Magnetism Detailed Notes

Magnetism
Forces between magnetic poles
● The ends of a magnet are called poles
● Magnets have two poles: a north and a south
● Magnetic forces are strongest at the poles
North and south poles of a magnet

Poles of a Magnet
● When two magnets are held close together, there will be a force between the magnets
○ Like poles repel (push each other apart)
■ A north pole will repel a north pole
■ A south pole will repel a south pole
○ Opposite poles attract (are pulled toward each other)
■ A north pole will be attracted to a south pole
Magnet attraction and repulsion

Opposite poles attract and like poles repel

● The attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is an example of a non-contact force

Uses of magnets
Uses of permanent magnets
● Uses of permanent magnets include:
○ Compasses: for thousands of years humans have used compasses for navigation, since the
needle always points north
○ School lab experiments: the magnets used in school science demonstrations are permanent
magnets
○ Toys: toy trains and trucks often have magnets which attach the carriages or trailers to the
engine or cab
○ Fridge magnets: these are made either of flexible magnetic material or by sticking a magnet to
the back of something
Some uses of magnets
 Compasses and toy trains are two examples of the use of permanent magnets
Uses of electromagnets
● Electromagnets have many uses including
○ MRI scanners: in hospitals, an MRI scanner is a large, cylindrical machine using powerful
electromagnets to produce diagnostic images of the organs of the body
○ Speakers and earphones: the loudspeakers, microphones and earphones used in phones and
laptops use electromagnets to sense or send soundwaves
○ Recycling: because steel is a magnetic material it can be easily separated from other metals
and materials using electromagnets. Once recovered the steel is re-used and recycled, reducing
mining for iron ore and processing ore into steel
○ Mag-Lev Trains: the ability of Mag-Lev trains to hover above the rails is due to them being
repelled by large electromagnets on the train and track. This reduces friction and allows speeds
of nearly 400 miles per hour
Some uses of electromagnets

Picking and sorting scrap metal and an MRI scanner are two examples of the uses of electromagnets
Induced magnetism
Magnetic materials
● Very few metals in the Periodic Table are magnetic
● The magnetic metals are:
○ Iron
○ Cobalt
○ Nickel
○ Steel is an alloy which contains iron, so it is also magnetic

Magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet; non-magnetic materials are not

● Magnetic materials (which are not magnets) will always be attracted to the magnet, regardless
of which pole is held close to it

Magnets and magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are attracted to both poles of a permanent magnet

● Bringing a material close to a known magnet will determine if the material is magnetic,
non-magnetic or if it is a magnet itself
○ It is a magnet if it is repelled by the known magnet
○ It is a magnetic material if it is attracted to the known magnet
○ It is a non-magnetic material if it is neither attracted nor repelled by the known magnet
Types of magnets
● There are two types of magnets:
○ Permanent magnets
○ Induced (also called temporary) magnets

Permanent magnets
● Permanent magnets are made out of permanent magnetic materials, for example, steel
● A permanent magnet will produce its own magnetic field
○ It will not lose its magnetism

Temporary (induced) magnetism

● An induced magnet is a material with a soft iron core that becomes a magnet temporarily when
it is placed in a magnetic field
○ Induced magnetism always causes a force of attraction between the permanent magnet
creating the magnetic field and the induced magnet
○ When this happens it is said that the material has been magnetised
○ This means that the end of the material closest to the magnet will have the opposite
pole to that of the magnet pole closest to the material
● When removed from the magnetic field, the material will lose its induced magnetism quickly
and become unmagnetised
○ Some objects such as paperclips or needles (made from steel) can be magnetised and
will remain magnetic for a while
○ Other objects, such as electromagnets or transformers (which are made from soft iron)
will be unmagnetised (no longer magnetised) as soon as the cause of the induced
magnetism is removed

Induced magnetism in a magnetic material

Inducing magnetism in a magnetic material

Magnetic fields
● A magnetic field is defined as:

A region in which a magnetic pole experiences a force

Magnetic field around a bar magnet

● The magnetic field is strongest at the poles
○ Therefore, the magnetic field lines are closer together at the ends of the magnets
● The magnetic field becomes weaker as the distance from the magnet increases
○ Therefore, the magnetic field lines get further apart

