you don't need to subnet your network.

As an example, the brewery's network manager applies to the NIC for a class B network number, and is
given 191.72.0.0. To accommodate the two Ethernets, she decides to use eight bits of the host part as
additional subnet bits. This leaves another eight bits for the host part, allowing for 254 hosts on each of the
subnets. She then assigns subnet number 1 to the brewery, and gives the winery number 2. Their
respective network addresses are thus 191.72.1.0 and 191.72.2.0. The subnet mask is 255.255.255.0.

V lager, which is the gateway between the two networks, is assigned a host number of 1 on both of them,
which gives it the IP-addresses 191.72.1.1 and 191.72.2.1, respectively.

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Note that in this example I am using a class B network to keep things simple; a class C network would be
more realistic. With the new networking code, sub-netting is not limited to byte boundaries, so even a
class C network may be split into several subnets. For instance, you could use 2 bits of the host part for the
net mask, giving you four possible subnets with 64 hosts on each.

B. Methods of assigning IP address

There are two methods of assigning IP address to your devices and computers. Either a static or
dynamic IP address is assigned to a device when it connects to the internet. This goes the same way when
we host your dedicated server

This section discusses methods of assigning IP addresses to end systems and explains their influence on
administrative overhead. Address assignment includes assigning an IP address, a default gateway, one or
more domain name servers that resolve names to IP addresses, time servers, and so forth. Before selecting
the desired IP address assignment method, the following questions should be answered:

■ How many devices need an IP address?

■ Which devices require static IP address assignment?

■ Is IP address renumbering expected in the future?

■ Is the administrator required to track devices and their IP addresses?

■ Do additional parameters (default gateway, name server, and so forth) have to be configured?

■ Are there any availability issues?

■ Are there any security issues?

Static Versus Dynamic IP Address Assignment Methods

Following are the two basic IP address assignment strategies:

1. Static: An IP address is statically assigned to a system.

The network administrator configures the IP address, default gateway, and name servers manually by
entering them into a special file or files on the end system with either a graphical or text interface. Static
address assignment is an extra burden for the administrator

—especially on large-scale networks

— who must configure the address on every end system in the network.

2. Dynamic: IP addresses are dynamically assigned to the end systems.

Dynamic address assignment relieves the administrator of manually assigning an address to every network
device. Instead, the administrator must set up a server to assign the addresses. On that server, the
administrator defines the address pools and additional parameters that should be sent to the host (default
gateway, name servers, time servers, and so forth). On the host, the administrator enables the host to
acquire the address dynamically; this is often the default. When IP address reconfiguration is needed, the
administrator reconfigures the server, which then performs the host-renumbering task. Examples of
available address assignment protocols include Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, Boot Protocol, and
DHCP. DHCP is the newest and provides the most features.
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 3. When to Use Static or Dynamic Address Assignment

To select either a static or dynamic end system IP address assignment method or a combination of the two,
consider the following:

■Node type: Network devices such as routers and switches typically have static addresses. End-user
devices such as PCs typically have dynamic addresses.

■ The number of end systems: If there are more than 30 end systems, dynamic address assignment is
preferred. Static assignment can be used for smaller networks.

■ Renumbering: If renumbering is likely to happen and there are many end systems, dynamic address
assignment is the best choice. With DHCP, only DHCP server reconfiguration is needed; with static
assignment, all hosts must be reconfigured.

■ Address tracking: If the network policy requires address tracking, the static address assignment method
might be easier to implement than the dynamic address assignment method. However, address tracking is
also possible with dynamic address assignment with additional DHCP server configuration.

■Additional parameters: DHCP is the easiest solution when additional parameters must be configured. The
parameters have to be entered only on the DHCP server, which then sends the address and those
parameters to the clients.

■ High availability: Statically assigned IP addresses are always available. Dynamically assigned IP addresses
must be acquired from the server; if the server fails, the addresses cannot be acquired. To ensure
reliability, a redundant DHCP server is required.

■Security: With dynamic IP address assignment, anyone who connects to the network can acquire a valid
IP address, in most cases. This might be a security risk. Static IP address assignment poses only a minor
security risk.

 Automatic method: most networks today have a DHCP server that automatically assigns IP
addresses to connected devices.
 Static addressing method: A permanent numeric identification assigned by the network
administrator to a node in a TCP/IP network.
An IP address is statically assigned to a system. The network administrator configures the IP address,
default gateway, and name servers manually by entering them into a special file or files on the end system
with either a graphical or text interface. Static address assignment is an extra burden for the administrator
—especially on large-scale networks
— who must configure the address on every end system in the network.
3.Dynamic method: IP addresses are dynamically assigned to the end systems. Dynamic address
assignment relieves the administrator of manually assigning an address to every network device. Instead,
the administrator must set up a server to assign the addresses. On that server, the administrator defines
the address pools and additional parameters that should be sent to the host (default gateway, name
servers, time servers, and so forth). On the host, the administrator enables the host to acquire the address
dynamically; this is often the default. When IP address reconfiguration is needed, the administrator
reconfigures the server, which then performs the host-renumbering task. Examples of available address
assignment protocols include Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, Boot Protocol, and DHCP. DHCP is the
newest and provides the most features.

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 C. IP addressing modification
Many people think that changing their IP address will somehow hide them on the internet.
However, this isn't necessarily the case. Your ISP keeps track of who is assigned to which IP address, so
even if they change your IP, you're still connected to your ISP, and they still know who you are. There's
really no escaping.
1. How to change your IP address?
 Go somewhere else. The simplest way to change the IP address of your device is to switch to a
different network.
 Reset your modem. When you reset your modem, this will also reset the IP address. ...
 Connect via Virtual Private Network (VPN). ...
 Use a proxy server. ...
 Contact your ISP.
D.IP broking and firewalls
1.IP Blocking IP address
IP address blocking is a configuration of a network service that blocks requests from hosts with certain IP
addresses. IP address blocking is commonly used to protect against brute force attacks and to prevent
access by a disruptive address.

 How to Block an IP Address?

Just as it would have been in the Wild West, it’s important to learn how to protect yourself from external
threats. The basic security offered by internet servers can ward off some infiltration attempts, but often
crafty criminals slip through the cracks.

Learning how to identify and block the IP address of an online pest is perhaps the best way to improve your
security on the internet.

Ultimately, blocking an IP address allows administrators and website owners to control website traffic.

The process of blocking an IP address—or several—changes depending on the operating system that’s
being used.

While there are several different operating systems, the most common are Windows and Mac. We’ll cover
the steps for blocking an IP address using both of these systems, which achieve the same goal through
slightly different means.

 Why Block an IP Address?

There are several reasons a business, educational institution, or internet user would attempt to block an IP
address. In general, the most common reasons are:

 Blocking Bots, Spammers, and Hackers: When bots, spammers, and hackers attempt to infiltrate
your website, it can put a heavy strain on your bandwidth and decrease the speed with which you
and other users can access your website. If you run a business online, this can be detrimental to
sales.
 Limiting Website Access: Many academic institutions and businesses use IP blocking to limit the
websites that students or employees can visit. The goal is typically to increase productivity by
limiting distractions.
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  Protecting Data: Hackers often attempt to infiltrate websites to steal data or other important
information. That information can be used to blackmail or otherwise undermine a company.
 Maintaining Confidentiality: Many academic institutions and companies who keep sensitive
records—like transcripts, health records, etc.—are regularly targeted by hackers. Identifying
threatening IP addresses and placing them on a blacklist is an essential step to keep those records
safe and confidential.

