DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCE

NEIL GOGTE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(A Unit of Keshav Memorial Technical Educational Society)
Kachavanisingaram (Vill), Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad.

1|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 NEIL GOGTE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A UNIT OF KESHAV MEMORIAL TECHNICAL EDUCATONAL SOCIETY)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Osmania University, Hyderabad)
KACHAWANISINGARAM(VIL), PARVATHAPUR, UPPAL, HYDERABAD

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

B.E – I & II Semesters

Name: ____________________________________
Hall Ticket No.__________________________
Branch: ______________ Section___________

___________________________________________
OBSERVATION CUM LAB MANUAL
(2024-25)

2|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 NEIL GOGTE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A UNIT OF KESHAV MEMORIAL TECHNICALEDUCATONAL SOCIETY)
KACHAWANISINGARAM (VIL), PARVATHAPUR, UPPAL, HYDERABAD

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
B.E – I/II - Semester

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

With effect from the Academic Year 2024-25

Lab Course Objectives and Outcomes

Course Objectives Course Outcomes
Students are able to  Conduct experiments, take
 Make precise measurements using measurements independently.
basic physical principles and  Write appropriate laboratory reports.
acquire skills to handle the  Compute and compare the
instruments experimental results and draw
 Relates the theoretical Knowledge relevant conclusions.
to the behavior of Practical Physical  Use the graphical representation of
world. data and estimate results from graphs
 Analyze errors in the experimental
data.
 Plot graphs between various
physical parameters.

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENTS BEFORE COMING TO THE LAB

i. The student should come to the lab on time and stay the entire duration in the lab.
ii. Before coming to the lab session student should read the theory behind the experiment
and carefully follow the instructions given - otherwise student misses the opportunity of
learning all aspects of the experiment.
iii. The student must bring with him/her manual, observation note book, pen, pencil, eraser,
scale, scientific calculator, graph sheets in every lab class.
iv. Aim, Apparatus, formula, tabular form and precautions should be written in the
observation note book before coming to each class.
v. After allotment of the experiment, he /she should go to respective the experiment work
bench and listen carefully to the instructor and the demonstration.
vi. After the explanation students shall start doing the experiment on his/her own and the
observations have to be recorded in a proper format in the observation note book.
vii. Every student should maintain his/her own observation note book.
viii. Handle the apparatus carefully.
ix. After taking the observations, the student should do necessary calculations with pen and
plot the necessary graph with pencil.
x. Do not hesitate to ask doubts and clarify from concerned faculty member during the lab
session.
3|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book
 xi. Each graph should occupy one complete sheet with proper information of the quantities
chosen to plot the graph (on X and Y axis), scale chosen and units should be clearly
mentioned on graph paper with ink.
xii. Smooth curve should be drawn joining the different points of the graph paper.
xiii. Final result is calculated and recorded indicating the units and exponents.
xiv. The student should do the calculations and graphs and get them corrected by the
concerned faculty member on the same day otherwise his/her record will not be corrected
later.
xv. The student should understand the physical principle involved in the experiment while
doing the experiment and should consult the instructor in case of any doubt.
xvi. The student should answer the quiz type of questions (Viva-Voce) while doing the
experiment or at the end of the experiment.
xvii. If the student do not come prepared for the lab, he/she will not be able to answer, thus
loses the marks.
xviii. Once the instructor says RECORD, the student can record the experiment in proper format
in the record sheets and submit it in the same/next class .Unless the record is submitted no
experiment will be allotted in the next class.

ASSESSSMENT AND EVALUATION

Each experiment is evaluated for 15 Marks and the breakup of the marks is given below

1. Write –up format : 5 Marks

2. Experimental observation ,Calculations & Graphs: 5 Marks
3. Results & Viva-Voce questions : 2+3 Marks

While S.No.1 is assessed at the time of submission of the record, S.No 2 and 3 are assessed during
the lab session itself. Hence if the student is absent for any experiment but completes it in
another session and subsequently submits the record, it will be evaluated for a score of 5 marks
only.

1. Write-up format: It contains aim, apparatus ,material requirement ,theory, procedure of

the experiment, sketch of experimental setup, circuit diagram, neat tabular columns,
precautions taken while doing the experiment –shall be presented in neat, clear and
organized manner.

2. Experimental observations and calculations: Experimental observations and calculations

are to be recorded in neatly prepared table with correct units and exponents . One sample
calculations is explained by substitution of values

3. Graphs and Results: Results should be obtained without much error i.e within the
experimental errors. Graphs should be drawn neatly with labeling of axis and units.
Calculations from graph are to be shown clearly.

4. Viva-Voce questions: Results are to discussed and justified if any error occurs. Relevant
theoretical and experimental questions to be answered.