Magnetic field around a bar magnet

The magnetic field around a bar magnet

Magnetic field lines

● Field lines always have an arrow indicating the direction of the field line
○ The direction of the field line shows the direction that the magnetic force would act
○ The field lines always go from a north pole to a south pole

Magnetic field strength

● Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields

○ Two bar magnets can repel or attract
● This is shown by the magnetic field lines between the two magnets:

Attractive and repulsive magnetic fields

 Magnetic field lines for attracting and repelling bar magnets

● The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the spacing of the magnetic field lines
○ If the magnetic field lines are close together then the magnetic field will be strong
○ If the magnetic field lines are far apart then the magnetic field will be weak

Plotting magnetic field lines

● In your examination, you might be asked to describe a method of plotting the magnetic field
around a bar magnet
● There are two principal ways of doing this:
○ using iron filings
○ using plotting compasses

Using iron filings

● Place a piece of paper on top of the magnet
● Gently sprinkle iron filings on top of the paper
 ● Now carefully tap the paper to allow the iron filings to settle on the field lines

Magnetic field lines using iron filings

Iron filings can be used to plot a magnetic field

Using plotting compasses

● Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper
● Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner)
● Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the compass points
towards the dot
● Use a pencil to draw a new dot on the other side of the compass needle
● Now move the compass so that it points towards the new dot, and repeat the above process
● Keep repeating until you have a chain of dots going from one end of the magnet to the other.
Then remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve. This is the magnetic field
line
● The direction of the field lines go from the north pole to the south pole of the magnet.
○ This is the same as the direction of the north arrow on the plotting compass, which
points towards the south pole
● Repeat the process to create other magnetic field lines around the bar magnet

Using a compass to create magnetic field lines

 Compasses can be used to plot the magnetic field around a bar magnet
Magnetic fields around wires & solenoids
● Magnetic fields are formed wherever a current flows, such as in:
○ straight wires
○ solenoids
○ circular coils

Magnetic field due to a straight wire

● The magnetic field lines around a straight wire are
○ made up of concentric circles
○ centered on the wire
● A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire has no
poles
● The right-hand grip rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic field
 The direction of the field around a current-carrying wire can be determined using the right-hand grip
rule

● The field lines are clockwise or anticlockwise around the wire, depending on the direction of
the current
○ Reversing the current reverses the direction of the field
● The direction of the magnetic field can be determined using the right-hand grip rule
○ This is determined by pointing the right-hand thumb in the direction of the current in the
wire and curling the fingers onto the palm
○ The direction of the curled fingers represents the direction of the magnetic field lines
around the wire
○ For example, if the current is travelling vertically upwards, the magnetic field lines will be
directed anticlockwise, as seen from directly above the wire
● Note: the direction of the current is taken to be the conventional current i.e. from positive to
negative, not the direction of electron flow

Magnetic field due to a solenoid

● As seen from a current-carrying wire, an electric current produces a magnetic field
● An electromagnet utilises this by using a coil of wire called a solenoid
 ○ This increases the strength of the magnetic field by adding more turns of wire into a
smaller region of space
● One end of the solenoid becomes a north pole and the other becomes the south pole

The magnetic field lines around a solenoid are similar to a bar magnet

● As a result, the field lines around a solenoid are similar to a bar magnet
○ The field lines emerge from the north pole
○ The field lines return to the south pole
● The poles of the solenoid can be determined using the right-hand grip rule
○ The curled fingers represent the direction of the current flow around the coil
○ The thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil, towards the north pole
 In a solenoid, the north pole forms at the end where the current flows anti-clockwise, and the south
pole at the end where the current flows clockwise

Magnetic field due to a circular coil

● A circular coil is equivalent to one of the coils of a solenoid
● The field lines emerge through one side of the circle (north pole) and enter through the other
(south pole)
● As with a solenoid, the direction of the magnetic field lines depends on the direction of the
current
○ This can also be determined using the right-hand grip rule
 Magnetic field lines of many individual circular coils can be combined to make a solenoid

Worked Example
The current in a long, straight vertical wire is in the direction XY, as shown in the diagram.

Sketch the magnetic field lines in the horizontal plane ABCD due to the current-carrying wire. Draw at
least four field lines.