This list should only be seen as the tip of the iceberg. There are countless reasons that an individual or
organization might want to block certain IP addresses, and there should be no underestimating how
malicious certain internet hackers can be.

2.FIREWALLS

A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network traffic and permits or
blocks data packets based on a set of security rules. Its purpose is to establish a barrier between your
internal network and incoming traffic from external sources (such as the internet) in order to block
malicious traffic like viruses and hackers.

 How does a firewall work?

Firewalls carefully analyze incoming traffic based on pre-established rules and filter traffic coming from
unsecured or suspicious sources to prevent attacks. Firewalls guard traffic at a computer’s entry point,
called ports, which is where information is exchanged with external devices. For example, “Source address
172.18.1.1 is allowed to reach destination 172.18.2.1 over port 22."

Think of IP addresses as houses, and port numbers as rooms within the house. Only trusted people (source
addresses) are allowed to enter the house (destination address) at all—then it’s further filtered so that
people within the house are only allowed to access certain rooms (destination ports), depending on if
they're the owner, a child, or a guest. The owner is allowed to any room (any port), while children and
guests are allowed into a certain set of rooms (specific ports).

 Types of firewalls
Firewalls can either be software or hardware, though it’s best to have both. A software firewall is a
program installed on each computer and regulates traffic through port numbers and applications, while a
physical firewall is a piece of equipment installed between your network and gateway.

Packet-filtering firewalls, the most common type of firewall, examine packets and prohibit them from
passing through if they don’t match an established security rule set. This type of firewall checks the
packet’s source and destination IP addresses. If packets match those of an “allowed” rule on the firewall,
then it is trusted to enter the network.

Packet-filtering firewalls are divided into two categories: state full and stateless. Stateless firewalls
examine packets independently of one another and lack context, making them easy targets for hackers. In
contrast, state full firewalls remember information about previously passed packets and are considered
much more secure.

While packet-filtering firewalls can be effective, they ultimately provide very basic protection and can be
very limited—for example, they can't determine if the contents of the request that's being sent will
adversely affect the application it's reaching. If a malicious request that was allowed from a trusted source

63
address would result in, say, the deletion of a database, the firewall would have no way of knowing that.
Next-generation firewalls and proxy firewalls are more equipped to detect such threats.

 Next-generation firewalls (NGFW) combine traditional firewall technology with additional

functionality, such as encrypted traffic inspection, intrusion prevention systems, anti-virus, and
more. Most notably, it includes deep packet inspection (DPI). While basic firewalls only look at
packet headers, deep packet inspection examines the data within the packet itself, enabling users
to more effectively identify, categorize, or stop packets with malicious data.

 Proxy firewalls filter network traffic at the application level. Unlike basic firewalls, the proxy acts an
intermediary between two end systems. The client must send a request to the firewall, where it is
then evaluated against a set of security rules and then permitted or blocked. Most notably, proxy
firewalls monitor traffic for layer 7 protocols such as HTTP and FTP, and use both statefull and deep
packet inspection to detect malicious traffic.

 Network address translation (NAT) firewalls allow multiple devices with independent network
addresses to connect to the internet using a single IP address, keeping individual IP addresses
hidden. As a result, attackers scanning a network for IP addresses can't capture specific details,
providing greater security against attacks. NAT firewalls are similar to proxy firewalls in that they
act as an intermediary between a group of computers and outside traffic.

 Statefull multilayer inspection (SMLI) firewalls filter packets at the network, transport, and
application layers, comparing them against known trusted packets. Like NGFW firewalls, SMLI also
examine the entire packet and only allow them to pass if they pass each layer individually. These
firewalls examine packets to determine the state of the communication (thus the name) to ensure
all initiated communication is only taking place with trusted sources.

Content/Topic3: Testing IP addresses

How to test a Public IP Address in Connect?
Introduction

Being able to test a client's public IP address is extremely important, to ensure that the service is working
correctly before the client moves in and to determine if an issue reported by the client (slow or lack of
internet) is related to the client's equipment.

Testing

You will require the following:

 A laptop an Ethernet cable

 The switch and port number that the client's public IP is assigned to
 The client's public IP information (found on the 2nd page of the service guide exported from
Connect).

 Click on the Start Menu, and type in Network, and click on Network Connections.
 Ensure WIFI is disabled (if enabled by right clicking on WIFI and selecting disable.
 Right click on Ethernet adaptor, then click Properties.
 Within Ethernet Properties, scroll down to Ethernet Protocol Version 4, and select Properties.

64
  Then in the new window, select the User the following IP address option, and Use the following
DNS server addresses.
 Please enter the client's Public IP, Subnet Mask, Default Gateway and DNS settings into their
respective fields.

 Plug the laptop into the allocated switch port.

 Open a browser and try to get online.
Note:
If this procedure has been followed as a result of a client raising an issue with their Public IP port, please
advise the client that the port has been successfully tested and suggest the client do the following:

 Restart their router

 Check their WAN interface network settings (they may need to have their 3rd party IT support do
this).
E. Diagnostic tools
1. Diagnostic Tool is a fast and simple tool, which allows users of Control Techniques'
drives to quickly solve any error codes that the drive may show.
2. best network diagnostic tools:

 Solar Winds Network Configuration Manager: An essential system security and administration tool
that automatically checks on device settings. The NCM will gather all device configurations, allow
the creation of standard settings, and ensure that any unauthorized changes are immediately rolled
back.
 Solar Winds Port Scanner: Check the TCP and UDP port status (open, closed, or filtered) of the IP
addresses on your network devices to ensure that you don’t have unattended ports open. Great for
resolving IP conflicts and can be run from the command line with the option to export results to
file.
 Data dog Network Performance Monitoring: A cloud-based network monitoring and management
service that includes troubleshooting tools.
 Solar Winds RMM: A remote monitoring and management tool that enables central IT departments
to manage networks on several remote sites.
 Paessler Network Troubleshooting with PRTG: Infrastructure management system that includes
port monitoring.
 Ping: Simple command-line utility that checks on the speed of connections.
 Tracert: Free command-line utility that lists the probable hops to a network or internet destination
address.
 Ipconfig: This command-line tool reports the IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, subnets, and default
gateways for all network adapters on a PC.
 Netstat: This tool displays active connections on your computer.
 Nslookup: Available for Windows, Unix, Linux, and Mac OS, this tool gives you DNS server
diagnostics.
 Speed and up/down test sites: A list of websites that will test your internet connections.
 Sysinternals: Set of Microsoft tools for Windows that help troubleshoot and configure Active
Directory.
 Wireshark: Free packet sniffer that will help you analyze traffic flows.
 Nmap: security and monitoring tool that needs a companion utility, Zenmap, as a user interface.

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L.O. 3.3: Apply IPv4 Sub netting

Content/Topic1: Calculation of IP addresses

A. Sub-netting
Sub netting is a logical subdivision of an IP network. Sub netting is the practice of dividing a network into
two or more networks.

i. Understanding Sub netting

Why subnet?
 Divide larger network into smaller network.

 Limit Divide
layer 2 larger network
and layer intosmaller
3 broadcasts network.
to their subnet.

 BetterLimit
management of layer
layer 2 and traffic.
3 broadcasts totheir subnet.
 Better management of traffic.

 Sub netting is used to break the network into small groups, more efficient subnets to prevent
excessive rates of Ethernet packet collision in a large network.

 Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network and node parts of the
address. The network bits are represented by the ones in the mask, and the node bits are
represented by the zeros which are identical to the subnet length.