4|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 NEIL GOGTE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A UNIT OF KESHAV MEMORIAL TECHNICALEDUCATONAL SOCIETY)
KACHAWANISINGARAM(VIL), PARVATHAPUR, UPPAL, HYDERABAD

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
INDEX SHEET

Name of the Student:

Hall Ticket Number: Academic Year: 2024-25
Program: B.E. Branch:
Section: Semester:

S.No Title of the Date MARKS Page Signature

experiment Conducted Submitted A B C D No. of
5M 5M 5M 15M Faculty
1

10

Marks
A: Write-up- 5M B: Observations calculations & Graphs -5M
C: Results & Viva-Voce questions -5M D: Total -15M

5|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 Signature of the Faculty
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

FOR B.E. - I & II SEMESTERS

1. To draw the B-H curve and to find out i) Coercivity ii) Retentivity and iii) Hysteresis loss.

2. To draw the I – V Characteristics of P-N Junction diode and to evaluate the value of
potential barrier of the diode.

3. Torsion pendulum- Determination of rigidity of modulus of a wire

4. To determine the constants of A, B and α using Thermistor characteristics.

5. Determination of wavelength of a given laser

6. To calculate numerical Aperture and critical angle of an optical fiber

7. I - V Characteristics of a solar cell.

8. Hall Effect- determination of carrier concentration, Mobility and Hall Coefficient of Ge

crystal

9. Four probe method - To find the energy gap of Ge crystal.

10. To determine the Dielectric constant and Phase transition temperature of Lead Zirconium
Titanate (PZT).

*Minimum 8 experiments should perform

6|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 1. B-H Curve
Aim: To draw B-H curve between the magnetizing field (H) and Magnetic Induction (B) of the
specimen and to find Coercivity (Hc), Remanence (Br) and Hysteresis loss.
Apparatus: Deflection Magnetometer (DM), A wooden bench with sliding magnetizing coil
(Solenoid) and a compensating coil, DC power supply, a Rheostat, a commutator,
plug key, iron rod specimen and ammeter.
B - Battery
RP
K - Plug Key, P - Commutator
S - Solenoid,DM - Deflection Magnetometer
CC - Compensating Coil, A - Ammeter, RP - Rheostat

Procedure:
1. Remove all magnets / magnetizing materials form the vicinity of the magnetometer.
2. Keep the deflection magnetometer in Tan A position so that the arms are in the East and west
direction. Aluminum pointer is made parallel to the arms of DM. Set the aluminum pointer to
read 0-0 and make the circuit connection as shown.
2(a) Plug in all four keys of the commutator and connect the circuit as shown in the circuit
diagram.
3. Without placing the specimen rod in the solenoid, close the circuit and increase the current
gradually up to 3amp.
3(a) Demagnetize the given sample ferromagnetic rod (iron rod) by gently hitting or dropping
down
4. Place the un-magnetized specimen in the solenoid and switch on the power supply.
5. Remove two opposite keys in the commutator.
6. With minimum current, note the readings at the two ends of the aluminum pointer in the DM
without parallax error as θ1 and θ2.
7. Increase the current by using Rheostat in steps of 0.25 amps until the maximum current is
reached. At each step note the readings in DM in the tabular form 1
8. Now decrease the current from the maximum value in steps of 0.25 amps till it reaches the
minimum current, and note the readings in DM. in the table 2
9. Change the positions of the keys in the commutator so that the direction of the current flow
gets reversed.
10. Repeat the whole process of increasing and decreasing of current and the readings are
tabulated in the tabular forms 3 and 4 respectively.
11. Again reverse the direction of current by changing the positions of the keys in the commutator.
12. Now increase the current, note the readings in DM, and enter the readings table 5.
13. The relation between the magnetic fled H, magnetization I and magnetic induction B is given
by B= µ0(H+I).

7|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

Graph:
Now plot a graph taking current (I) on x-axis and tanθ on y-axis. It looks like loop called
hysteresis loop or BH curve. The area under the curve gives energy loss.
Formulae:
1. H = 4πnI/10(Amps) = K1I Amp/meter.
Where K1 = 4πn/10
n = No. of turns/cm. in the solenoid =10 turns/cm.
2. The magnetic induction is given by:

= K2. tan

l = 5/12 of the geometric length of the specimen = ……………... cm

d = distance between center of solenoid, to center of DM = ……..…… cm
He = Horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field = 3.024x10-5Amp-turn/m
a = Area of cross-section of the specimen = ………………….. cm2
Observations:
Table: Forward direction: Increasing Current
Deflection
Current (I)
S. No. Mean Tan
Amperes 1 2

Table: 2: Forward direction: Decreasing current

Deflection
Current (I)
S. No. Mean Tan
Amperes 1 2

8|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

Table:3: Reverse Direction: Increasing current

Current (I) Deflection

S. No. Tan
Amperes 1 2 Mean

Table:4: Reverse Direction: Decreasing current

Current (I) Deflection
S. No. Tan
Amperes 1 2 Mean

Table:5 Forward Direction: Increasing current

Current (I) Deflection
S. No. Tan
Amperes 1 2 Mean

CALCULATIONS:

From the plot calculate the following parameters using the formulae given above:
1. Coercivity (Hc) = K2. OA (from graph) amp/meter.
2. Remanence (Ir) = K1 x OB (from graph) web/m2
3. Hysteresis loss = K1 x K2 x Area under the BH Curve- Joules

9|Page Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 Tan
B

A
O

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Demagnetize the specimen before use. This could be done by heating it or by repeatedly
allowing it to fall on the ground from a height.
2. Once the cycle of magnetization starts increase / decrease the current continuously.
3. The cycle consists of five segments. Complete them before you stop your observations.
4. Keep the points on graph carefully for the 3rd quarter and 5th quarter

Result
1. Coercivity (Hc) =
2. Remanence (Ir) =
3. Hysteresis loss =
Signature of the faculty
Viva questions
1. What is TanA position?
2. Distinguish between B and H?
3. What is tangent law in magnetism?
4. What is the function of compensating coil?
5. What is the specimen used in the experiment?
6. What is meant by retentivity?
7. What is coercivity?
8. What is the physical significance of Hysteresis loss?
9. What are eddy currents?
10. What is the difference between soft and hard materials?