Answer:
 ● Concentric circles
● Increasing separation between each circle
● Arrows drawn in an anticlockwise direction
Magnetic effects of changing current

Magnetic field strength around a straight wire

● The strength of the magnetic field around a wire depends on:
○ the size of the current
○ the distance from the wire
● The strength of a magnetic field increases as the amount of current flowing through the wire
increases
○ This means the field lines will become closer together
● The strength of a magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire

○ The magnetic field is strongest near the wire and becomes weaker further away from
the wire
○ This is shown by the magnetic field lines becoming further apart
● When the direction of the current changes, the magnetic field acts in the opposite direction
 The greater the current, the stronger the magnetic field. This is shown by more concentrated field
lines

Magnetic field strength around a solenoid

● The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased by:
○ increasing the amount of current flowing through the coil
○ increasing the number of turns on the coil
○ inserting an iron core into the coil
● When a soft iron core is inserted into a solenoid, it can be used as an electromagnet
● The iron core becomes an induced magnet when a current flows through the coils
● The magnetic field produced by the solenoid and the iron core will create a much stronger
magnet overall
 An electromagnet consists of a solenoid wrapped around a soft iron core

● Changing the direction of the current also changes the direction of the magnetic field produced
by the iron core

Applications of the magnetic effect of a current

● Electromagnets are used in a wide variety of applications, including:
○ relay circuits (utilized in electric bells, electronic locks, scrapyard cranes etc)
○ loudspeakers

Relay circuits
● Electromagnets are commonly used in relay circuits
● Relays are switches that open and close via the action of an electromagnet
● A relay circuit consists of:

○ an electrical circuit containing an electromagnet

○ a second circuit with a switch which is near to the electromagnet in the first circuit

Operation of a relay circuit

When a current passes through the coil in Circuit 1, it attracts the switch in Circuit 2, and closing it
enables a current to flow in Circuit 2

● When a current flows through Circuit 1:

○ a magnetic field is induced around the coil

○ the magnetic field attracts the switch, causing it to pivot and close the contacts in Circuit
2
○ this allows a current to flow in Circuit 2
● When no current flows through Circuit 1:

○ the magnetic force stops

○ the electromagnet stops attracting the switch
○ the current in Circuit 2 stops flowing
● Scrapyard cranes utilise relay circuits to function:

○ When the electromagnet is switched on, it will attract magnetic materials

○ When the electromagnet is switched off, it will drop the magnetic materials
● Electric bells also utilise relay circuits to function:
Animation: Electric bells utilise relay circuits. As the current alternates, the metal arm strikes the bell
and drops repeatedly to produce the ringing effect

● When the button K is pressed:

○ a current passes through the electromagnet E creating a magnetic field

○ this attracted the iron armature A, causing the hammer to strike the bell B
○ the movement of the armature breaks the circuit at T
○ this stops the current, destroying the magnetic field and so the armature returns to its
previous position
○ this re-establishes the circuit, and the whole process starts again

Loudspeakers
● Loudspeakers convert electrical signals into sound waves

○ They work due to the motor effect

● A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a permanent
magnet

Structure of a loudspeaker
 A loudspeaker converts the a.c. of an electrical signal into sound waves

● An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker

○ This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil

● As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field will be
constantly changing
● The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the permanent magnet
● The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
● As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil will
constantly change direction

○ This makes the coil oscillate

● The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate

○ This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves

Investigating the magnetic field around a wire

● The magnetic field patterns due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids can be
investigated using:
○ a thick wire
○ a solenoid (a wire wrapped into a coil) - for example, a metal slinky
○ cell, ammeter, variable resistor and connecting wires
○ cardboard with holes (the holes must be large enough for the wire to fit through)
○ clamp stand
 ○ iron filings or a compass
● Spread the iron filings uniformly on the cardboard and place the magnetic needle on the board
● Tap the cardboard slightly and observe the orientation of iron filings
● When the current direction is reversed, the compasses point in the opposite direction showing
that the direction of the field reverses when the current reverses

Experiment 1: plotting the magnetic field around a wire

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole in the middle of the cardboard and secure it to the clamp
stand
● Secure the wire vertically so it sits perpendicularly to the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and ammeter on
either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

1. Place plotting compasses on the card and draw dots at each end of the needle once it settles
● Make sure to draw an arrow to show the direction of the field at different points
2. Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the process above
3. Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots on the card
4. Then remove the compass, or compasses, and link the dots using a smooth curve – this will be
the magnetic field line
5. Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines

Using iron filings:

1. If using iron filings, simply pour the filings onto the cards and gently shake the card until the
filings settle in the pattern of the magnetic field around the wire
Experiment 2: plotting the magnetic field around a solenoid
1. Attach the thick wire through a hole on one side of the cardboard and loop it through a hole on
the other side of the cardboard and secure it to the clamp stand
● Secure the wire so it forms a circular loop around the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and ammeter on
either side of the cell

Using plotting compasses:

1. Follow the procedure outlined in Experiment 1
● Note: this can be carried out using a solenoid, but since a solenoid is essentially many
circular loops, the pattern around a circular loop can be extended to give the pattern
around a solenoid

Using iron filings:

1. Take a solenoid (a metal slinky works well for this) and thread it through pre-made holes in a
piece of card
 2. Pour the filings onto the card and gently shake the card until the filings settle in the pattern of
the magnetic field around the solenoid

Force on a current-carrying conductor

● A current-carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field
○ When interacting with an external magnetic field, it therefore will experience a force
● A current-carrying conductor will only experience a force if the current through it is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field lines
○ A simple situation would be a copper rod placed within a uniform magnetic field
○ When current is passed through the copper rod, it experiences a force which makes it
move
 A copper rod moves within a magnetic field when current is passed through it

● Two ways to reverse the direction of the force (and therefore, the copper rod) are by:
○ reversing the direction of the current
○ reversing the direction of the magnetic field

Flemings left-hand rule

● The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current-carrying wire depends on the direction
of
○ the current
○ the magnetic field
● The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule:
○ the thumb points in the direction of the force, or thrust, on the conductor
○ the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field
○ the second finger points in the direction of current flow (from positive to negative)
 Fleming’s left-hand rule can be used to determine the directions of the force, magnetic field and
current

● All three will be perpendicular to each other in Fleming's left-hand rule questions
○ This means that sometimes the force could be into and out of the page (in 3D)

Worked Example
A current-carrying wire is placed into the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet, as shown in
the diagram.

Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that there will be a downward force acting on the wire.
Answer:

Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field

● Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field

Step 2: Determine the direction of the current

● Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the direction of
the Current

Step 3: Determine the direction of the force

● The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
● Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move

Charged particles in a magnetic field

● When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force if

the wire is perpendicular
○ This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual electron
flowing through the wire
● Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can exert
a force on the particle, causing it to deflect
○ The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the magnetic
field lines
 ○ The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule
● In the case of an electron in a magnetic field
○ the second finger (current) points in the opposite direction to the direction of
motion
○ this is because conventional current flows in the opposite direction to electron
flow

When a charged particle (such as an electron) enters a magnetic field, it is deflected by the
field

● If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:

○ it will experience the maximum force
● If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:
○ it will experience no force
● If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines:
○ it will experience a small force

The d.c. motor

● The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c. electric motor
○ The force on a current-carrying coil causes it to rotate in a single direction
● A simple d.c. motor consists of
 ○ a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) between the poles of a permanent magnet
○ a split-ring commutator and brushes connected to a source of d.c.

Structure of a simple d.c. motor

In a simple d.c. motor, a coil placed in a magnetic field may experience a turning effect

● As current flows through the coil, it produces a magnetic field which interacts with the external
magnetic field
● Forces act in opposite directions on each side of the coil, causing a turning effect
○ The greater the force on the coil, the greater the turning effect and the faster it will turn
● The turning effect is increased by increasing:
○ the number of turns on the coil
○ the current in the coil
○ the strength of the magnetic field

Operation of a d.c. motor

● In a d.c. motor, when the coil of wire is horizontal, it forms a complete circuit with a cell
○ The coil is attached to a split ring (a circular tube of metal split in two)
○ This split ring is connected in a circuit with the cell via contact with conducting carbon
brushes
Forces on the horizontal coil in a d.c. motor

Forces acting in opposite directions on each side of the coil, causing it to rotate. The split ring
connects the coil to the flow of current

● Current flowing through the coil produces a magnetic field

○ This magnetic field interacts with the uniform external field, so a force is exerted on the
wire
● Forces act in opposite directions on each side of the coil, causing it to rotate:
○ On the blue side of the coil, current travels towards the cell so the force acts upwards
(using Fleming's left-hand rule)
○ On the black side, current flows away from the cell so the force acts downwards
● Once the coil has rotated 90°, the split ring is no longer in contact with the brushes
○ No current flows through the coil so no forces act