 In order to subnet a network, extend the natural mask using some of the bits from the host ID
portion of the address to create a subnetwork ID. For example, given a Class C network of
204.17.5.0 which has a natural mask of 255.255.255.0, you can create subnets in this manner:

ii. Default mask and subnet mask

iii. Sub netting a Class C Address: The Fast Way!

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When you’ve chosen a possible subnet mask for your network and need to determine the number of
subnets, valid hosts, and broadcast addresses of a subnet that the mask provides, all you need to do is
answer five simple questions:

 How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?

 How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
 What are the valid subnets?
 What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
 What are the valid hosts in each subnet?

At this point, it’s important that you both understand and have memorized your powers of 2.
Please refer to the sidebar “Understanding the Powers of 2” earlier in this chapter if you need some
help. Here’s how you get the answers to those five big questions:

_ How many subnets? 2x = number of subnets. x is the number of masked bits, or the 1s. For
example, in 11000000, the number of 1s gives us 22 subnets. In this example, there are 4 subnets.

_ How many hosts per subnet? 2y – 2 = number of hosts per subnet. y is the number of unmasked
bits, or the 0s. For example, in 11000000, the number of 0s gives us 26 – 2 hosts. In this example,
there are 62 hosts per subnet. You need to subtract 2 for the subnet address and the broadcast
address, which are not valid hosts.

_ ? 256 – subnet mask = block size, or increment number. An example would be 256 – 192 = 64.
The block size of a 192 mask is always 64. Start counting at zero in blocks of 64 until you reach the
subnet mask value and these are your subnets. 0, 64,128,192. Easy

What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? Now here’s the really easy part. Since we counted
our subnets in the last section as 0, 64, 128, and 192, the broadcast address is always the number
right before the next subnet. For example, the 0 subnet has a broadcast address of 63 because the
next subnet is 64. The 64 subnet has a broadcast address of 127 because the next subnet is 128.
And so on. And remember, the broadcast address of the
last subnet is always 255.

What are the valid hosts? Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets, omitting the all 0s
and all 1s. For example, if 64 is the subnet number and 127 is the broadcast address, then 65–126 is
the valid host range—it’s always the numbers between the subnet address and the broadcast
address.

iv. Formula for calculating subnets

 Use this formula to calculate the number of subnets:

2^n where n = the number of bits borrowed

In this example, the calculation looks like this:

2^1 = 2 subnets

 The number of hosts:

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 To calculate the number of hosts per network, we use the formula of 2^n - 2 where n = the number
of bits left for hosts.

Applying this formula, (2^7 - 2 = 126) shows that each of these subnets can have 126 hosts.

For each subnet, examine the last octet in binary. The values in these octets for the two networks
are:

Subnet 1: 00000000 = 0
Subnet 2: 10000000 = 128

B. Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

Another term you need to familiarize yourself with is Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR).
It’s basically the method that ISPs (Internet service providers) use to allocate a number of addresses to a
company, a home—a customer. When you receive a block of addresses from an ISP, what you get will look
something like this: 192.168.10.32/28. This is telling you what your subnet mask is. The slash notation (/)
means how many bits are turned on (1s). Obviously, the maximum could only be /32 because a byte is 8
bits and there are 4 bytes in an IP address: (4*8 = 32). But keep in mind that the largest subnet mask
available (regardless of the class of address) can only be a /30 because you’ve got to keep at least 2 bits for
host bits. Take, for example, a Class A default subnet mask, which is 255.0.0.0. This means that the first
byte of the subnet mask is all ones (1s), or 11111111. When referring to a slash notation, you need to
count all the 1s bits to figure out your mask. The 255.0.0.0 is considered a /8 because it has 8 bits that are
1s—that is, 8 bits that are turned on. A Class B default mask would be 255.255.0.0, which is a /16 because
16 bits are ones (1s): 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000.
Table below has a listing of every available subnet mask and its equivalent CIDR slash notation.

v. TABLE: CIDR Values

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The /8 through /15 can only be used with Class A network addresses. /16 through /23 can be used by Class
A and B network addresses. /24 through /30 can be used by Class A, B, and C network addresses. This is a
big reason why most companies use Class A network addresses.

vi. Sub netting Class C Addresses

In a Class C address, only 8 bits are available for defining the hosts. Remember that subnet bits start at the
left and go to the right, without skipping bits. This means that the only Class C subnet masks can be the
following:

We can’t use a /31 or /32 because we have to have at least 2 host bits for assigning IP addresses to hosts.
In the past, I never discussed the /25 in a Class C network.

vii. Sub netting a Class C Address: The Fast Way!

When you’ve chosen a possible subnet mask for your network and need to determine the number of
subnets, valid hosts, and broadcast addresses of a subnet that the mask provides, all you need to do is
answer five simple questions:

69
  How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?
 How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
 What are the valid subnets?
 What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
 What are the valid hosts in each subnet?

Here’s how you get the answers to those five big questions:

 How many subnets?2x = number of subnets. x is the number of masked bits, or the 1s. For example,
in 11000000, the number of 1s gives us 22 subnets. In this example, there are 4 subnets.

 How many hosts per subnet?2y – 2 = number of hosts per subnet. y is the number of unmasked
bits, or the 0s. For example, in 11000000, the number of 0s gives us 26 – 2 hosts. In this example,
there are 62 hosts per subnet. You need to subtract 2 for the subnet address and the broadcast
address, which are not valid hosts.

 What are the valid subnets?256 – subnet mask = block size, or increment number. An example
would be 256 – 192 = 64. The block size of a 192 mask is always 64. Start counting at zero in blocks
of 64 until you reach the subnet mask value and these are your subnets. 0, 64, 128, 192.

 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet?Now here’s the really easy part. Since we counted
our subnets in the last section as 0, 64, 128, and 192, the broadcast address is always the number
right before the next subnet. For example, the 0 subnet has a broadcast address of 63 because the
next subnet is 64. The 64 subnet has a broadcast address of 127 because the next subnet is 128.
And so on. And remember, the broadcast address of the last subnet is always 255.

 What are the valid hosts?Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets, omitting the all 0s and
all 1s. For example, if 64 is the subnet number and 127 is the broadcast address, then 65–126 is the
valid host range—it’s always the numbers between the subnet address and the broadcast address.

Practice Example 1: 255.255.255.128 (/25)

Since 128 is 10000000 in binary, there is only 1 bit for subnetting and 7 bits for hosts. We’re going to
subnet the Class C network address 192.168.10.0.

192.168.10.0 = Network address

255.255.255.128 = Subnet mask
Now, let’s answer the big five:

 How many subnets? Since 128 is 1 bit on (10000000), the answer would be 21 = 2.
 How many hosts per subnet? We have 7 host bits off (10000000), so the equation would be 27 – 2 =
126 hosts.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. Remember, we’ll start at zero and count in our block
size, so our subnets are 0, 128.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The number right before the value of the next
subnet is all host bits turned on and equals the broadcast address. For the zero subnet, the next
subnet is 128, so the broadcast of the 0 subnet is 127.

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  What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers between the subnet and broadcast address. The
easiest way to find the hosts is to write out the subnet address and the broadcast address. This
way, the valid hosts are obvious. The following table shows the 0 and128 subnets, the valid host
ranges of each, and the broadcast address of both subnets:

viii. Sub netting Class B Addresses

Before we dive into this, let’s look at all the possible Class B subnet masks first. Notice that we have a lot
more possible subnet masks than we do with a Class C network address:

We know the Class B network address has 16 bits available for host addressing. This means we can use up
to 14 bits for sub netting (because we have to leave at least 2 bits for host addressing). Using a /16 means
you are not sub netting with class B, but it is a mask you can use. The process of sub netting a Class B
network is pretty much the same as it is for a Class C, except that you just have more host bits and you
start in the third octet.

