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Discrete Mathematics
Predicates and Quantifiers

Predicates

Propositional logic is not enough to express the meaning of all statements in mathematics
and natural language.

Examples:
Is “𝑥 > 1” True or False?

Is “𝑥 is a great tennis player” True or False?

Predicate Logic
 Variables: 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, etc.
 Predicates: 𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥), etc.
 Quantifiers: Universal and Existential.
 Connectives from propositional logic carry over to predicate logic.

A predicate 𝑃(𝑥) is a declarative sentence whose truth value depends on one or more
variables.

𝑃(𝑥) is also said to be the value of the propositional function 𝑃 at 𝑥.

𝑃(𝑥) becomes a proposition when a value of 𝑥 is assigned from the domain 𝑈.

Examples (Propositional Functions):

1. Let 𝑃(𝑥) be “𝑥 ≥ 1.” Determine the truth value of

a. 𝑃(2) b. 𝑃(−2) → 𝑃(1)

2. Let 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be “𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑧.” Find these truth values:

a. 𝑅(2, −1, 5) b. 𝑅(𝑥, 3, 𝑧)

© 2020, I. Perepelitsa
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Quantifiers

We need quantifiers to express the meaning of English words including all and some:

 “All students in this class are computer science majors”

 “There is a math major student in this class”

The two most important quantifiers are:

 Universal Quantifier, “For all,” symbol: ∀

 Existential Quantifier, “There exists,” symbol: ∃

We write as in ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) and ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).

 ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) asserts 𝑃(𝑥) is true for every 𝑥 in the domain.

If = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } , then ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑥1 ) ∧ 𝑃(𝑥2 ) … ∧ 𝑃(𝑥𝑛 ).

 ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) asserts 𝑃(𝑥) is true for some 𝑥 in the domain.

If = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } , then ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑥1 ) ∨ 𝑃(𝑥2 ) … ∨ 𝑃(𝑥𝑛 ).

Examples:
1. Let 𝑃(𝑥): “𝑥 > −𝑥” with the domain of all positive real numbers.
Find the truth value of ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).

2. Let 𝑃(𝑥): “𝑥 > −𝑥” with the domain of all real numbers.
Find the truth value of ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥).

 The truth value of ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) and ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) depends BOTH on the propositional function
𝑃(𝑥) and on the domain 𝑈.

Quantifiers

Statement When True? When False?

∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑃(𝑥) is true for every 𝑥. There is an x for which

𝑃(𝑥) is false.
∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) There is an x for which 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑃(𝑥) is false for every 𝑥.
is true.

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Example: Suppose the domain of the propositional function 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 consists of

{1, 2, 3}. Write out each of the following propositions using conjunction or disjunction and
determine its truth value.
1. ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) 2. ∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)

An element for which 𝑃(𝑥) is false is called a counterexample of ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)

Precedence of Quantifiers

The quantifiers ∀ and ∃ have higher precedence than all the logical operators.

Example: ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) ∨ 𝑄(𝑥) means (∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)) ∨ 𝑄(𝑥). ∀𝑥 (𝑃(𝑥) ∨ 𝑄(𝑥)) means something
different.

Negating Quantifiers

De Morgan laws for quantifiers (the rules for negating quantifiers) are:

¬∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) ≡ ∃𝑥¬𝑃(𝑥)

¬∃𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) ≡ ∀𝑥¬ 𝑃(𝑥)

Example: Express each of these statements using quantifiers. Then form a negation of the
statement, so that no negation is left of a quantifier. Next, express the negation in simple
English.

1. “Some old dogs can learn new tricks.”

© 2020, I. Perepelitsa
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2. “Every bird can fly.”

3. ∀𝑥(𝑥 2 > 𝑥)

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Translating from English into Logical Expressions

Examples: Translate the statements into the logical symbols. Let 𝑥 be in set of all students
in this class.
1. Someone in your class can speak Hindi.
2. Everyone in your class is friendly.
3. There is a student in your class who was not born in California.