Coil in the vertical position in a d.c. motor

 No force acts on the coil when vertical, as the split ring is not in contact with the brushes

● Even though no force acts, the momentum of the coil causes the coil to continue to rotate
slightly
● The split ring reconnects with the carbon brushes and current flows through the coil again
○ Now the blue side is on the right and the black side is on the left
● Current still flows toward the cell on the left and away from the cell on the right, even though
the coil has flipped
○ The black side of the coil experiences an upward force on the left and the blue side
experiences a downward force on the right
○ The coil continues to rotate in the same direction, forming a continuously spinning motor

Forces on the coil when rotated 180°

Even though the coil has flipped, the current still flows anticlockwise and the forces still cause rotation
in the same direction

Factors affecting the d.c. motor

● The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:
○ increasing the current
○ using a stronger magnet
● The direction of rotation of the coil in the d.c. motor can be changed by:
○ reversing the direction of the current supply
○ reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of the magnet
● The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
○ increasing the current in the coil
○ increasing the strength of the magnetic field
○ adding more turns to the coil

Worked Example
A d.c. motor is set up as shown below.
Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Answer:

Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines

● These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the magnet

Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils

● Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal
Step 3: Use Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of the force on each side of the coil

● Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
● Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the direction of
the Current
● The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

● The coil will be turning clockwise

Induced e.m.f.
● An electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in a conductor whenever there is relative movement
between the conductor and a magnetic field
● This could be when
○ the conductor moves in a stationary magnetic field
○ the conductor is stationary in a changing magnetic field

Induced e.m.f. due to a moving conductor

● For an electrical conductor moving in a fixed magnetic field:
○ the conductor (e.g. a wire) cuts the field lines
○ an e.m.f. is induced in the wire

When an electrical conductor moves in a magnetic field an e.m.f. is induced

Induced e.m.f. due to a moving field

● For a fixed conductor in a changing magnetic field:
○ as the magnet moves through the conductor (e.g. a coil), the field lines cut through the
turns on the conductor (each individual wire)
○ an e.m.f. is induced in the coil
When a magnet is moved towards a wire, the changing magnetic field induces a current in the coil of
wire

● A sensitive voltmeter can be used to measure the size of the induced e.m.f.
● If the conductor is part of a complete circuit then a current is induced in the conductor
○ This can be detected by an ammeter

Worked Example
A coil of wire is connected to a sensitive voltmeter.

When a magnet is pushed into the coil the needle on the voltmeter will deflect to the right as shown in
the diagram below.
What will happen to the pointer on the voltmeter when the magnet is stationary in the centre of the
coil?

A The needle will deflect to the left

B The needle will deflect to the right

C There will be no deflection of the needle

D The needle will deflect to the left and then to the right

ANSWER: C

● There is no relative movement between the coil and the magnetic field when both the magnet
and coil are stationary
● Since no magnetic field lines are being cut, no e.m.f. will be induced
○ Therefore, the needle will not deflect
● A, B & D are incorrect because a deflection on the voltmeter would indicate that an e.m.f. has
been induced
● This would only happen if there was relative movement between the coil and the magnetic field

Lenz's law
● Lenz law states:

The direction of an induced emf always opposes the change causing it

● This means that any magnetic field created by an induced emf will act so that it tries to stop the
wire or magnet from moving

Demonstrating Lenz's law

● Lenz's law can be demonstrated when a magnet is pushed into, or out of, a coil of wire
 ● If the magnet is pushed north end first into the coil, the end of the coil closest to the magnet
will become a north pole
● This happens because:

○ the changing magnetic field induces an emf in the coil

○ the induced emf causes a current to flow and generates a magnetic field in the coil
○ the magnetic field due to the current opposes the magnet being pushed into the coil
○ therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet acts as a north pole
○ this means it repels the north pole of the magnet

When a magnet is pushed into a coil of wire, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will become a
north pole and oppose its motion

● If a magnet is now pulled away from the coil of wire, the end of the coil closest to the magnet
will become a south pole
● This happens because:

○ the changing magnetic field induces an emf in the coil

○ the induced emf causes a current to flow and generates a magnetic field in the coil
○ the magnetic field due to the current opposes the magnet being pulled away from the
coil
○ therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet becomes a south pole
○ this means it attracts the north pole of the magnet
 When a magnet is pulled away from a coil of wire, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will
become a south pole and oppose its motion

