1 Functions 2

1.1 The Basics of Function Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1.1 Tables and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Translating Between Four Descriptions of the Same Function . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 Interval, Set, and Set-Builder Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Increasing, decreasing, concave up/down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1 Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 Simplification Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2 Exponential Functions 31
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Solving exponential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3 Finding an exponential function given two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4 Exponential modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5 The number e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.6 Comparing linear and exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.7 Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3 Functions 88
3.1 Function algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2 Piecewise-defined functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4 Logarithms 95
4.1 Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2 Properties of logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5 Polynomial and Rational Functions 111

5.1 Polynomial functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2 Rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3 Graphing rational functions (horizontal asymptotes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.4 Graphing rational functions (oblique asymptotes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

1
 FUNCTIONS 1

Contents
1.1 The Basics of Function Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Tables and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Translating Between Four Descriptions of the Same Function . . . . . . 8
1.2 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 Interval, Set, and Set-Builder Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Increasing, decreasing, concave up/down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1 Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 Simplification Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.6 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2
 1.1 The Basics of Function Vocabulary
Section Themes, Concepts, Issues, Competencies, and Skills:
• You will have an understanding of the definition of a function.
• You will be able to use standard notation concerning functions correctly, and recognize
when notation has been used incorrectly.
• You will recognize some real examples of functions in your life.
p
Most of us are familiar with the symbol. This symbols is used to turn numbers into their
square roots. Sometimes it’s simple to do this on paper or in our heads, and sometimes it
helps a lot to have a calculator. We can see some calculations in Table 1.1.
p p
Table 1.1: Values of x The symbol signifies a process; it’s a way for us to turn numbers into other numbers. This
p
idea of having a process for turning numbers into other numbers is fundamental to the science
p 9=3 and mathematics that uses college-level algebra.
p/4 = /2
1 1

2 ≈ 1.41
Definition 1 (Function)
A function is a process for turning numbers into (potentially) different numbers.

This definition is so broad that you probably use functions all the time.

Example 1 Think about each of these examples, where some process is used for turning one number into
another.
• If you use a person’s birth year to determine how old they are, you are using a function.
• If you look up the Kelly Blue Book value of a Mazda Protegé based on how old it is, you
are using a function.
• If you use the the amount of money that you have available to determine how much
you wish to spend on a birthday gift for your friend, you are using a function. ■
p
The process of using to change numbers might feel more “mathematical” than these ex-
p
amples. Let’s continue thinking about for now, since it’s a formula-like symbol that we are
p
familiar with. One concern with is that although we live in the modern age of computers,
this symbol is not found on most keyboards. And yet computers still tend to be capable of
producing square roots. Computer technicians write sqrt( ) when they want to compute a
square root, as we see in Table 1.2.
p
Table 1.2: Values of x The parentheses in sqrt( ) are very important. To see why, try to put yourself in the “mind”
sqrt(9) = 3 of a computer, and look closely at
sqrt (1/4) = 1/2 sqrt 16
sqrt(2) ≈ 1.41 The computer will recognize sqrt and know that it needs to compute a square root. But
sometimes computers have myopic vision and they might not see the entire number 16. A
computer might think that it needs to compute sqrt 1 and then append a “6” to the end, which
would produce a final result of 16. This is probably not what was intended. And so the
purpose of the parentheses in sqrt(16) is to denote exactly what number needs to be operated
on.
This use of sqrt( ) serves as a model for the standard notation that is used worldwide to
write down most functions. By having a standard notation for communicating about functions,
people in China, Venezuela, Senegal, and the United States can all communicate mathematics
with each other more easily.
Functions have their own names. We’ve seen a function named sqrt, but any name you can
imagine is allowable. In the sciences, it is common to name functions with whole words, like
weight or health_index. In mathematics, we often abbreviate such function names to w or h.
And of course, since the word “function” itself starts with “f”, we will often name a function
f.
It’s crucial to continue reminding ourselves that functions are processes for changing numbers;
they are not numbers themselves. And that means that we have a potential for confusion that
we need to stay aware of. In some contexts, the symbol t might represent a variable - a

3
 4 1.1. THE BASICS OF FUNCTION VOCABULARY

number that is represented by a letter. But in other contexts, t might represent a function - a
process for changing numbers into other numbers. By staying conscious of the context of an
investigation, we avoid confusion.

Next we need to discuss how we go about using a function’s name.

