Classical Psychoanalysis b.

Preconscious mind

Classical psychoanalysis is a psychological theory Contains thoughts and memories that are not in our
and therapeutic approach developed by Sigmund immediate awareness but can be brought into
Freud in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. consciousness with ease. It's like information stored
in our memory that we can readily access when
It laid the foundation for modern psychotherapy and needed.
significantly influenced the fields of psychology,
c. Unconscious mind
psychiatry, and cultural studies.
This is the part of the mind that contains thoughts,
Historical Context: desires, memories, and emotions that are hidden
from conscious awareness. According to Freud, the
1. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Freud, an Austrian unconscious mind plays a crucial role in shaping
neurologist, is considered the father of behavior, influencing decision-making, and
psychoanalysis. He began his career as a neurologist, contributing to psychological issues.
studying nervous disorders and eventually shifting
2. The structure of the personality
his focus to the study of the mind and human
a. Id
behaviour.
Description: The id is the most primitive and
2. The birth of psychoanalysis (late 19th century):
instinctual part of the personality. It operates on the
Freud developed psychoanalysis in the late 19th
pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification
century as a response to the limitations of traditional
of desires and impulses without considering
medical approaches to mental illness. He sought to
consequences.
understand the unconscious mind and explore the
influence of unconscious thoughts and desires on
Characteristics:
human behaviour.

 Unconscious and present from birth.

Core concepts
 Governed by basic instincts and drives, such as
1. Iceberg theory hunger, thirst, and sexual impulses.
 Seeks pleasure, avoids pain, and demands
Freud’s iceberg theory metaphorically represents the
immediate satisfaction.
mind’s three levels: the conscious (visible tip of the
 Lacks a sense of morality or reality.
iceberg), the preconscious (just below the surface),
and the unconscious (vast submerged portion). b. Ego:

a. Conscious mind Description: The ego is the conscious, rational part

of the personality that develops in response to the
Consists of thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and
demands and constraints of the external world. It
memories that we are currently aware of. It's the
operates on the reality principle, striving to satisfy
part of our mental activity that is easily accessible
and within our immediate awareness.
the id's desires in a way that is socially acceptable Dynamic Interaction:
and realistic.  Freud proposed that the id, ego, and superego
Characteristics: are in constant dynamic interaction, and the
balance between these elements determines
 Develops during infancy and early childhood. an individual's thoughts, behaviors, and
 Acts as a mediator between the id and the emotions.

external world.  Conflicts and tensions among these

 Considers consequences, social norms, and components can lead to anxiety, and the ego
employs defense mechanisms to manage
reality in decision-making. these conflicts and protect the individual from
 Engages in problem-solving and decision- psychological distress.
making to meet the needs of the id within the 3. Defence mechanism
constraints of reality.