2. P-N JUNCTION DIODE

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 VOLT - AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To study volt-ampere characteristics and to determine forward and reverse resistances of p-
n junction diode.
APPARATUS: PN junction diode board, voltmeter, milli-ammeter, micro-ammeter, power supply
and connecting wires.
DESCRIPTION: The built-in PN junction diode kit consist a junction diode, a power supply, a
milliand micro ammeter and a voltmeter.
PRINCIPLE:
FORWARD BIAS: When the PN junction is forward biased i.e., positive terminal of the battery is
connected to p – type and negative terminal to the n-type material, the holes from p-type and
electrons from n-type are repelled by positive and negative terminals respectively and push them
towards the junction. As a result, current passes across the junction. The resistance offered by the
diode in forward is very less in the order of few ohms.
REVERSE BIAS: When the PN junction is reverse biased i.e., positive terminal of the battery is
connected to n–type and negative terminal to the p-type of junction diode. The holes from p-type
and electrons from n– type are attracted towards negative and positive terminals of the battery
respectively and as a result no current flows across the diode. But a current in the order of few
micro amps known as reverse saturation current flows across the junction and it is due to
minority carriers present in the p – type and n-type materials. The resistance offered is very high
and it is in the order of few kilo ohms.
PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS: Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1. Keep the ammeter in to the milli
ampere range and voltmeter (0-2 V). Switch on the power supply and vary the voltage in steps of
0.1V by using potentiometer. The corresponding current values in the ammeter are noted. The
readings are tabulated in the tabular form.
REVERSE BIAS: Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2. Keep the ammeter in to the micro
ampere range and voltmeter (0-20V). Again the power supply is switched on and the voltage is
varied in steps of 0.5V. The corresponding current values in the ammeter are noted and readings
are tabulated in the tabular form.

I(mA)

I R
1

V
Slope I
GRAPH: V

11 | P a g e P h y s i c s L a b o r a t o r y M a n u a l C u m O b s e r v a t i o n b o o kV

A
 A graph is drawn between voltage (V)
and current (I) taking along x - axis and
y-axis respectively. The resistance is
determined in both forward and
reverse biasing conditions by finding
reciprocal of slope of the curve in the
linear region.

TABULAR FORM:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Voltage Current Voltage Current
S. No. S. No.
(Volt) (mA) (Volt) (A)

RESULT:

Forward Resistance of diode ________________ Ω.

Reverse Resistance of diode ________________ Ω.

Signature of the Faculty

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The readings are noted without parallax error.
2. Connections are to be made properly and gently.
12 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book
 3. All connections should be tight.
4. Apply voltage as per the specifications of the diode.
VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semiconductors?

2. What is the difference between p-type and n-type of materials?
3. Explain how a barrier is formed at the junction?
4. What is forbidden energy gap?
5. What is the action of a p-n junction diode?
6. What is the difference between forward and reverse bias?
7. What are the important applications of p-n junction diode?
8. In the forward bias why is the graph not a straight line in the initial stages?
9. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
10. Give examples for p-type and n-type extrinsic semiconductor?
11. Si doped with phosphorous gives which type of semiconductor?
12. Si doped with gallium gives which type of semiconductor?
13. Sketch the variation of Fermi level with temperature in case of p and n type
semiconductors?
14. Draw the band scheme of a p-n junction in equilibrium?
15. Briefly explain the experimental arrangement?
16. Draw the symbol of P-N junction diode.
17. Give any one use of P-N junction diode?
18. What is the difference between p-n junction diode and LED?
19. What is rectification? Name the device used to achieve it?
20. How to identify the n and p regions of practical diode?

3. RIGIDITY MODULUS –TORSIONAL PENDULUM

Aim
13 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book
1. To determine the time period of Torsional Pendulum.
2. To determine the rigidity modulus (η) of the material of the given wire using a Torsional pendulum.

Apparatus:

1. Metal disc with chuck nuts

2. Steel or Brass Wire or Copper Wire
3. Stop Watch
4. Measuring Tape
5. Vernier Calipers
6. Screw Gauge

Diagram:

Description:

Torsional pendulum consists of a uniform circular metal disc of about 12 cm diameter with 1cm thickness,
suspended by a wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined, at the centre of the disc as shown in
figure 1. The lower end of the wire is gripped into the chuck at the centre of the disc and upper end is
gripped into another chuck, which is fixed to a wall bracket.

Theory:

At the equilibrium position of the disc a radial line is drawn from the centre to ‘P’, as shown in figure 1.
When the disc is rotated through a small angle in horizontal plane to the radial position ‘Q’, the wire gets
twisted. The twisted wire will exert a torque on the disc tending to return to its original position ‘P’. This is
the restoring torque (τ). For small twists, the restoring torque is proportional to the amount of twist or the
angular displacement (Hooke’s law) so that

τ = - Cθ -------------- (1)

Where C is called torsional constant. The – ve sign shows that the torque is directed opposite to the angular
displacement θ. When the disc is turned through a small angle in horizontal plane, it makes oscillations
about the axis of the wire. The time period of oscillations is given by
14 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book
 -------------- (2)

Where ‘I’ is moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of rotation and ‘C' is couple per unit twist of the
wire. If ‘a’ is the radius of the wire, ‘l’ is the length of wire between chucks and ‘η’ is the rigidity modulus of
the material of the wire,