Practice Example 1: 255.255.128.0 (/17)

172.16.0.0 = Network address

255.255.128.0 = Subnet mask

 Subnets?21 = 2 (same as Class C).

 Hosts?215 – 2 = 32,766 (7 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth).
 Valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. 0, 128. Remember that sub netting is performed in the third octet,
so the subnet numbers are really 0.0 and 128.0, as shown in the next table. These are the exact
numbers we used with Class C; we use them in the third octet and add a 0 in the fourth octet for
the network address.

 Broadcast address for each subnet?

 Valid hosts?

The following table shows the two subnets available, the valid host range, and the broadcast
address of each:

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 ix. Sub netting Class A Addresses

Class A sub netting is not performed any differently than Classes B and C, but there are 24 bits to play with
instead of the 16 in a Class B address and the 8 in a Class C address.

Let’s start by listing all the Class A masks:

Remember, we’re going to do this the same way as a Class B or C subnet. It’s just that, again, we simply
have more host bits and we just use the same subnet numbers we used with Class B and C, but we start
using these numbers in the second octet.

Practice Example 1: 255.255.0.0 (/16)

Class A addresses use a default mask of 255.0.0.0, which leaves 22 bits for subnetting since you must leave
2 bits for host addressing. The 255.255.0.0 mask with a Class A address is using 8 subnet bits.

 Subnets? 28= 256.

 Hosts? 216 – 2 = 65,534.
 Valid subnets? What is the interesting octet? 256 – 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. (all in the second octet).
The subnets would be 10.0.0.0, 10.1.0.0, 10.2.0.0, 10.3.0.0, etc., up to 10.255.0.0.
 Broadcast address for each subnet?
 Valid hosts?
The following table shows the first two and last two subnets, valid host range, and broadcast
addresses for the private Class A 10.0.0.0 network:

x. Calculate Binary to decimal conversion

In the binary system there are only 1s and 0s. Depending on their position in the octet, they get different
values. Each position is a power of 2. To get the decimal number you have to sum up that number.

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 C. VLSM:
1. VLSM stands for Variable Length Subnet Mask where the subnet design uses more
than one mask in the same network which means more than one mask is used for
different subnets of a single class A, B, C or a network. It is used to increase the
usability of subnets as they can be of variable size.
2. The Main Purpose of Vlsm?
VLSM provides many benefits for real networks, mainly related to how you allocate and use your IP
address space. Because a mask defines the size of the subnet (the number of host addresses in the
subnet), VLSM allows engineers to better match the need for addresses with the size of the subnet.

3. Procedure of implementing VLSM

In VLSM, subnets use block size based on requirement so sub netting is required multiple times. Suppose
there is an administrator that has four departments to manage. These are sales and purchase department
with 120 computers, development department with 50 computers, accounts department with 26
computers and management department with 5 computers.
If the administrator has IP 192.168.1.0/24, department wise IPs can be allocated by following these steps:
 For each segment select the block size that is greater than or equal to the actual requirement which
is the sum of host addresses, broadcast addresses and network addresses. Make a list of subnets
possible:

table – possible subnets list

 Arrange all the segments in descending order based on the block size that is from highest to lowest
requirement.

 Sales and Purchase: 120

 Development: 50
 Accounts: 26
Management: 5
 The highest IP available has to be allocated to highest requirement so the sales and purchase
department gets 192.168.1.0/25 which has 126 valid addresses that can easily be available for 120
hosts. The subnet mask used is 255.255.255.128

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 The next segment requires an IP to handle 50 hosts. The IP subnet with network number
192.168.1.128/26 is the next highest which can be assigned to 62 hosts thus fulfilling the requirement
of development department. The subnet mask used is 255.255.255.192
 Similarly, the next IP subnet 192.168.1.192/27 can fulfill the requirements of accounts department
as it has 30 valid hosts IP which can be assigned to 26 computers
The mask used is 255.255.255.224
 The last segment requires 5 valid hosts IP which can be fulfilled by the subnet 192.168.1.224/29
which has the mask as 255.255.255.248 is chosen as per the requirement. The IP with the mask
255.255.255.240 could be chosen but it has 14 valid hosts IPs and the requirement is less in
comparison so the one that is comparable with the requirement is chosen. Thus there is less IP
wastage in VLSM as compared to FLSM.

4. Advantages of VLSM over FLSM

 In Fixed length subnet mask sub netting (FLSM), all subnets are of equal size and have equal
number of hosts but in VLSM the size is variable and it can have variable number of hosts thus
making the IP addressing more efficient by allowing a routed system of different mask length to suit
requirements.
 In FLSM there is a wastage of IP addresses but in VLSM there is a minimum wastage of IP addresses.
 FLSM is preferred for private IP addresses while for public IP addresses VLSM is the best option.

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Learning unit 4: Document the Work Done
L.O4.1: Document the review process

Content/Topic1: Description the review process of document

A. Review of user manual and previous report

A great user manual educates people about a product, while also teaching them how to use product
features effectively. As an author, your ultimate goal is comprehension—you want readers to easily be
able to read, reference, and absorb information.

General guidelines for user manuals

 Provide a real (physical) user manual with the product.

 Make sure the instructions actually map on to the product in all respects.
 Include a one-page quick start guide.
 Present instructions as step-by-step procedures.
 Tell the user what functions there are, and what they are for — not just how to use them... but
avoid marketing waffle (they already bought the product!)
 Ensure that the writers are part of the product design team.
 Write the user manual in synch with the product's development timeline — not under pressure of
shipping deadlines.
 Make sure the writers have the product, understand the product, and actually use the product as
they write.
 Consider the needs of disabled users (i.e., low vision, colour-blind) and provide alternative manuals
in Braille, large print, audio etc.
 User-test the product and the user manual with real users (including disabled users).
B. Suggestion of solutions on problems found

Here are seven-steps for an effective problem-solving process.

1. Identify the issues.

 Be clear about what the problem is.

 Remember that different people might have different views of what the issues are.
 Separate the listing of issues from the identification of interests (that's the next step!).

2. Understand everyone's interests.

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  This is a critical step that is usually missing.
 Interests are the needs that you want satisfied by any given solution. We often ignore our true
interests as we become attached to one particular solution.
 The best solution is the one that satisfies everyone's interests.
 This is the time for active listening. Put down your differences for a while and listen to each other
with the intention to understand.
 Separate the naming of interests from the listing of solutions.

3. List the possible solutions (options)

 This is the time to do some brainstorming. There may be lots of room for creativity.
 Separate the listing of options from the evaluation of the options.

4. Evaluate the options.

 What are the pluses and minuses? Honestly!

 Separate the evaluation of options from the selection of options.

5. Select an option or options.

 What's the best option, in the balance?

 Is there a way to "bundle" a number of options together for a more satisfactory solution?

6. Document the agreement(s).

 Don't rely on memory.

 Writing it down will help you think through all the details and implications.

7. Agree on contingencies, monitoring, and evaluation.

 Conditions may change. Make contingency agreements about foreseeable future circumstances (If-
then!).
 How will you monitor compliance and follow-through?
 Create opportunities to evaluate the agreements and their implementation. ("Let's try it this way
for three months and then look at it.")

Effective problem solving does take some time and attention more of the latter than the former. But less
time and attention than is required by a problem not well solved. What it really takes is a willingness to
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slow down. A problem is like a curve in the road. Take it right and you'll find yourself in good shape for the
straightaway that follows. Take it too fast and you may not be in as good shape.