c. Superego: Mechanism Description Example

Description: The superego represents the Repression Pushing disturbing A person who
or threatening experienced a
internalized moral and societal standards. It develops
thoughts, traumatic event
through the internalization of parental and societal memories, or as a child may
feelings out of have no
values during the process of socialization. The conscious conscious
superego seeks to enforce morality and strives for awareness. memory of the
incident.
perfection.
Denial Refusing to accept A person
Components: or acknowledge diagnosed with
the reality of a a terminal
a. Conscience: Represents the internalization of situation or the illness insisting
existence of a that the doctors
rules and standards for good behavior. It problem. made a mistake
punishes the ego for wrongdoing or perceived and refusing to
believe the
moral lapses. diagnosis.
b. Ego Ideal: Reflects the internalization of Projection Attributing one's A person who
own unacceptable is jealous of a
positive values and aspirations. It rewards the thoughts, feelings, friend may
ego for behavior that aligns with moral and or motives to accuse the
another person. friend of being
social ideals. jealous instead.
Displacement Redirecting An employee
Characteristics: emotions or frustrated with
impulses from their boss may
 Emerges during early childhood. their original go home and
target to a less take out their
 Influenced by societal and parental values. threatening or anger on their
 Strives for moral perfection and social more acceptable family.
one.
conformity.
 Often in conflict with the id, leading to
feelings of guilt or pride based on adherence
to moral standards.
Mechanism Description Example Sex being the most important life instinct in an
Regression Reverting to an An adult who individual, engagement in different erotic activities is
earlier stage of faces
development in significant a must to activate the life instinct.
the face of stress
stress may start
or frustration. exhibiting
childlike
behaviors, Sex is a biological instinct, which needs to be
such as thumb-
sucking or gratified. When present it creates tension and when
temper met with, it lead to satisfaction.
tantrums.
Rationalization Creating logical A student
or reasonable failing an The earliest manifestations of sexuality arise in
explanations to exam might relation to bodily functions, which are basically
justify rationalize it
behaviors or by saying that nonsexual, such us feeding and elimination of body
actions that are the material wastes.
actually was
irrational or unimportant Each individual passes through a series of stages
unacceptable. and wouldn't
be useful in the during the first five years of life, following which for
future. a period of five or six years the dynamics become
intellectulaization Focusing on the Instead of
intellectual dealing with more or less stabilized.
aspects of a the grief and
situation to sadness, the With the advent of adolescence, the dynamics erupt
avoid dealing individual may
again and then gradually settle down as an adolescent
with the focus
emotional extensively on move into the stage of adulthood.
aspects. the funeral
arrangements, For Freud, the first five years of life are decisive for
logistics, and
legal matters, the formation of personality.
avoiding the
emotional pain a. Oral Stage
associated with
 This stage lasts up to 18 months from the
the loss.
Reaction Adopting A person with birth of a child.
formation attitudes and repressed
 The principal source of pleasure derived by
behaviors that feelings of
are the opposite anger may the child during this stage is that of sucking.
of one's true outwardly
feelings or display  Sucking involves both tactual stimulation of
impulses. exaggerated mouth as well as swallowing.
friendliness
and kindness.  Later when the teeth erupt the mouth is used
by the child for biting and chewing.