Right-hand dynamo rule

● When moving a wire through a magnetic field, the direction of the induced emf can be
determined using the right-hand dynamo rule
● First Finger = Field:
○ Start by pointing the first finger (on the right hand) in the direction of the field
● ThuMb = Motion:
○ Next, point the thumb in the direction that the wire is moving in
● SeCond = Current:
○ The Second finger will now be pointing in the direction of the current (or, strictly
speaking, the emf)
 The right-hand dynamo rule can be used to deduce the direction of the induced emf

Demonstrating induction
● Electromagnetic induction is used in:
○ electrical generators which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
○ transformers which are used in electrical power transmission
● The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction can be demonstrated using
○ a magnet and a coil
○ a wire and a U-shaped magnet

Experiment 1: moving a magnet through a coil

● When a coil is connected to a sensitive voltmeter, a bar magnet can be moved in and out of
the coil to induce an e.m.f.
An e.m.f. is induced in a coil when a bar magnet is moved through it. This can be seen by connecting
the coil to a voltmeter

● The expected results are...

1. When the bar magnet is stationary, the voltmeter shows a zero reading

● When the bar magnet is held still inside, or outside, the coil, there is no cutting of magnetic
field lines
● As a result, no e.m.f. is induced in the coil

2. When the bar magnet is moved inside the coil, there is a reading on the voltmeter

● As the bar magnet moves, its magnetic field lines are cut by the coil
● This induces an e.m.f. within the coil, shown momentarily by the reading on the voltmeter

3. When the bar magnet is moved back out of the coil, there is a reading on the voltmeter with the
opposite sign

● As the magnet changes direction, the direction of the current changes

● An e.m.f. is induced in the opposite direction, shown momentarily by the reading on the
voltmeter with the opposite sign
 An e.m.f. is induced only when the bar magnet is moving through the coil

● Factors that will increase the induced e.m.f. are:

○ moving the magnet faster through the coil
○ adding more turns to the coil
○ increasing the strength of the bar magnet

Experiment 2: moving a wire through a magnet

● When a long wire is connected to a voltmeter and moved between two magnets, an e.m.f. is
induced
● The pattern of a magnetic field in a wire can be investigated using this setup
○ Note: there is no current flowing through the wire to start with
 An e.m.f. is induced in a wire when it is moved between magnetic poles. This can be seen by
connecting the wire to a voltmeter

● The expected results are...

1. When the wire is stationary, the voltmeter shows a zero reading

● When there is no relative motion between the wire and the magnetic field, no field lines are cut
● As a result, no e.m.f. is induced in the wire

2. As the wire is moved between the magnetic poles, there is a reading on the voltmeter

● As the wire moves, it cuts the magnetic field lines of the magnet
● This induces an e.m.f. in the wire, shown momentarily by the reading on the voltmeter

3. When the wire is moved back out of the magnet, there is a reading on the voltmeter with the
opposite sign

● As the wire changes direction, the direction of the current changes

● An e.m.f. is induced in the opposite direction, shown momentarily by the reading on the
voltmeter with the opposite sign
● Factors that will increase the induced e.m.f. are:
○ increasing the length of the wire
○ moving the wire between the magnets faster
○ increasing the strength of the magnets
Factors affecting electromagnetic induction
Factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.
1. The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:

● Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut
● This will increase the size of the induced e.m.f.

2. The number of turns on the coils in the wire:

● Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the wire will increase the size of the induced emf
● This is because each turn (loop) of wire in the coil cuts the magnetic field lines
● Therefore, the total induced e.m.f. increases with each additional turn (loop)

3. The size of the coils:

● Increasing the area of the coils will increase the size of the induced e.m.f.
● This is because there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field lines

4. The strength of the magnetic field:

● Increasing the strength of the magnetic field will increase the size of the induced e.m.f.
● This is because there will be more magnetic field lines in a given area

Factors affecting the direction of the induced e.m.f.