𝐻(𝑥) = “ 𝑥 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑠 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖”, 𝐹(𝑥) = “ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑦, ” 𝐶(𝑥) = “ 𝑥 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑎. ”

Example: Translate the following sentence into predicate logic and give its negation:
“Every student in this class has taken a course in Java.”
Solution:
First, decide on the domain U!
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, define a propositional function J(x)
denoting “x has taken a course in Java” and translate as

Solution 2: But if U is all people, also define a propositional function S(x) denoting “x
is a student in this class” and translate as

© 2020, I. Perepelitsa
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Example: Translate the following sentence into predicate logic:

“Some student in this class has taken a course in Java.”
Solution:
First, decide on the domain U!
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, translate as

Solution 2: But if U is all people, then translate as

© 2020, I. Perepelitsa
 Methods of Proof
A proof is a logical argument that establishes the truth of a mathematical statement.

When we wish to prove an implication p -> q, we use different strategies depending on the nature of

p and q.

Below are various methods of proof commonly used in mathematics.

Types of Proofs

1. Trivial Proof
Idea: If q is true, then p -> q is true regardless of the truth value of p.
Example: Prove that if x > 0, then x^2 + 1 > 0.
Since x^2 + 1 > 0 is always true, p -> q holds trivially.

2.Vacuous Proof
Idea: If p is false (or p is a conjunction of hypotheses, one of which is false)

then p -> q is vacuously true regardless of q.

Example: Prove that if x < 0 and x > 0, then x^2 < 0.

The hypothesis x < 0 and x > 0 is contradictory, so p is false, making p -> q

vacuously true.

3.Direct Proof

Idea: Assume p is true and logically deduce q using axioms, definitions, and rules of inference.
Example: Prove that if n is even, then n^2 is even.
Assume n = 2k (definition of even).
Then n^2 = (2k)^2 = 4k^2 = 2(2k^2), which is even.
4. Proof by Contradiction (Indirect Proof)

Idea: Assume p is true and q is false (not q). Derive a contradiction r and not r, proving p -> q must

hold.

5. Proof by Contrapositive
6. Proof by Cases

Idea: Break p into cases p1, p2, ..., pk, and prove pi -> q for each case.

Example: Prove that |x| = x if x ≥ 0 and |x| = -x if x < 0.

1. Case 1: x ≥ 0. Then |x| = x by definition.

2. Case 2: x < 0. Then |x| = -x by definition.

 Tutorial sheets

1. A student passes the exam if:

"They score at least 40 marks in theory and at least 30 marks in practicals."

(a) Represent this statement using logic symbols.

(b) Write the negation of this statement.
(c) What does the negation imply in a real-world scenario?

2. Construct the truth table for the compound proposition: (p ∨ q) → (¬ p ∧ q).Determine whether the
statement is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency

3. Prove or disprove the equivalence: (P∨Q)∧(¬P∨Q)≡Q

4. Construct the truth table for the following propositions and determine if they are logically
equivalent:

(p ∨ ¬q)∧( ¬p ∨ q) and p↔q.

5. A student passes the exam if: "They score at least 40 marks in theory and at least 30 marks
in practicals."

(a) Represent this statement using logic symbols.

(b) Write the negation of this statement.
(c) What does the negation imply in a real-world scenario?

6. A phone manual states: "If the phone is fully charged, then the charging indicator turns
off."

(a) Write the converse of this statement.

(b) Write the contrapositive of this statement.
(c) Is the contrapositive necessarily true?

7.Find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the statement:

"If a number is divisible by 6, then it is divisible by 3."

8. A company policy states: “If an employee works 100 hours per week, they get extra
leave.” However, no employee works 100 hours per week. Is this statement vacuously true?
Explain.

9. Provide a counterexample to disprove the statement: "If a and b are even, then ab is
divisible by 8."

10. A student claims: “If is a multiple of 4, then n is a multiple of 4.”

Provide a counterexample to disprove this claim.

11. Prove using direct proof: The sum of two odd integers is even.
12.Disprove the following statements using a counterexample:
For any prime number p, p+2 is prime number.
If is even, then both a and b must be even.