4. Psycho-sexual stages of development  Since the child is primarily concerned about

seeking pleasure, she needs immediate
Personality development takes place through constant
gratification of she needs.
activation of the life instinct.
 The need of the infant in seeking pleasure is
adequately met with by sucking the breast of
 the mother as the erotic drive is localized in  During this stage basics of sex can be seen in
the mouth. the child. Child plays with its genitals and
 Since gratification of needs at this stage relieves tension and derives pleasure.
depends on mother.  During the phallic stage development sexual
 She becomes the first love object for the feelings associated with the functioning of
child. genital organs come into focus.
 The pleasure of playing with the genitals and
b. Anal stage the fantasy life of the child set the stage for
 Anal Stage This stage starts when the child is the appearance of Oedipus and Electra
around1 ½ years old and ends when she is 3 complexes in boys and girls, respectively.
years of age.  In the Oedipal stage, a boy feels a strong
 During the initial part of anal stage there is emotional and affectionate attachment to his
pleasurable sensation of excretion and later mother.
there is erotic stimulation of the anal mucosa  This attachment goes beyond a typical parent-
through retention of feces. child relationship and includes romantic or
 This stage is divided into two sub stages i.e. sexual feelings.
the anal expulsive period and the anal  The boy perceives his father as a rival for his
retention period. mother's affections.
 The anal expuIsive phase overlaps with the  This can lead to feelings of jealousy and
closing stages of oral period. competition with the father.
 Here the mode of deriving pleasure for the  According to Freud, the Oedipus complex is
child is the expulsion of feces. resolved when the boy identifies with his
 The expulsion of the feces removes father and internalizes the father's values and
discomfort and produces a feeling of relief. behaviors.
 When toilet training is initiated, the child has  Through this process, the boy begins to
her first experience with the external develop a superego, which represents the
regulation of in instinctual impulse. internalization of societal and parental
 The child has to learn to postpone the standards.
pleasure that 'comes from relieving anal anal  In the Electra complex, a girl experiences
tensions. feelings of attraction and affection toward her
 During the anal retention period, the child is father.
expected to agree to the demands of toilet  This involves a romantic or sexual aspect to
training. the attachment. Similar to the Oedipus
complex, the girl sees her mother as a rival
3. Phallic stage for her father's affections.
 This stage begins when the child becomes 3  This rivalry may lead to jealousy and
years old and continues until the child is 5 competitiveness.
years.
 Freud proposed that the Electra complex is  This stage begins with the onset of
resolved when the girl identifies with her adolescence. During genital stage sexual
mother, internalizing maternal values and feelings reappear with new intensity and in
adopting a female gender identity. more mature form.
 Through this identification process, the girl  As a result self-love of the child gets
develops a superego that reflects societal and channelized into genuine heterosexual
maternal standards. relationships.
4. Latency period  Sexual attraction, socialization, group
activities, vocational planning and
 According to Freud, at the close of 5 year preparations for marrying and raising a family
infantile sexuality is gradually repressed both begin to manifest.
because of the fear of the social consequences  By the end of adolescence these concerns
and because of the realization that the love become fairly well established.
object is unattainable.  The person becomes transformed from a
 During the period of about 5 or 6 years the pleasure seeking, self-loving infant into a
child is not consciously concerned with reality oriented, socialized adult.
sexual matters.  The principal biological function of the
 As the literal meaning of the word 'latency' genital stage is that of reproduction
suggests, sexual urges are hidden during this  Fixation: Fixation can be defined as the
stage. persistent attachment of the sexual instinct to
 Child's active interest turns increasingly a particular phase of pregenital development.
outward. During this period, the sexual urges  It can happen in any of the psychosexual
are diverted into recreational, academic and developmental stages except the last one.
social pursuits.  It may be noted that the behavioural
 The child learns to behave in society and manifestations of fixation vary according to
acquires her ideals. the stage of psychosexual development in
 Eroticism is overtly manifested in the form of which fixation takes place.
attachment to parents and friends. Interest in  For example, a child's inability to forgo
the opposite sex is at the lowest ebb. mother as a love object during the oral stage
 The child spends all her energy to excel and leads to development of such behavioural
prove herself. manifestations like thumb sucking,
 Child's energy is diverted towards developing alcoholism, smoking etc.
a sense of competence.
Three types of anxiety
 During this stage of development a child's
sexual urges are subordinated to the 1. Reality or objective anxiety: This involves a fear
intellectual pursuits. of tangible dangers in the real world.

Most of us justifiably fears fires, hurricanes,

5. Genital Stage
earthquakes and similar disasters.
This serves the positive purpose og guiding our a. The acquisition of insight into intellectual
behaviour to escape or proteact ourselves from the and emotional aspect: Psychoanalysis seeks
actual danger. to uncover unconscious processes and
unresolved conflicts from early life that
contribute to current psychological
2. Neurotic anxiety: This is not helpful for our difficulties.
mental health. It has its basis in childhood, in a
By gaining insight into these factors, individuals
conflict between instinctual gratification and reality.
can develop a more comprehensive understanding
Children are often punished for overtly expressing of themselves, their motivations, and the origins
sexual or aggressive impulses. of their emotional struggles.

Therefore, the wish to gratify certain id impuluses b. Development of tolerance, without anxiety,
generates anxiety. of the instinctual drives: Psychoanalysis
recognizes that instinctual drives, such as
The neurotic anxiety is an unconscious fear of being
aggression and sexuality, are fundamental
punished for impulsively displaying id-dominated
aspects of human nature.
behaviour.
By working through unconscious conflicts and
3. Moral anxiety: it results from a conflict between
understanding the origin of these drives,
the id and the superego.
individuals can develop a healthier relationship
In essence, it is a fear of one’s conscience. with their instincts.