1. The orientation of the poles of the magnet:

● Switching the poles of the magnet induces an e.m.f. in the opposite direction

2. The direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:

● Reversing the direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved induces an e.m.f. in the
opposite direction
Simple a.c. generators

● An a.c. generator is a device which converts energy from motion into an electrical output
● An alternating e.m.f. is generated which causes an alternating current to flow
● A simple a.c. generator consists of
○ a rotating coil of wire between the poles of a permanent magnet
○ slip rings and brushes connected to an external circuit

Structure of a simple a.c. generator

A simple a.c. generator consists of a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to an external circuit
via slip rings and carbon brushes

● The functions of each component are shown in the table:

Table of components of a simple a.c. generator

Component Function

permanent magnet to provide a uniform magnetic field

 rotating coil to cut the magnetic field as it rotates and allow an induced current to flow

slip rings to allow the alternating current to flow between the coil and the external
circuit

carbon brushes to provide a good electrical connection between the coil and the external
circuit

Operation of an a.c. generator

● A rectangular coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field
● The coil is connected to an external circuit via slip rings and brushes
○ The induced emf in the coil can be measured by adding a galvanometer (centre-zero
meter) to the external circuit
● An e.m.f. is induced in the coil as it cuts the magnetic field
○ The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then back again
○ This indicates the size and direction of the emf is constantly changing
● As a result of the alternating e.m.f., an alternating current is also produced as the coil rotates

○ This continues as long as the coil keeps turning in the same direction

Motion of an a.c. generator

The size and direction of the induced e.m.f. (and current) depend on the orientation of the coil with
the field

● A maximum e.m.f. is induced when

 ○ the position of the coil is horizontal
○ the motion of the coil is perpendicular to the field
● This is because the greatest number of lines are cut when the coil is moving perpendicular to
the field
● No e.m.f. is induced when
○ the position of the coil is vertical
○ the motion of the coil is parallel to the field
● This is because no lines are cut when the coil is moving parallel to the field

Graphs for a.c. generators

● The output of an a.c. generator can be seen on a graph of e.m.f. against time, or angle of
rotation
● The shape of the graph is a sine or cosine curve, depending on the starting position of the coil
○ When it starts from a horizontal position (e.m.f. is at a maximum), the graph is a cosine
curve
○ When it starts from a vertical position (e.m.f. is zero), the graph is a sine curve

Graph of induced e.m.f. with angle for an a.c. generator

 Alternating e.m.f. with corresponding positions of the coil relative to the field

● When the coil is vertical at 0°

○ it is moving parallel to the direction of the magnetic field
○ the size of the induced e.m.f. is zero
● When the coil has rotated by 90°
○ it is now horizontal and moving perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
○ the size of the induced e.m.f. is at a maximum
● When the coil has rotated by 180°
○ it is vertical again and moving parallel to the direction of the magnetic field
○ the size of the induced e.m.f. is zero
● When the coil has rotated by 270°
 ○ it is horizontal again and moving perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
○ the size of the induced e.m.f. is at a maximum and in the opposite direction to its
position at 90°
● When the coil has completed a full 360° rotation
○ it is back at its starting point where it is moving parallel to the direction of the magnetic
field
○ the size of the induced e.m.f. is zero

Factor affecting a.c. generators

● The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. can be increased by:
○ increasing the frequency of rotation of the coil
○ increasing the number of turns on the coil
○ increasing the strength of the magnet
○ inserting a soft iron core into the coil

Structure of a transformer
● A transformer is a device used to change the size of an alternating voltage or current
○ This is achieved using the generator effect
● A basic transformer consists of:
○ a primary coil
○ a secondary coil
○ a soft iron core
● Iron is used because it is easily magnetised

Construction of a simple transformer

A simple transformer is made up of a primary coil and a secondary coil wound on a soft iron core
Step-up & step-down transformers
 ● A transformer consists of a primary and secondary coil
○ The primary coil is the first coil
○ The secondary coil is the second coil

Step-up transformer
● A step-up transformer:

○ increases the voltage of a power source

○ has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil

A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil which increases the size of the voltage

Step-down transformer
● A step-down transformer:

○ decreases the voltage of a power source

○ has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
A step-up transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil which decreases the size of the voltage

Operation of a transformer

● An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil

● The current is continually changing direction
○ This means it will produce a changing magnetic field around the primary coil
● The iron core is easily magnetized, so the changing magnetic field passes through it
● As a result, there is now a changing magnetic field inside the secondary coil
○ This changing field cuts through the secondary coil and induces an emf (voltage)
● As the magnetic field is continually changing, the induced emf will be alternating
○ The alternating emf will have the same frequency as the alternating current supplied to
the primary coil
● If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause an alternating current to flow