Then the couple ‘C’ per unit twist of wire is given by

-------------- (3)

Squaring equation (2) we get

Or
-------------- (4)

Equating equations (3) & (4) we have

Or

-------------- (5)

The moment of inertia, ‘I’ of a circular disc whose geometric axis coincides with the axis of rotation is given
by

-------------- (6)

Where ‘M’ is mass of the disc

‘R’ is radius of the disc
Substituting the value of I from equation (6) in (5) we get

dynes/cm2 -------------- (7)

Procedure:

1. The disc is set to oscillate by slowly turning the disc through a small angle.

15 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

2. When the disc is oscillating, the time taken for 10 oscillations is noted with the help of stop watch
and record in the table 1 as trial 1.
3. This procedure is repeated for the same length of the wire and again time taken for 10 oscillations is
noted and record in the table1 as trial 2.
4. From trial 1 and trial 2, the mean time for 10 oscillations is obtained. The time period (T), i.e. The time
taken for one oscillation is calculated.
5. The experiment is repeated by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of 10 cm and the
results are tabulated in table.
6. The radius of the wire ‘a’ is to be found accurately with the help of a screw gauge since any error in the
measurement of the radius the error in the answer for η is magnified to the power of four.
7. The radius and the mass of the disc are found with a vernier calipers and a rough balance.
8. l vs T2 graph is drawn and l/ T2 value is extrapolated from the graph and substituted in the equation 7.

Observations:

Mass of the disc (M) = gm.

Radius of the disc (R) = …………..cm.
Radius of the wire (a) = …………..cm

Table 1 :

To determine the time period (T2)

Time taken for 10 oscillations Time

Length of (sec) period L/ T2
S.No. the wire T=t/10
L(cm) Trial 1 Trial 2 Average(t) T2 (sec2)
(t1) (t2) t=t1+t2/2 (sec)

Average L/T2

Expected Graph :

16 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

A graph is drawn with l on the X-axis and T2 on the Y-axis. It will be linear as shown in figure and find the
value of l/T2 from the graph and substitute in the formula.

T2 (sec2)

L( cm)

Table 2:
To measure the radius of the disc with Vernier Calipers.
Least Count of Vernier Calipers 0.1mm = 0.01cm
Radius of the disc (R) = …………..cm

Vernier scale
Main scale reading [MSR] Total reading =
S No reading(V.S.R)
(cm) MSR +( VSR x L.C) (cm)

3: To measure the radius of the wire with screw gauge

Least count of screw gauge is = 0.01 mm =0.001 cm
Radius of the wire (a) = …………..cm
Error: Correction:

Pitch
scale Head scale
Corrected HSR= Total reading
reading reading [HSR]
[HSR + Correction] PSR +( CHSR x L.C) (cm)
[PSR]
(cm)

Calculations:

17 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

Result:

The rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire (η) is ……………………dynes/cm2

Precautions:

1. The wire should be free from kinks.

2. The disc should not wobble.
Precautions

1. The wire should not contain any kinks.

2. The readings are noted without parallax error.
3. The disc is rotated only by small angle.
4. There should not be any up and down and lateral movement of the disc

Signature of the Faculty

Viva Questions

1. Define rigidity modulus?

2. What are Torsional oscillations?
3. What is a couple? Where it is produced here?
4. For what are you finding rigidity modulus?
5. What is the twist of the wire produced?
6. What is the unit of rigidity modulus?
7. What is stress and Strain?
8. Define modulus of elasticity
9. Define Hooke’s law
10. What is Young’s Modulus?

4. THERMISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
18 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book
AIM: To Study of characteristics of a thermistor and evaluate the temperature coefficient of
resistance.
APPARATUS:Thermistor, dc voltage source, micro and milli ammeters, oven, and a thermometer.
DESCRIPTION: It consists of a built in thermistor circuit with a facility to heat to various
temperatures. It also consists micro and milliammeters for measurement of currents for given
voltages.
PRINCIPLE: It is a semiconductor device having holes and electrons as charge carriers. When the
temperature increases due to thermal energy new hole-electron pairs are generated by breaking
the covalent bonds. As a result the conductivity of thermistor increases and thereby resistivity
decreases. Hence, its temperature coefficient of resistance is negative.
FORMULA:
R = A exp[ B / T ]
Where A and B are constants which depend upon size, mode of mounting and material of
themistor. The temperature coefficient of resistance  is given as
 = 1/ R [ dR/ dT]
It can be written as
 = - B / T2
The above formula can be rewritten as
Loge R = loge A + B / T
PROCEDURE:
1. The oven is disconnected from the circuit and the thermistor circuit is made ON.
2. Set a constant dc voltage by adjusting the knob of the source, the current in the circuit is
measured with dc milli ammeter.
3. This gives the resistance of the thermistor at room temperature.
4. Now the oven supply is connected and the thermistor is heated.
5. Note the current readings in an interval of temperatures at every 5 0 c up to 800c.
6. Now again the oven supply is disconnected and the current readings are noted while the
temperature is decreasing in the same steps.
7. The procedure is repeated for different values of voltages

CIRCUIT DAIGRAM:

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GRAPH:

1. A plot is drawn by taking the temperature along x-axis and resistance along y-axis. The graph
shows an exponential decrease of resistance with increase of temperature.