C. Description of solution implementation

1. Definition

Implementation is the culmination of all your work in solving a problem and requires careful attention to
detail. There are three basic stages involved:

 planning and preparing to implement the solution

 implementing and monitoring the action
 reviewing and analyzing the success of the action.
2. Planning and preparation

Planning and preparation is the key to successful implementation. The more important the problem, or
the more complex the actions required to solve it, the more thorough your planning and preparation needs
to be to ensure success.

These questions highlight the main features of planning and preparation, which involve:

 constructing a plan of action

 the actions required
 scheduling the actions
 the resources required
 measures to counter adverse consequences
 management of the action
 reviewing the plan
 selecting, briefing and training those involved.
 Constructing a plan of action

Basically, the plan of action describes what actions are required and how they will be implemented to
ensure success. Unless the problem is simple or routine, you need to construct a detailed plan of action.

This involves systematically identifying and recording the following elements:

 The actions required

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These must be identified fully and precisely, otherwise the results expected will not be achieved. The
expected effects of these actions must also be identified, so that you will know when they have been
carried out successfully. This part of the plan can be constructed as follows:

state your objective

list the individual goals in the order in which they must be achieved to reach that objective
identify what actions are required to achieve each goal, determine the sequence in which they
need to be carried out, and record them
define, in measurable terms, what a successful outcome will be for each action and add the details
to the plan.
 Scheduling the actions

To create a time schedule for the actions, first you identify the time required to complete each action. By
representing this information on the diagram you can calculate at what stage, relative to the starting time,
each action will commence and finish, and determine the total time required to achieve the objective.
Simple plans can be represented by a chart which uses bars to show the sequence and duration of the
actions.

More complex plans require a more flexible structure, like a chain diagram or flow chart. Diagrams help
you to arrange the actions in a way which makes the best use of time and other resources. In drawing up a
schedule. it's important not to be over-optimistic in the time you allow for each action. Additional time is
required to accommodate delays and unforeseen obstacles, particularly with actions which must be
completed on time or which are susceptible to delays.

 The resources required

For each action the resources required have to be precisely defined along a number of parameters,
including the type, amount and when they are required. Each resource is considered individually:

Time is sometimes overlooked but it can be a key resource in some situations. These can be defined by
answering some simple questions.

What time is available before the deadline for achieving each action/goal/the overall objective?
Are these timings compatible?
Whose time is required?
Will this time be spent within normal working hours?

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Manpower may come from within and outside the organization and can be defined by answering these
questions

How many people will be required?

What skills, qualities and knowledge will they need to carry out the actions required of them?
When and where will they be required?
Will they be available when and where required?
Will they be available for the length of time required?
What briefing and training will they need to be able to carry out their tasks effectively?

Money can be defined by answering the questions

How much will be needed?

In what form? (eg cash, cheque, foreign currency)
How will it be acquired? (eg loan, grant, endowment)
What will be the source? (eg profits, merchant bank, local or central government)
How will it be used and is this compatible with the source? (eg if it's a development grant does the
plan use it appropriately?)
When and where will it be required?
Will it be available when and where required?
Does it need to be repaid, and when?
Will it be recouped, how, and when? (eg through increased profits)
Will there be additional cost in using this money? (eg interest or handling charges)
Have the costs of all other resources been included?
Materials may fall into a number of categories, including consumables, raw materials, and equipment (for
temporary or permanent use). The material requirements can be defined by answering the questions

What type of materials will be required?

If capital equipment is required, how will it be financed? (eg lease, loan)
What are the specifications of the materials required? (eg quality, size)
What wastage is likely to occur?
In what quantities are they required?
When and where will they be required?
Will they be available when and where required?
Will transport be required?
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 What handling (human and mechanical) will be required?
Will storage space be required, where, how much, for how long, and will it be available?
Space can be defined by answering these questions

What space will be required?

How much space will be required?
Where will the space be required?
Does it have to be of a particular type (eg covered, with amenities) or with particular dimensions?
How long will the space be required?

Information may form a part of the manpower resource (eg expert advice or skills) but it can also be a
resource in its own right (eg renting a mailing list for a direct mail campaign). To define this resource, you
need to answer these questions

What specific information will be required?

Is this information available from within the organization or does it have to be bought-in?
Where specifically is it available?
When and where will it be required?
Will it be available when and where required?
How long will it be required?
When you are calculating the resources required to implement a solution it's vital not to under-estimate. A
shortage could disrupt implementation completely and possibly incur heavy penalties, eg having to pay a
consultant for doing nothing while he's waiting for the installation of a piece of equipment. Sometimes you
may have to adapt your plan of action to suit the availability of resources.

Once you have made a complete list of the resource requirements, draw up a schedule of resources,
showing how and when they will be requested, from whom, and when and where they are to be delivered.

 Measures to counter adverse consequences

These have to be included in the plan. Although you have considered the areas of risk and possible side-
effects when constructing and evaluating your solution, and adapted it to try to minimize the adverse
consequences, you need to identify everything that could go wrong during implementation and devise
countermeasures. This includes even minor problems such as a key person being sick.

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The steps involved are similar to those used to evaluate and minimize the risks associated with the
solution, only more detailed.

There are certain features of a plan of action which can make it more susceptible to something going
wrong. To identify these and make provision in your plan to deal with them, you should examine your plan
step-by-step and follow these stages:

identify everything that could go wrong; look for areas where, for example,
- timing is crucial (eg with delays, could a deadline be missed?)

- a slippage in timing could bring subsequent actions into conflict (eg so that they simultaneously require
the same resource)

- two or more activities coincide (eg will they interfere with each other?)

- there is no way of predicting what may happen (eg because of lack of knowledge or experience)

- there is heavy reliance on facilities or equipment (eg could they fail?) ,

- there is heavy reliance on the cooperation and efforts of people (eg will they perform as required?)

- all available resources in a particular category are being used (eg could an unexpected event require their
more urgent use elsewhere?)

- external factors could affect the actions required (eg withdrawal of labour in a national dispute) or the
effectiveness of the results (eg a change in market needs)

analyze and evaluate the consequences, eg .

- what are the effects if this happens?

- how serious are they?

- what is their relative seriousness?

- what is the probability of them happening (low, medium or high)?

define how you could recognize trouble as early as possible, eg through the detection of unexpected
changes in predicted events

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 devise countermeasures where possible, either to prevent the cause of trouble or minimize its
effects
incorporate the method of recognition and the appropriate countermeasure into your plan.
Adverse consequences which have the highest probability of occurring combined with the greatest
seriousness should be tackled first and every effort made to ensure that provision is made in your plan to
counter them effectively. Even if time is short and it requires extensive work, you can only afford to omit
minor adverse consequences with a low probability of occurrence. Although problems may not arise during
Implementation, if they do your plan must contain appropriate countermeasures which can be taken
without jeopardizing the rest of the plan.

 Management of the action

Unless the solution is very simple or routine you must specify how the implementation will be monitored
and controlled. This enables the manpower to be appropriately led and managed, their progress to be
measured at specific intervals, and appropriate action to be taken to correct any variance from the plan.
The following steps help to identify how to manage the implementation:

identify actions which require on-the-job supervision and monitoring (eg where individuals have no
previous experience of the actions required of them)
identify the stages at which progress should be measured (eg upon completion of individual goals
or major activities; at critical phases)
specify exactly what results are expected to have been achieved at these stages
specify how and by whom the actual results will be measured
ensure that appropriate measures to correct any variance between the expected and the actual
results are specified in the plan.
The stages you identify for measuring progress are, in effect, deadlines for achieving specific results. These
must be stated as a specific time or date in the overall time schedule. Unspecific or woolly deadlines make
implementation difficult to manage and can lead to disaster. The frequency of measuring progress is
dependent upon a number of factors:

what is practical (eg economical and not interfering significantly with progress)
the rate at which the situation is likely to change (eg major building works compared with delicate
negotiations over a couple of days)
the seriousness of potential variances from the plan

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 Provision should also be made to monitor the solution once it has been implemented, so that any
unforeseen adverse consequences arising in the long term can be detected. For example, has a
change in the system created a bottleneck in processing work, or resulted in undue pressure on one
individual or department?