Transformer calculations
● The voltages across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer can be calculated using
the transformer equation, which states

The ratio of the voltages across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer is equal to the ratio
of the number of turns on each coil

● It can be expressed by the equation:

 ● It can be expressed in symbols as follows:

● Where
○ Vp = voltage across the primary coil, in volts (V)
○ Vs = voltage across the secondary coil, in volts (V)
○ Np = number of turns on the primary coil
○ Ns = number of turns on the secondary coil
● The transformer equation can be flipped upside down to give:

● Rearranging for the secondary voltage:

● This equation shows that the output (secondary) voltage of a transformer depends on:
○ the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
○ the input (primary) voltage

● In a step-up transformer, and

● In a step-down transformer, and

Worked Example
A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 800 turns on the secondary coil. The voltage
across the primary coil is 500 V.

a) Calculate the output voltage of the secondary coil.

b) State whether this is a step-up or step-down transformer.

Answer

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities

 ● Number of turns on the primary coil, Np = 20
● Number of turns on the secondary coil, Ns = 800
● Voltage across the primary coil, Vp = 500 V

Step 2: Write down the transformer equation

● There will be less rearranging to do if Vs is on the top of the fraction

Step 3: Rearrange the equation to make Vs the subject

Step 4: Substitute the known values into the equation

Part (b)

● The secondary voltage is larger than the primary,

● There are more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary,
● Therefore, this is a step-up transformer

Ideal transformer equation

● A transformer which is 100% efficient is called an ideal transformer
● Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to the law of
conservation of energy, they cannot increase the power output
● If a transformer is 100% efficient, then the input power in the primary coil is equal to the output
power of the secondary coil:

● The equation to calculate electrical power is:

P=VxI

● Where:
○ P = power, in watts (W)
○ V = voltage, in volts (V)
 ○ I = current, in amps (A)
● Therefore, the equation for an ideal transformer is:

Ip Vp = Is Vs

● Where:
○ Ip = primary current, in amps (A)
○ Vp = primary voltage, in volts (V)
○ Is = secondary current, in amps (A)
○ Vs = secondary voltage, in volts (V)
● The equation above could also be written as a ratio:

Worked Example
A transformer in a travel adapter steps up a 115 V a.c. mains electricity supply to the 230 V needed
for a hair dryer. A current of 5 A flows through the hairdryer.

Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the current drawn from the mains supply.

Answer:

Step 1: List the known quantities

● Voltage in primary coil, Vp = 115 V

● Voltage in secondary coil, Vs = 230 V
● Current in secondary coil, Is = 5 A

Step 2: Write down the equation for an ideal transformer

Vp Ip = Vs Is

Step 3: Substitute in the known values

115 x Ip = 230 x 5

Step 4: Rearrange the equation to find the primary current

Ip = 230 x 5/115

Ip = 10 A

High-voltage transmission
● Electricity is transmitted through power cables at a low current to prevent dissipation of energy
○ When current flows in a wire, there is heating in the wire due to resistance
 ○ Therefore, energy is dissipated to the surroundings, this energy is wasted
○ The lower the current, the more efficient the energy transfer
● Electrical power is equal to voltage × current, or P = IV
● This means that a low current can be achieved by increasing the voltage, so electricity must be
transmitted at a high voltage
○ A smaller current flowing through the power lines results in less heat being produced
in the wire
○ This reduces the energy loss in the power lines
● The key advantages of high-voltage transmission of electricity are:
○ the reduced power loss in transmission cables increases the efficiency of energy
transfer
○ lower currents in cables mean thinner, and therefore, cheaper cables can be used

Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, reducing the current and hence power loss in the cables
using transformers
Calculating power losses

● The power dissipated in the wire due to resistance is given by:

● Where:
○ P = power, in watts (W)
○ I = current, in amps (A)
○ R = resistance, in ohms (Ω)
● A step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage and decrease the current of electricity
before transmission
○ A high-voltage transmission ensures the same power transfer with a smaller current
 ○ A smaller current means less thermal energy will be lost due to the resistance in the
wire
● A step-down transformer is used to decrease the voltage and increase the current of electricity
after transmission

○ High-voltage electricity is dangerous for use in homes, so it must be lowered before the
current reaches consumers