When you are motivated to express an instinctual This involves reducing anxiety associated with
impulse that is contrary to your moral code, your these drives, allowing for a more balanced and
superego retaliates by causing you to feel shame or adaptive response.
guilt.
c. Development of ability to accept one’s self
Therapeutic goals of psychoanalysis objectively, with a good appraisal of
elements of strength and weakness:
1. Disappearance of the presenting
Through the process of psychoanalysis,
symptoms: Psychoanalysis aims to delve into
individuals are encouraged to explore and
the unconscious roots of psychological
accept all aspects of themselves.
symptoms.
By exploring and understanding the This involves acknowledging both positive and
underlying conflicts, unresolved issues, and negative traits objectively, without excessive self-
unconscious processes contributing to the criticism or denial.
presenting symptoms, individuals can achieve
The goal is to build a realistic self-appraisal that
relief.
promotes a healthier sense of self.

2. Real improvement in mental functioning d. Attainment of relative freedom from

enervating tensions and talent-crippling
 inhibitions: Psychoanalysis aims to address By resolving these conflicts, the person can
underlying tensions and inhibitions that experience greater freedom in utilizing their abilities
impede personal growth and fulfillment. and skills in the workplace.

By resolving unconscious conflicts and releasing h. Promoting adaptive coping through

repressed emotions, individuals can experience a sublimation : Psychoanalysis recognizes the
greater sense of freedom from debilitating tensions. importance of sublimation, which is the
redirection of potentially harmful or socially
This, in turn, can enhance overall well-being and
unacceptable impulses into socially
enable the individual to express their talents more
acceptable and creative outlets.
freely.
The goal is to promote adaptive coping strategies
e. Release of the aggressive energies:
and positive outlets for emotional expression
Psychoanalysis acknowledges that aggression
is a natural and essential aspect of human i. Improved reality adjustment: Through
behavior. psychoanalysis, individuals may gain insight
into their unconscious conflicts and distorted
The goal is not to eliminate aggression but to help
perceptions of reality.
individuals channel these energies in healthy and
productive ways. By addressing these issues, they can develop a more
accurate understanding of themselves and their
By understanding the roots of aggressive impulses,
surroundings, leading to improved adaptation to real-
individuals can learn to express themselves
life situations.
assertively, defend their rights, and pursue their goals
without causing harm to themselves or others. j. Full heterosexual functioning with potency
and pleasure: Psychoanalysis explores the
f. More consistent and loyal interpersonal
impact of unconscious conflicts and early
relationships with: Psychoanalysis
experiences on an individual's sexuality.
recognizes the impact of early experiences on
the formation of relationship patterns. The aim is to resolve any unresolved issues that
might contribute to difficulties in sexual functioning.
By gaining insight into unconscious processes and
unresolved conflicts, individuals can develop a more Attaining a sense of sexual potency and pleasure
stable and secure attachment style. within the context of heterosexual relationships is
considered a positive outcome.
This increased self-awareness can lead to healthier
partner selection and the establishment of more Assessments in psychoanalysis
consistent and loyal relationships.
1. Dream analysis
g. Free functioning of abilities in productive
Freud believed that dreams represents, in symbolic
work: Psychoanalysis aims to address
forms, repressed desires, fears, and conflicts.
unconscious conflicts and barriers that may
hinder an individual's optimal functioning.
So strongly have these feelings been repressed that Freud used the technique with some success and
they can surface only in disguised fashion during called the process catharsis, from the Greek word for
sleep. purification. After a while, however, Freud
abandoned hypnosis, partly because he had difficulty
In his technique of dream analysis, Freud
hypnotizing some of his patients.
distinguished two aspects of dreams: the manifest
content, which refers to the actual events in the Seeking a technique other than hypnosis for helping a
dream, and the latent content, which is the hidden patient recall repressed material, Freud asked the
symbolic meaning of the dream’s event. person to lie on a couch while he sat behind it, out of
sight.
Over the years, Freud found consistent symbols in his
patients’ dreams, events that signified the same thing He encouraged the person patient to relax and to
for nearly everyone. concentrate on events in the past. The patient was to
engage in a kind of daydreaming out loud, saying
For example, steps, ladders, and staircases in a dream
whatever came to mind.