 Reviewing the plan

Finally, you need to check the plan to ensure that

the actions listed will achieve the various goals and the overall objective
your time schedule is workable and can accommodate unexpected delays
your estimation of resources is accurate
the plan for managing the action will enable it to be kept on course.
Drawing up a plan of action is the most crucial stage in ensuring efficient implementation and it
must be accurate and thorough. This plan provides a blueprint for the remaining stages of
implementation.

 Selecting, briefing and training those involved

Your plan of action provides most of the information you require at this stage.

This situation is very similar to having to get your solution implemented successfully. You need to go
through the following stages:

select indjviduals with the appropriate skills, qualities and knowledge required to carry out the
various actions effectively
brief these people. so that they know and understand what they are required to do
give training, if necessary, to individuals who do not meet the exact requirements for carrying out
their assigned tasks effectively.
Selection involves comparing the skills, qualities and knowledge required for specific tasks with those
available amongst individual members of the workforce. By identifying the ideal attributes for carrying out
each action effectively - both what is required and what is to be avoided - you can construct a model of the
ideal candidate. Selection then consists of finding the best match to this ideal amongst members of the
workforce.

Once you have selected appropriate individuals you need to draw up a list of what actions each is required
to carry out, the results they will be expected to achieve, and what responsibilities they have for achieving
these results.

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Frequently there will be at least some aspects of your plan for which the individuals available are not
ideally suited. If the discrepancy is large it may be necessary to buy in manpower with the appropriate
attributes. However, frequently the shortfall can be overcome by careful briefing or specific training.

Briefing is often the final step before a plan is implemented. As in any other type of communication, it
must be planned and executed carefully to ensure that it's effective. The following steps will help you to
brief people effectively:

give individuals reasonable advance warning of what will be required of them

prepare your briefing carefully so that it is clear, comprehensive and can be understood easily by
everyone
after the briefing, check that everyone has understood what they are required to do by asking them
to repeat your instructions.

Your instructions should state clearly the responsibilities of each individual and the scope of their
authority in carrying out their task. It's important to give a level of authority which enables individuals to
use their initiative and not be bound rigidly to the plan. For example, if they foresee a problem arising they
need the freedom to act immediately if necessary.

The way you communicate your message is very important. Some individuals may have a different view of
the situation and different attitudes to your own, particularly if they have not been involved in finding and
evaluating solutions.

Training can be expensive and time-consuming. If people with the appropriate skills are not readily
available you need to compare the advantages and disadvantages of training them or buying-in the
necessary skills, eg training may provide individuals with skills which are of value in other aspects of their
work; hiring a consultant may create a valuable business contact.

Once people have been briefed on what they are required to do and other appropriate resources have
been arranged, the plan of action can be implemented.

 Implementing and monitoring the action

Once action has been initiated, it has to be supervised and monitored to ensure that the plan is followed
accurately, implementing corrective action when necessary. The details of this stage are specified in the
plan of action.

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Supervising the action ensures that individuals carry out their tasks efficiently according to the plan.

Monitoring progress enables you to identify whether or not the results being achieved are meeting the
planned requirements, and if not, why not. A decision can then be made on the action required to put the
plan back on course. Reviewing the overall achievement once the plan has progressed significantly will
indicate how well it is achieving the objective. If there are major discrepancies it suggests that the plan is
inadequate and needs to be revised.

Taking corrective action may involve implementing the appropriate countermeasure laid down in the plan,
or taking unplanned action to counter unforeseen problems. For example, if time. has been lost in
completing one activity, other activities may have to be completed more quickly than planned in order to
meet a deadline. Minor problems which are unlikely to recur may not require any action. Major faults in
the plan may make it necessary to abandon implementation if no appropriate corrective action is possible.

These three processes must be maintained until the plan is completed.

 Reviewing and analyzing the outcome

When the plan has been completed and the solution implemented it is important to measure and analyze
its success. This tells you whether the solution has been effective in solving the problem and how useful it
will be in solving similar problems in the future. There are three stages

measure the success of the solution by comparing the outcome of the action with the expected
results
analyze any discrepancy to identify the reasons for it
take further action if necessary.
 Remember

The more important them. problem, or the more complex the actions required to solve it, the more
planning and preparation you need to do.
Action must be monitored to ensure that it is being carried out effectively and having the desired
effects; if not, corrective action must be taken.
Once the action is completed, the outcome must be measured to check that it has provided an
effective solution; if not, further action may be required.
D. Description of procedures of the task accomplished

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 3. What is a procedure?
The idea of what a procedure is, changes depending on who you ask. To many, a procedure is a s et of
detailed instructions that tell the reader how to complete a task.

4. How to write an effective procedure?

Now we’re getting into the meat of the topic – learning how to write a procedure. Any of you who’ve
read our other posts on documenting processes and recording standard operating procedures will
know much of this already, but to summarize you need to:

1. Meet with the teams responsible for the procedure

2. Start with a short introduction

3. Make a list of required resources

4. Document the current procedure

5. Add supporting media

6. Include any relevant resources

7. Check the procedure is accurate

8. Test in a controlled environment

9. Make improvements if necessary

10. Deploy

E. Tools equipment and materials used

Explain clearly a proper selection of tools and equipment you have used in your installation, and how
they work.

F. Technical journal and Recommendation report

o Technical journal is a multidisciplinary journal in the field of engineering science and

technology that offers platform for researchers, engineers and scientists to publish their
original and to date research of high scientific value.
The journal is being published electronically as well as in print form.
Technical Journal introduces its readers to all the latest technologies, products, and solutions to any
problems to be occurred.

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 o Recommendation report

recommendation report proposes a solution to a problem or evaluates possible solutions and

recommends one. Before proposing or recommending a solution, the report needs to identify the
problem. Think about the various problems you encounter every day or read about in the paper.

3. Report: A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience
and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are almost always
in the form of written documents.

L.O 4.2: Report the procedures of the task accomplished are in place and used

Content/Topic1: Description Report the procedures of the task accomplished are in place and used
A. Review of user manual and previous report

The User Manual contains all essential information for the user to make full use of the information
system. This manual includes a description of the system functions and capabilities, contingencies and
alternate modes of operation, and step-by-step procedures for system access and use. Use graphics
where possible. The manual format may be altered if another format is more suitable for the particular
project.
B. Suggestion of solutions on problems found

The User Manual contains all essential information for the user to make full use of the information
system. This manual includes a description of the system functions and capabilities, contingencies and
alternate modes of operation, and step-by-step procedures for system access and use. Use graphics
where possible. The manual format may be altered if another format is more suitable for the particular
project.
1. Cable Problem: Cables that connect different parts of a network can be cut or shorted. A short can
happen when the wire conductor comes in contact with another conductive surface, changing the path
of the signal. Cable testers can be used to test for many types of cable problems such as:
Cut cable, incorrect cable connections, Cable shorts, Interference level, Connector Problem
2. Connectivity Problem: A connectivity problem with one or more devices in a network can occur after
a change is made in configuration or by a malfunction of a connectivity component, such as hub, a
router or a Switch.
3. Excessive Network Collisions: These often lead to slow connectivity. The problem can occur as a
result of bad network setup/plan, a user transferring a lot of information or jabbering network card.