T
2. A Graph is drawn by taking 1/T on the x-axis and log e R on the y-axis. The graph obtained is a
straight line with negative intercept on y axis. The slope gives the value of constant B and the
negative intercept on y axis is noted. The inverse logarithm of this intercept gives the constant
A

Loge R

I/T

CALCULATIONS:

Constant A obtained from the graph =

Constant B obtained from the graph =
The value of  =-B/T2

TABULAR FORMS

20 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 S. No Temperature Current (I) Resistance ( R) ohm 1/T (K-1) Loge R
o
C (K)
80

Table 2.
S.No Temp I at 4V I at 6V

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The current readings are measured while the temperature is kept constant.
2. The values are observed without parallax error.

RESULT:
1. Thermistor characteristics are studied & constants A ____________and B ______________.
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance_______________

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is thermistor?
2. How is different to a semi-conductor?
3. How does the resistance vary for a thermistor?
4. Write the formula.
5. What are thermistor coefficients? Explain their physical significance.
5. SEMICONDUCTOR LASER

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 DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH

Aim: Determination of the wavelength of given semiconductor laser source.

Apparatus: Laser source, diffraction grating, screen and a scale.
Description: The apparatus consists of a semiconductor laser source mounted on a stand. A
grating consisting of N (number of lines per cm) is mounted on another stand, such that both the
source and grating are at same height. It also consists of a screen on which the diffraction pattern
is obtained.
Principle: The wavelength of the laser can be determined by using the principle of diffraction due
to N slits. When light rays are incident on a grating, a diffraction pattern of maxima and minima
intensity will be observed on the screen with diminished intensity with increasing orders.
Formula:

cm

Where ° is diffraction angle (Degree)

 is wavelength of the laser (cm)
N is the number of lines per cm.
n is the order of the spectrum.
Procedure:

1. Arrange the laser source and grating on the given stands at the same height.

2. Focus the laser beam on the grating and observe the spectrum on the screen.

3. Measure the distance between the screen and the grating (d).

4. Measure the distance between the corresponding maxima of the same order (2x), on either
side of the central spot.

5. The angle of diffraction () is calculated as tan –1 [x / d].

6. The experiment is repeated for various values of d and for different orders. The readings are
tabulated in the tabular form.

7. In each case the wavelength is calculated using the formula and an average wavelength is
estimated and expressed it in Ao

Graph:

22 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 A graph is plotted between X and D for a given order. A straight line is obtained .The slope of the
line gives tan i.e slope = tan or = tan-1 (slope).

n=4
x n=3

n=2
n=1

D
TABULAR FORM:
Distance
Distance between
between
S. corresponding x
Order screen and Tan = x / d =Tan1(x/d) Sin
No. maxima (2x) (cm)
grating (d) (cm)
(cm)
(cm)
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Result:
The wavelength of the given semiconductor laser is _______ cm and _________ Ao
23 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book
 Signature of the Faculty

Precautions:
1. Do not view the laser beam through naked eye.
2. The measurements are made accurately without parallax.
Viva Questions

1. Expand LASER
2. Which property of light is used for amplification of laser?
3. What is stimulated emission?
4. What are the characteristics of laser light?
5. Explain the coherence?
6. What is meant by meta stable state?
7. What are the main components of a laser system?
8. Explain the population inversion and pumping processes
9. What do you mean by optical resonator and what is its function?
10. Explain the working of He-Ne gas laser?
11. Explain the working of semiconductor laser?
12. Give an example of the material used in the semiconductor laser
13. What is electro-luminescence?
14. What is an optical grating?
15. Mention the uses of laser?
16. Point out differences between different types lasers viz,. He-Ne, Ruby, Semiconductor
lasers?
17. Bar codes are read by using which type of laser?
18. What is the difference between laser light and ordinary light?
19. What is similarity between ordinary light and laser light?

6. OPTICAL FIBER
24 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book
AIM: To determine the (1) Numerical aperture (NA). (2) Acceptance angle (max), (3) Power loss
due to bending of an optical fiber.
APPARATUS:Optical Fiber kit, Numerical Aperture Jig, scaled screen, , one meter optical fiber
cable.
PRINCIPLE & FORMULA:
1. THE NUMERICAL APERTURE (N.A.) of an optical fiber (step index) is given by
N.A. = (N2core - N2clad) ½
= Sin (max)
max = Sin-1 (N.A.) __________ __ (1)
ncore = refractive index of core material of optical fiber
nclad = refractive index of cladding of optical fiber
max = Acceptance angle
As shown in the figure, light from one end of the optical fiber ‘A’ falls on the screen BD. Let the

diameter of light spot falling on the screen BD = W, Let the distance between the end of the fiber

and the screen AO = L

N.A. = W / (4L2 + W2) ½

Knowing W and L, numerical aperture (NA) can be calculated from the above formula.