represent sexual intercourse. Candles, snakes and tree
trunks indicated the penis, and boxes, balconies, and He or she was instructed to express spontaneously
doors signified female body. every idea and image exactly as it occurred, no
matter how trival, embarrassing, or painful the
Dreams revealed conflicts in a condensed, intensified
thought or memory might seem.
form.
The memories were not be omitted, rearranged or
It is interesting that of the more than 40 of his own
restructured.
dreams Freud described in his book ‘The
Interpretation of Dreams’, only a few had a sexual Freud believed that there was nothing random about
content, despite his conviction that dreams typically the information uncovered during the free association
involve some infantile sexual wish. and that it was not subject to a patient’s conscious
choice.
The dominant theme in Freud’s reported dreams were
ambition, a characteristics he denied having. The material revealed by the patients in free
association was predetermined, forced on them by
2. Free association
the nature of their conflict.
Freud’s development of the technique of free
Sometimes he observed that some experiences or
association owes much to Josef Breuer, a Viennese
memories were evidently too painful to talk about,
physician who befriended Freud during Freud’s early
and the patient would be reluctant to disclose them.
years in private practice.
Freud called these moments resistance. He believed
In treating young women who showed symptoms of
that they were significant because they indicate
hysteria, Breuer found that hypnotizing her enabled
proximity to the source of the patient’s problems.
her to repressed events. Recalling the events- in a
sense, reliving the experiences-brought relief of the
disturbing symptoms.
Resistance is a sign that the treatment is proceeding However, some psychoanalysts claim that the initial
in the right direction and that the analyst should concept definitions used by Freud are inadequate and
continue to probe in that area. many have developed variations on his original
definitions, including his own daughter, Anna Freud
(1937), who identified three types of transference
Both of these Freudian assessment techniques, free phenomena, dependant on the complexity of the
association and dream analysis reveal to the transference.
psychoanalyst a great deal of repressed material, but
The predominant aspect of counter-transference is
all of it is in disguised or symbolic form.
that it is the process through which the analyst’s
3. Parapraxis emotional residue from their life is aroused through
reliving their own past because of the material in the
It is an unintentional mistake or error in speech,
psychoanalytic setting.
memory, or action that is believed to reveal
unconscious thoughts, desires, or motives. Whether this reaction to the patient’s emotions is just
another type of transference is debateable as Stern
Freud argued that these seemingly trivial mistakes
(1924) argues that the counter-transference produced
could provide insights into the individual's
by the analyst originates from the same space that the
underlying psychological conflicts or repressed
patient’s transference originates from within them
thoughts.
and can indicate psychological problems in the
Parapraxes can take various forms, such as forgetting analyst.
a word, misspeaking, or making errors in writing.
There are many ambiguous issues in the concept of
According to Freud, these slips are not random but
counter-transference as it is unclear whether the
are instead a manifestation of unconscious content
concept includes the conscious or unconscious
trying to find expression.
reactions of the analyst to the patient, whether it
Analyzing parapraxes can be a way for indicates the transference reaction from the analyst to
psychoanalysts to uncover hidden thoughts or the patient and whether it includes conscious action
emotions that an individual may not be consciously from the analyst to illicit some kind of corrective
aware of. emotional experience on the part of the patient (Orr,
1954).
Countertransference
English and Pearson (1937) state that analysts cannot
The concept of counter-transference was introduced
help having a certain attitude towards each of their
later in Freud’s works (1910) and denotes the way in
patients and that all feelings that the analyst has
which the unconscious feelings of the analyst are
towards the patient are examples of
aroused by the feelings in the patient’s transference.
countertransference.
Active selfanalysis must occur on the part of the
analyst so that they can acknowledge these feelings
Process of therapy
and hold them, without letting them affect the First Phase: Establishing the Therapeutic Alliance
psychoanalytic setting.
The first phase involves developing a therapeutic Resistance is an unconscious process; consequently,
alliance between the analyst and the analysand the analysand will tend to believe that his or her
through a process in which the analyst elicits trust behavior is externally caused or is a legitimate
and faith from the analysand. voluntary action.