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NB: A jabbering Network card is a network card that is stuck in a transmit mode. This will be evident
because the transmit light will remain on constantly, indicating that the Network card is always
transmitting.
4. Software Problem: Network problems can often be traced to software configuration such as DNS
configuration, WINS configuration, the registry etc.
5. Duplicate IP Addressing: A common problem in many networking environments occurs when two
machines try to use the same IP address. This can result in intermittent communications.
C. Description of solution implementation

In today’s world, every organization relies upon a good and hassle free Computer Network to maintain
a good flow of data or information exchange. A Computer Network is the cornerstone of every
organization used to share or exchange information which can be a image, text, video, sound clip or
any other type of media or file. But it’s very embarrassing when we face some technical problems in
our network which hampers our work. Here I am sharing some common network issues and some steps
to come up with those issues.

1. Duplicate IP Address

Sometimes, more than one PC is trying to use same IP address by manual confirmation mistake, this
can cause network issue with the parent network of computer or also it can intermittent network
communications.

Duplicate IP Address
Solution: – Always try to find and assign a unique IP address for your PC or every computer system.

2. NIC got damaged or not placed well

NIC (Network Interface Card) is the most vital component of computer network is responsible for
creating a temporary connection of your computer to a computer network.

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 Damaged NIC
Solution: – For NIC issue check your NIC to find whether it is good or damaged or installed properly or
not. And you can also do ping the computers and analyze the problem and change the settings
according to your problems or requirements.

3. No Network Access Issue

Sometimes we see “No Network Access” icon in our working computers or either we see a HTTP 504
web server error code.

No Network
Access
Solution: – To solve this problem, check each and every component and wires are connected properly
and if not then connect it properly or reset all the connections. You can also check the Hub or Router
settings and if anything wrong is there just correct it or else you can restart the whole setup or
connection.

4. Check Firewall Restrictions or Settings

Sometimes, Firewall will restrict and disallow the network access or file sharing between the computers
in your network. That’s due to firewall restrictions which encounters no network issue or deny the
network communication. Firewalls are responsible to protect your PC from threats or malware which
can be come into your PC over internet or other network sources.

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Firewall Restrictions
Solution: – Change your computer’s firewall settings and enable it for accessing network sharing and
services. Then you’ll be able to connect, share and receive files, data or other media files from your
networking system.

5. Slow Internet or Network Speed

You noticed some glitches in speed like slow internet or data transmission over the network then most
of time usually people thought that they’ve excesses the data limit. This is also true but sometimes, it
causes due to improper planning of network which causes the slower internet speed or data
transmission over the network.

slow internet connection

Solution: – Make sure that all the peripherals are connected and working properly. Use file
compression technologies to reduce the burden of bulky files on network. Find and analyze the users to
allocate network bandwidth according to the user’s needs to avoid excessive use of bandwidth or
network space. And check your network card, is it updated or working properly or not, if anything is
wrong then correct or replace it for a smoother networking performance.

6. Regular drops of network

You have noticed regular network connection failures or drops in network connections. Some physical
damage of cables or wrong setup of network peripherals might be responsible for this.

Network Drops
Solution: – Check and identify the faulty areas, and if you see any cut or noise in cables then cut or
replace it. Check to ensure the correct setup of routers, hubs and other network peripherals, and if
anything is wrong there just correct it for a smooth networking experience.

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D. Description of procedures of the task accomplished
For an implementation process to be successful, many tasks between different departments need
to be accomplished in sequence. Companies strive to use proven methodologies and enlist
professional help to guide them through the implementation of a system but the failure of many
implementation processes often stems from the lack of accurate planning in the beginning stages of
the project due to inadequate resources or unforeseen problems that arise.
E. Tools equipment and materials used

LAN CARD
It is a network interface card. This is a computer circuit board or card that is installed in a computer so
that it can be connected to a network.

SERVER
It is a part of a network. It is a special computer that users on the network can access to carry out a
particular job.

HUB/PORT
It is a connector on the back of a computer or other device. A port is either a serial port or a parallel
port.

MODEM
The modem is a device that allows a given computer to share data or otherwise a device which let
computers exchange information

CANNER
It is an input device that read text or illustration printed on paper, translates the information into a
form that a computer can use

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 FLAT SCREW DRIVER
It is used to drive or fasten negative slotted screws

USB
Universal Serial Bus, a hardware interface for low-speed peripherals such as the keyboard, mouse,
joystick, scanner, printer and telephony devices.

PRINTER
It is a piece of hardware that produces a paper copy (also known as ‘hardcopy’) of the information
generated by the computer.

RAM
Random Access Memory, is a primary memory. This memory is used inside the computer to hold
programs and data while it is running.

BIOS
Basic Input / Output System, chip that controls the most basic functions of the computer and performs
a self-test every time you turn it on.

FLASH DRIVE
RAM that can retain data without electrical power. It is widely used for BIOS chips and for digital
camera and digital music storage

VIDEO CAMERA
A camera using videotape: a camera that records onto videotape

LONG NOSE PLIERS

It is used for holding, bending and stretching the lead of electronics component or connecting wire.

SOLDERING IRON
It is used to join two or more metal conductors with the support of soldering lead melted around it.

DESOLDERING TOOL
It is used to unsolder unwanted parts or component in the circuit with the support of soldering pencil.

PHILIPS SCREW DRIVER

It is used to drive or fasten positive slotted screws.

LAN TESTER
For RJ11,12,45 & BNC w/ Remote Unit This ergonomic tester is designed to test most network cable
wiring. You can either conduct an auto or manual test.

UTP
Unshielded Twisted Pair, is a popular type of cable used in computer networking that consists of two
shielded wires twisted around each.

F. Technical journal and recommendation report

1. Technical journal

In the modern high performance computing systems, innovative as well as hi-tech research is required to
address the challenges in the networking. The Journal of Networking Technology will act as a platform to

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publish and disseminate the cross cutting research in networking systems. The journal solicits original
research in the following but not limited areas.

Computer network components

Network architecture and design
Digital networks
Broadband networks
Internet and Web Technology
Sensor networks
Adhoc networks
Mobile and wireless networks
Data networks
Next generation networks
Optical networks
Neural networks
Signal processing
Satellite communication

2. Recommendation report

Basic Network Recommendations

 Correct User Rights
Administrator rights should be granted with caution. Users who have administrator rights can potentially
do things that could be seriously damaging. They can, and do, unintentionally make changes that decrease
the level of network security. They can also be tricked into running malware, which would run with the
user’s administrator privileges.
If they are careless about protecting their authentication details, their user-name and password may be
stolen. This may allow unauthorized third parties to log in and carry out damaging actions, intentionally or
accidentally. For better security, make sure that users have a privilege level which is appropriate for the
tasks they carry out and minimize the number of users that have administrator privileges.
 Only Download from Trusted Websites
You should determine who has a genuine business need to download files and applications from a website.
Use web filtering to restrict this to people with a genuine requirement and ensure that the select few are
educated in how to download files safely. Files can often be downloaded from multiple locations on the
Internet, but not all locations are equally secure. Make sure that your users can only download from
trusted sites, such as primary source websites rather than file-sharing or generic websites.
 Review Network Shares
Carry out an audit of network shares. Users should only have access to files and folders that they need as
part of their day-to-day work. You should also be aware that a lot of malware can spread via networks. This
is typically due to there being little or no security on network shares. Remove access to unnecessary shares
and secure the others and their contents to limit network-aware malware from spreading.
 Restrict Network Connections
When a computer connects to a network, it can adopt that network’s security settings for that specific
session. If the network is outside the administrator’s control, the security settings may be weak and put
the computer at risk. Restrict users from connecting computers to unapproved networks. In most instances
users only need to connect to the main company network.