2. ACCEPTANCE ANGLE ‘MAX: Substituting N.A. value in equation (1), acceptance angle ‘max’. can
be obtained using the formula given below
max = Sin-1 (N.A.) 1711111 17

PART-I: MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

1. Connect one end of the cable to the 660nm LED and the other end to the NA jig

25 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

2. Plug the AC mains
3. Turn the Po knobin clockwise direction to set maximum PO. The light intensity should increase
at the end of the fiber on the NA jig.
4. Now adjust the screen on the white scale such that red light falls clearly on the fixed diameter
(say 10mm) on the screen and note down the corresponding length. Repeat the experiment
with different diameters and note down the corresponding values
5. Calculate the Numerical aperture and the Acceptance angle with the values using the above
formulas

S. No. L (mm) W (mm) N.A. Θ max

1
2
3
Average

PART-II : MEASUREMENT OF LOSSES

Loss of power in fiber optic fibre is mainly due to absorption or scattering of light within the
optical fiber. The losses are may be due to (i) macro bending (ii) micro bending (iii) adaptor losses
(joints between cables). This loss of power ‘P’ from input (Pi) to output (Po) after propagating a
distance ‘L’, can be written as
Po = Pie-αL
Where α is attenuation coefficient in decibels (dB) per unit length. (Generally dB/m)
α= 10log10 [Pi / Po]) / L
where L is the length of the optical fiber cable

1. Connect the power cords of fiber optics unit to AC mains.

2. Connect the +ve and –ve terminal of M2 to milliammeter.
3. Relieve all the twists and strain in the 1 meter fiber cable.
4. Connect one end of the cable to the RED LED and other end to the connecter marked PIN
DIODE
5. Switch of the unit .Set the power adjustable pot PO such that the optical power meter
reads(say) 3 µw. Note this as PO1 in the table
6. Wing one turn of the fiber on the mandrel hold it firmly and note the readings of the power
meter as PO2
7. Now loss due to bending is PO1 – PO2
8. Repeat the experiment for different values say 5 µw, 8µw respectively.
9. Convert all the power meter readings in µw to dBm using formula given below.

dBm=10*log(power meter reading in µw /1000)

26 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 ONE TURN

Power Power Losses in

Meter
S.No Reading Meter Power Power dB
Reading Meter Meter
PO1inµw PO1indBm Reading Reading PO1-PO2
PO2 in µw PO2indBm
1
2
3

RESULT:
1. Numerical Aperture__________________
2. Acceptance angle______________________
3. Power loss due to bending of a fiber is observed.

PRECAUTIONS:
 Gently insert the optical fiber cable in to LED by turning clockwise direction of its clinch nut
(until you feel the fiber touches the micro lens)
 Do not applying force, which may damage micro lens
 Gently tight the clinch nut that holds the inserted fiber firmly.
 Before taking reading check out fiber is free of all twists and strains.
 No twists should present while making power loss measurements.

Signature of the Faculty

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is an optical fiber and what are its uses?
2. What is the principle of light propagation in an optical fiber?
3. Why should on have the index of refraction for cladding to be less than that of the core/
4. What is meant by total internal reflection?
5. What is meant by critical angle?
6. How do you relate the angle of incidence at the fiber input and angle of incidence at the core-
clad interface?
7. State Snell’s law?
8. Define the term numerical aperture?
9. Define the term acceptance angle?
10. How do you find what is the maximum angle of incidence for a given fiber theoretically?
11. In the experiment you are measuring the angle at the output of the fiber, but you are supposed
to do it at the input. How that is this angle which you are measuring at the output gives the
maximum angle of incidence at the input?
12. Give one advantage of optical fiber over co-axial cable used for communication?
13. How many types of fiber’s are there, what are they?

27 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 7. SOLAR CELL
AIM: i) To draw the I-V characteristics of a solar cell ii) To calculate the Fill factor, (iii) Efficiency (
) and (iv) Series resistance (Rs)
APPARATUS: Solar cell, illuminator, voltmeter, micro ammeter, potentiometer, connecting wires
etc.
PRINCIPLE & FORMULA: Solar cell is a p-n junction diode. A built-in-voltage exists across a p-n
junction.But this voltage cannot deliver current in an external circuit. However, if light is
illuminated on the junction, current flows in the circuit. This effect is called the photovoltaic effect.
To understand the principle underlying the photovoltaic effect, let the junction be illuminated.
Under this condition many excess electron-hole pairs are generated in the regions on either side
of the junction via absorption of photons. As the field within the junction is from n-side to p-side,
the excess minority carriers thus generated diffuse to the junction where they are carried across
and become majority charge carriers. The holes generated on n-side move to p-side and the
electrons generated on p-side move towards n-side. If the junction is now open circuited, the
majority carriers charge will build up on both sides of the junction (positive charge on p-side and
negative charge on n-side) tending to lower the built-in-voltage. This change in built-in-voltage
(Vo) appears as a measurable P.D. across the junction, which there by behaves as a source of
voltage Vo.
If the external circuit is closed, the current flows. This current will continue so long as there is
diffusion of excess electrons from n-side and excess holes from p-side. The current will flow so
long as the semiconductor regions are illuminated. This explains how the incident light sets up the
current flow in the external circuit.
When the p-n junction is used in open circuit mode, the current flowing through the junction, I=0,
the junction voltage, V = Voc is called open circuit voltage. When the output is short circuited, V=0
then the current I = Isc is called Short circuit current.
Vm = maximum voltage, Im = maximum current
Then ideal output power PL = VocIsc;
Maximum useful power Pm = VmIm
Once we know the above parameters
we can calculate the following parameters viz.,

a. Fill factor =

b. Efficiency in (%) ( )= =

Where Poutput= , A-area of the cell

Pinputis constant per a particular distance and is E=10(emissive power)

28 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book
 c. Series resistance (R) = V/ I, where V, I can be obtained from the I-V
characteristic curve.