The establishment of a therapeutic alliance is For example, coming late to or missing a session
inherently more difficult in psychoanalysis than in with the therapist is usually considered an instance of
other forms of psychotherapy, however, because the resistance.
analyst must carefully avoid revealing any aspects of
Even if the analysand is called to work at the last
his or her own personality.
moment or has a bona fide family crisis, the analyst
Self-disclosure, whether biographical or attitudinal, will usually invoke the principle of psychic
would contradict the therapist’s usefulness as a blank determinism to judge the missed appointment to be a
screen. volitional act of the unconscious mind to avoid the
anxiety provoked by the therapy.
For example, the analyst could not be certain that
behavior related to the transference was indeed Other acts of resistance include silence, irrelevant
issuing from the patient’s unconscious instead of discussions, refusing to pay the analyst’s bills, or
being a response to the therapist’s behavior. complaining of physical symptoms.

Trust and confidence in psychoanalysis must, Third Phase: Analyzing the Transference
therefore, be earned by the therapist’s dedicated
Freud believed that the analysand’s feelings of
consistency to the correct method.
affection for or anger at the analyst were actually
Once this takes place, the client is encouraged to emotions transferred from a significant figure from
relate anything that comes to mind, no matter how early life to the present-day therapist.
trivial or irrelevant it may seem on the surface.
It is important to recall that psychoanalysis holds that
Over time, the patient’s free associations will result we create internal representations of people who have
in a cathartic release of libidinal energy along with played important roles in our development.
the strong emotions.
These representations are referred to as objects.
Second Phase: Analyzing the Resistance Because Freud saw all mental or emotional energy as
finite, if a portion of it is attached to an object from
Based on Freud’s experience with his own patients,
the past, less will be available to the analysand in his
he concluded that they would typically devise
or her present-day life.
barriers for the analyst as the treatment moved
toward issues closely related to their pathology. Freud called the attachment itself a cathexis and
spoke of either cathecting (attaching emotional
Freud suggested that what he called resistance to the
significance to) or decathecting (withdrawing
analysis signified progress in the therapy: the greater
emotional significance from) an object.
the resistance, the closer the analyst was getting to
the source of the patient’s neurosis.
A corollary to the principle of the limited quantity of stage of psychoanalysis, but regular interpretation
emotional energy is that feelings will be expressed must wait until a solid therapeutic alliance has been
toward the analyst during therapy. formed and the therapist has become familiar with
the patient’s personality and major unconscious
Freud first used the term transference in Studies in
conflicts.
Hysteria and explained it this way:
The meanings of dreams, parapraxes, resistance, and
Occasionally the patient is frightened at finding that
transference reactions are among the topics that
she is transferring on to the figure of the physician
psychoanalytic therapists discuss with their patients.
the distressing ideas which arise from the content of
the analysis. The goal of interpretation is to provide the client with
insight, defined as an intellectual and emotional
This is a frequent, and indeed in some analyses a
understanding of the unconscious determinants of
regular, occurrence.
one’s behavior; and then to work through these
Transference on to the physician takes place through unconscious issues to strengthen the ego, loosen the
a false connection. restrictions imposed by the superego, and gain better
control over the id.
I must give an example of this. In one of my patients
the origin of a particular hysterical symptom lay in a In Freudian terms, the libidinal energy consumed by
wish, which she had had many years earlier and had the neurosis itself and the defenses that keep it out of
at once transfered to the unconscious, that the man awareness can be freed to strengthen the ego.
she was talking to at the time might boldly take the
While simply talking about unconscious conflicts can
initiative and give her a kiss.
lead to catharsis and an intensification of the
On one occasion, at the end of a session, a similar therapeutic alliance, Freud soon discovered that it is
wish came up in her about me. necessary to supply the patient with emotional insight
into and an opportunity to work through his or her
She was horrified at it, spent a sleepless night, and at
problems by addressing the transference reactions
the next session, though she did not refuse to be
occurring in the therapy sessions.
treated, was quite useless for work.

After I had discovered the obstacle and removed it,

the work preceded further.

Late Stages of Psychoanalysis

The later stages of psychoanalytic therapy are

lengthier than either the early or middle stages, for
the later phases are those in which interpretation
assumes cardinal significance.

Interpretation, or the analyst’s explanations of the

patient’s emotions and behavior, can occur at any