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  Change Your Default IP Range
Networks typically use standard IP ranges, like 10.1.x.x or 192.168.x.x. This standard approach means
machines configured to look for this range could accidentally connect to a network outside your control.
Change the default IP range so that computers are less likely to find a similar range. You should also
consider adding firewall rules, which allows only approved users to connect.
 Review Open Ports
You should periodically audit the open ports on your network and block all unused ones. If you leave them
open for long periods of time without surveying them, you increase the chance of letting in intruders. If
ports are left open, Trojans and Worms may use them to communicate with unauthorized third-parties.
 Audit the Entry Points to Your Network
Networks undergo frequent change, so it is very important to review all the routes into your organization’s
infrastructure on a regular basis. For each means of entry, consider how to best secure the routes to stop
unwanted files and applications entering undetected or sensitive information leaking out.
 Network Segmentation
There are a number of advantages to segmenting your network.
Improved security comes from the fact that broadcasts will be contained to local network and internal
network structure will not be visible from outside. If an attacker gains unauthorized access to a network,
segmentation or “zoning” can provide effective controls to limit further movement across the network.
Improved performance can be achieved, because on a segmented network there are fewer hosts per
subnetwork, thus minimizing local traffic. It can also help to containing network problems, limiting the
effect of local failures on other parts of network.
When business critical systems are affected, they can slow business processes significantly. To help protect
them, consider having them on a different network from the one used for day-to-day activities.
 Resist the Temptation to Live Test
Although most software developers are good people and rigorously test their software before releasing it,
they are unlikely to have your infrastructure’s exact configuration and setup. To ensure that a new
software version or update does not cause problems, test it on a virtual system and check its effects before
deploying to the real live network.
 Block Unused USB Ports
Many devices, when connected to a USB port, can be automatically detected and mounted as a drive. USB
ports may also allow attached devices to auto-run stored software. Users are often unaware that even the
safest and most trusted devices can potentially introduce malware onto their computer. To prevent any
accidents, it is much safer to disable all unused ports.

L.O 4.3: Write the technical journal and recommendation

Content/Topic1: Review of user manual and previous report

 Report: A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a

specific audience and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered
orally, complete reports are almost always in the form of written documents.

 The main advantages of report writing?

1. Report gives consolidated and updated information.
A report provides consolidated, factual and an up-to-date information about a particular matter or subject.
Information in the report is well organized and can be used for future planning and decision making.
2. Report as a means of internal communication.

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A report acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. It provides feedback to
employees. It is prepared for the information and guidance of others connected with the matter/ problem.
3. Report facilitates decision making and planning

Report provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making process. It acts as a
treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and decision making.
4. Report discloses unknown information

Reports provide information, which may not be known previously. The committee members collect data,
draw conclusions and provide information which will be new to all concerned parties. Even new business
opportunities are visible through unknown information available in the reports.
2. Report gives Information to employees

Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. They are widely used by the
departments for guidance. Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful for their self-
improvement.
3. Report gives reliable permanent information

The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available to the office. We
have census reports (prepared since last 100 years) which are used even today for reference purpose.
4. Report facilitates framing of personnel policies

Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such as promotion
policy, training policy and welfare facilities to employees.
5. Report gives information to shareholders

Some company reports are prepared every year for the benefit of shareholders. Annual report for example, is
prepared and sent to all shareholders before the AGM. It gives information about the progress of the
company.

6. Report gives information to the Registrar

Annual report and annual accounts are sent to the Registrar every year for information. Such reports enable
the government to keep supervision on the companies.
7. Report solves current problems

Reports are useful to managers while dealing with current problems faced by the company. They provide
guidance while dealing with complicated problems.
8. Report helps directors to take prompt decisions

Company reports relate to internal working of the company and are extremely useful to directors in decision
making and policy framing. Reports give reliable, updated and useful information in a compact form.

 Report Writing Format

Here are the main sections of the standard report writing format:
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  Title Section – This includes the name of the author(s) and the date of report preparation.

 Summary – There needs to be a summary of the major points, conclusions, and recommendations.
It needs to be short as it is a general overview of the report. Some people will read the summary
and only skim the report, so make sure you include all the relevant information. It would be best to
write this last so you will include everything, even the points that might be added at the last
minute.

 Introduction – The first page of the report needs to have an introduction. You will explain the
problem and show the reader why the report is being made. You need to give a definition of terms
if you did not include these in the title section, and explain how the details of the report are
arranged.

 Body – This is the main section of the report. There needs to be several sections, with each having
a subtitle. Information is usually arranged in order of importance with the most important
information coming first.

 Conclusion – This is where everything comes together. Keep this section free of jargon as most
people will read the Summary and Conclusion.

 Recommendations – This is what needs to be done. In plain English, explain your

recommendations, putting them in order of priority.

 Appendices – This includes information that the experts in the field will read. It has all the technical
details that support your conclusions.

Remember that the information needs to be organized logically with the most important information
coming first.

 Pointers to score high in Report Writing

1. Use names and pronouns

2. Limit yourself to one idea per sentence.

Short, straightforward sentences are easy to read, understand and save time for everyone. You will
appreciate this time-saving tip when you are reviewing a report to prepare for an important business
meeting. Also, the longer a sentence is, the more likely you are to make an error.

Short sentence and its structure in English generally begin with a noun, and the grammar is simple.
Complicated sentences, on the other hand, require complicated punctuation, and they open the door to
sentence errors.

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Try to limit yourself to three commas per sentence. If a sentence has more than three commas, it’s
probably too complicated to be read easily, and it may contain usage or punctuation errors.

3. Be as clear and specific as possible.

“Contacted” is vague: Did you visit, phone, or email the witness? “Residence” is just as confusing: House,
apartment or mobile home? Always strive for clarity.

4. Use simple language.

“Since” is easier to understand (and write)

5. Stick to observable facts.

Conclusions, guesses, hunches, and other thought processes do not belong in a report.

6. Write in paragraphs.

7. Use active voice.

8. Use bullet style.

 Sample of Report

Typical structure template for writing a committee report:

1. Members to which the report is meant for

 [Name, institution, location, Chair]

 [Name, institution, location, member]

2. [Date, Time, and Location]

 [Provide simple documentation of any meetings of the committee or subset of the

committee, in whatever mode and format, e.g., in person, conference call, etc.]

3. Purpose

 [Here you mention the purpose of the report in a brief. This enables the reader to
understand the purpose behind writing the format.]

4. Issues [Write different issues as sub headings and explain their highlights in bullet points below the
respective sub headings]

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  Current Status

 Accomplishments / Issue 1

 Future Goals

5. Near-Term Plans / Main Body of the Report

6. Informal Recommendation(s)

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References

1. Network topology. (2010, February 8). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 9, 2010,
from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Network_topology&oldid=342762416

2. Mitchell, B. (2010). Introduction to Client Server Networks. Retrieved March 1, 2010, from About.com:

http://compnetworking.about.com/od/basicnetworkingfaqs/a/client-server.htm

3. Dionys, D. (2008). How to Make a Network Cable? Unpublished. Produced for the VVOB Program in
Zambia 2008-2013. For more information about VVOB seewww.vvob.be

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