PROCEDURE:
1. First find Vocand Isc of the solar cell. To find these values without connecting the circuit, switch
on the light source and maintain it as a given intensity (or distance), sayI1.
2. Connect the solar cell output directly to the voltmeter terminals and the reading of voltmeter
gives Voc.
3. Now connect the output of solar cell directly to ammeter terminals and the reading of
ammeter gives Isc.
4. Now Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram (figure 1)
5. The light source is maintained at the same intensity I1.
6. Adjust the potentiometer RL so that a minimum voltage and maximum current is observed in
the voltmeter and ammeter respectively.
7. With the help of potentiometer increase the voltage in steps and note the corresponding
current value in the ammeter.
8. Repeat the experiment for another intensity say I2.

GRAPH: Plot a graph between V and I. Select

a point P on each curve and draw
perpendicular lines from P onto both the
axes such that the area covered by the
rectangle is maximum. Note the ImandVm
from each curve and calculate fill factor and
Efficiency. To find out the series resistance,
find the differences between the consecutive
Vm’s ( V) and Im’s ( I) from the graph.

The reading shown by the micro ammeter

gives Isc value.

29 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 For Intensity-I For intensity-II
Voc=_______V Isc=_______mA Voc= _______V Isc=_______mA

Current (I) S. Current (I)

S.No. Voltage(V)volts Voltage(V)volts
mA No. mA

30 | P a g e Physics Laboratory Manual Cum Observation book

 PL =
Intensity Voc(v) Isc(mA) VocIsc Vm(V) Im (mA) Pm = VmIm FF
(mW)

I1

I2

Average values

RESULT: For a solar cell the values for various parameters found are:
Fill factor = _________________________
Efficiency = _________________________
Series resistance = _________________________

Signature of the faculty Member

PRECAUTIONS:
See that the light from the source falls vertically on the solar cell.

Make sure that the connections are made properly and ensure good contact.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is a solar cell?

2. What is the principle involved in a solar cell?
3. What is a photovoltaic cell?
4. What is the energy gap of silicon crystal?
5. What is the energy gap of germanium crystal?
6. How does the solar cell work?
7. What do you understand by Voc and Isc?
8. What is the significance of fill factor?
9. What is the significance of efficiency?
10. What is the significance of series resistance?
 8. Hall Effect
Aim: To determine Hall coefficient, nature of charge carriers, carrier density and carrier
mobility of a semiconductor crystal.

Apparatus: I.C regulated power supply for electromagnets, constant current power supply,
Hall Sensor and semiconductor crystal.

Theory:

The variation of electrical conductivity with temperature does not provide adequate
information regarding the type of carriers and their concentration. Hall Effect is electro
magnetic effect. A specimen (Ge n-type crystal lightly doped) rectangular slab of solid in which
Hall Effect is to be studied is shown. When such a current carrying semiconductor is placed in a
transverse magnetic field, an electric field is established perpendicular to both, direction of
current and direction of magnetic field. This electric field is called Hall electric field, potential
difference is called Hall Voltage and phenomenon is known as Hall Effect in a honor of E.H. Hall,
the physicist who discovered it in 1879.

Figure 7.1: Resistivity Measurement using Hall Effect

Let us consider rectangular plate of a p-type semiconductor. When potentials difference is
applied across its ends, a current of strength I flows trough it along the x-direction. (See figure
above). The current in the semiconductor is given by,

I = n A e νd

Where n = Concentration of electrons

A = Cross section area of end face

e = Charge of electron & νd = drift velocity of electrons.

Therefore current density

The origin of Hall voltage is as follows. Before the application of magnetic field electron moves
in a straight line along x-axis. Upon the application of magnetic field, charge carriers will
experience force . Because of this force holes will be deflected towards front face and
electrons are deflected towards back face and pile up there. As a result an electric field is
produced across FF’. The direction of electric field is such that it will oppose further pile up of
charge carriers. A condition of equilibrium is established when transverse electric field
balances the Lorentz force. In the equilibrium condition,

FE = F L

The Hall voltage is given as,

The Hall coefficient is defined as Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction, i.e.

Thus Hall voltage will be + ve if majority care carriers are holes and – ve if they are electrons in the
semiconductor.We can also calculate concentration of charge carriers from following:

We can also find mobility of charge carrier if conductivity of the material or vice-a-versa.

Experiment 1: Hall current Vs Hall voltage at constant magnetic field.

Procedure:
1. Connect the IC regulated power supply terminals to Electromagnetic coils in their respective
sockets.
2. Connect Hall prove to Gauss meter .switch ON the gauss meter, set the gauss meter reading
to 0.00” by adjusting the knob.
3. Now place the Hall probe in the magnetic field exactly at the center of the electromagnet
cores. Set the gauss meter reading to 0.5KG KG magnetic field. This is achieved by applying
suitable current to electromagnets and by simultaneously positioning the electromagnet
cores by turning the knobs.
4. Connect the crystal mounted PCB to constant current power supply to their respective
sockets.
5. Remove Hall probe from the magnetic field and place crystal in the same position without
disturbing the position of magnetic cores.
6. Switch ON the constant current power supply and apply current in steps of 0.1 mA, rotate
the crystal till it becomes perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be maximum in
this adjustment note the corresponding Hall voltage at constant magnetic field.
7. Plot the graph between current(I) and hall voltage (VH) which us a straight line and find the
slope
8. Repeat the above steps from 3 to 7 for different values of magnetic fields say 0.75 KG, 1 KG,
1.25 KG, 1.75 KG and 2 Kg.
9. Note: There may be some voltage even outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect
alignment of the four contacts of the crystal and is generally known as Zero field potential. In
all the cases this error should be subtracted from the Hall voltage reading.

Tabular Column

S.No Electromagnet Guass Hall Voltage At 2 Hall Voltage At 3

Current Flux Amp Amp
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
 10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Experiment -2: Magnetic Field Vs Hall Voltage at constant current across the semiconductor.

Procedure:

1. To demagnetize the coils, place the sensor mounted PCB exactly at the center of the core.
Apply reverse current through the coils till the gauss meter reads 0.00
2. Switch OFF all the sources, set the IC regulated power supply (to the Magnetic Coils) knob
to minimum.
3. Increase the gap between magnetic cores to maximum by turning the core knobs.
4. Place crystal& sensor mounted PCB together in the magnetic field exactly at the center of
the magnetic cores gap.
5. Connect the crystal mounted PCB to constant current power supply to their respective
sockets.
6. Connect Hall probe to gauss meter, Switch ON the gauss meter, set the gauss meter reading
to 0.00 by adjusting the knob.
7. Switch ON IC regulated power supply to the magnetic coils and constant current power
supply.
8. Set the current across the crystal to 1mA.vary magnetic field (Starting from 0.00KG) in
steps of 0 .25KG.This can be achieved by applying current to electromagnetic coils and
simultaneously changing the position of electromagnetic cores.
9. Note the corresponding Hall voltage at constant current through semiconductor sample.
10. Plot the graph between magnetic field (B) and hall voltage (VH) which is a straight line and
find the slope of the line.
11. Repeat the above steps from 2 to 6 for different values of current applied to semiconductor
crystal say 1mA, 1.5mA, 2ma, 2.5mA.
Diagram of Coil arrangement:

Formulas to find Hall coefficient, carrier density and carrier mobility.

Thickness of the crystal (z) =0.7 mm
Size: 6mm x 4 mm
Resistivity (ρ) = 2.3578625 ohm m
Conductivity (σ) = 0.4241129 col volt-1 sec-1m-1
Calculation of Hall Coefficient (RH)

Hall Coefficient (RH) = =______________________________cm3col-1

VH/I=slope of 2 KG graph
Calculation of Carrier density
Carrier Density (n) =1/ (RH xq) =_______________________________________cm3
RH = Hall coefficient, q= charge of an electron

Calculation of Carrier mobility

Carrier mobility (µ) = RHx σ = _______________________________ cm Volt-1sec-1

Where RH = Hall coefficient , σ= Conductivity

Result:

Hall Coefficient (RH):_______________ cm3col-1 & Carrier mobility (µ):__________ cm Volt-1sec-1

Signature of the Faculty

VIVA QUESTIONS
 1. Define Hall Effect
2. What is hall current?
3. Mention few applications of hall Effect
4. Define Mobility? On which factors it depends?
5. Define the terms Conductivity Resistivity?
6. Define hole
7. What are the difference between four point probe method and Hall Effect? Which one
you find better for resistivity measurement?
8. Explain physical phenomenon of Hall Effect.
9. What is hall coefficient? How it is useful in the experiment?
10. What are the information we can extract from the experiment?
11. What is the effect of temperature on Hall coefficient for metals, semiconductors and
insulators?
12. Is Hall Effect applicable to conductors? Justify your answer.

9. FOURPROBE METHOD
Aim: Determine the resistivity of semiconductors by Four probe Method

Apparatus:

Four probe arrangement, sample (Ge), Oven, Constant current source.

Description:

Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the
measurement of resistivity of semiconductors. This method is employed when the sample is in
the form of a thin wafer, such as a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The
sample is millimeter in size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged
linearly in a straight line at equal distance S from each other. A constant current is passed
through the two probes and the potential drop V across the middle two probes is measured. An
oven is provided with a heater to heat the sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with
increase in temperature.
The figure shows the arrangements of four probes that measure voltage (V) and supply current
(A) to the surface of the crystal.
THEORY

At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its length L and

inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

(1)
Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.
A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a
conductor and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of
decreasing electrical resistivity with increasing temperature.
According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into two bands,
valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external electric field it is
electrons in the valence band that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical
conductivity of semiconductors. In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in
between the conduction band minimum and valence band maximum. Since conduction band
lies above the Fermi level at 0K, when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction
band remains unoccupied. So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As
temperature increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting in
decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.
Procedure:

Put the sample on the base plate of the four probe arrangement. Unscrew the pipe

holding the four probes and let the four probes rest in the middle of the sample.
1. Apply a very gentle pressure on the probes and tighten the pipe in this position.
Check the continuity between the probes for proper electrical contacts.
2. Connect the outer pair of probes (red / black) leads to the constant power supply
and the inner pair (Yellow / green) leads to the probe voltage terminals. Place the four
probe arrangement in the oven and fix the thermometer in the oven through the hole
provided.
3. Switch on the AC mains of four probe setup and put the digital panel meter in
current mode. Adjust the current to say 2 mA.
4. Now put the digital panel meter into voltage mode. Read the voltage between the
probes.
5. Connect the oven power supply. Rate of heating may be selected as low or high.
Switch on the power to oven.
Tabular Column:
Current (I) = 2 mA (Set current to a constant value)
S.No Temperature Voltage Temperature(K 1000/T  = (V/I )* Log10 
(°C) ) (ΠD/ln 2)

Calculations:
Draw a graph between 1000/T versus Log10. Find the slope of the Curve plotted
The energy Gap of semiconductor crystal is =2K * 2.3026*Slope

Results:
Resistivity of the given semiconductor ________________ with increase in temperature.

Signature of the Faculty