Function notation
The standard notation for referring to functions involves giving the function itself a
name, and then writing  
name
of  input 
function

Example 2 f (13) is pronounced “f of 13”. The word “of” is very important, because it reminds us that f
is a process and we are about to apply that process to the input value 13. So f is the function,
13 is the input, and f (13) is the output we’d get from using 13 as input.

f (x) is pronounced “f of x”. This is just like the previous example, except that the input is not
any specific number. The value of x could be 13 or any other number. Whatever x’s value,
f (x) means the corresponding output from the function f .

BudgetDeficit(2009) is pronounced “BudgetDeficit of 2009”. This is probably about a function

that takes a year as input, and gives that year’s federal budget deficit as output. The process
here of changing a year into a dollar amount might not involve any mathematical formula,
but rather looking up information from the Congressional Budget Office’s website.

Celsius(F ) is pronounced “Celsius of F”. This is probably about a function that takes a Fahren-
heit temperature as input and gives the corresponding Celsius temperature as output. Maybe
a formula is used to do this; maybe a chart or some other tool is used to do this. Here, Celsius
is the function, F is the input variable, and Celsius(F ) is the output from the function. ■
Function Notation (continued)
While a function has a name like f , and the input to that function often has a variable
name like x, the expression f (x) represents the output of the function. To be clear,
f (x) is not a function. Rather, f is a function, and f (x) its output when the number
x was used as input.

As mentioned earlier, we need to remain conscious of the context of any symbol we are using.
It’s possible for f to represent a function (a process), but it’s also possible for f to represent
a variable (a number). Similarly, parentheses might indicate the input of a function, or they
might indicate that two numbers need to be multiplied. It’s up to our judgment to interpret
mathematical expressions in the right context. Consider the expression a(b). This could easily
mean the output of a function a with input b. It could also mean that two numbers a and b
need to be multiplied. It all depends on the context in which these symbols are being used.
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 1
Describe your own example of a function that has real context to it. You will need some kind
of input variable, like “number of years since 2000” or “weight of the passengers in my car”.
You will need a process for using that number to bring about a different kind of number. The
process does not need to involve a formula; a verbal description would be great, as would a
formula.

Give your function a name. Write the symbol(s) that you would use to represent input. Write
the symbol(s) that you would use to represent output.
make sure you try it!

FIX Sometimes it’s helpful to think of a function as a machine. This illustrates how complicated
functions are. A number is just that - a number. But a function has the capacity to take in all
kinds of different numbers into it’s hopper (feeding tray) and do different things to each of
them.
1.1. THE BASICS OF FUNCTION VOCABULARY 5

1.1.1 Tables and Graphs

Since functions are potentially so complicated, we seek out new ways to understand them
better. Two basic tools for understanding a function better are tables and graphs.

Example 3 Consider the function BudgetDeficit, that takes in a year as its input and outputs the US federal
budget deficit for that year. For example, the Congressional Budget Office’s website tells us
that BudgetDeficit(2009) is $1.41 trillion. If we’d like to understand this function better, we
might make a table of all the inputs and outputs we can find. Using the CBO’s website1 , we
put together Table 1.3.

Table 1.3
input output
x (year) BudgetDeficit(x) ($trillion)
2007 0.16
2008 0.46
2009 1.41
2010 1.29
2011 1.30

How is this table helpful? There are things about the function that we can see now by looking
at the numbers in this table.
• We can see that the budget deficit has grown by quite a bit over the entire five-year
period.
• We can see that there was a particularly large jump in 2008.
• We can see that the deficit reduced by a little bit between 2009 and 2010, and then
remained stable.
These observations serve to help us understand the function BudgetDeficit a little better. ■

Example 4 Let’s return to our example of the function sqrt. Tabulating some inputs and outputs reveals
Table 1.4.

Table 1.4
input output
x sqrt(x)
0 0
1 1
2 ≈ 1.41
3 ≈ 1.73
4 2

How is this table helpful? Here are some observations that we can make now.
• We can see that when input numbers increase, so do output numbers.
• We can see even though outputs are increasing, they increase by less and less with each
step forward in x.
These observations help us understand sqrt a little better. For instance, based on these ob-
servations which do you think is larger: the difference between sqrt(23) and sqrt(24), or the
difference between sqrt(85) and sqrt(86)? ■
Another powerful tool for understanding functions better is a graph. Given a function f , one
way to make its graph is to take a table of input and output values, and read each row as the
coordinates of a point in the x y-plane.

Example 5 Returning to the function BudgetDeficit that we studied in Example 3, in order to make a
graph of this function we view Table 1.3 as a list of points with x and y coordinates, as
1
Congressional Budget Office
6 1.1. THE BASICS OF FUNCTION VOCABULARY

in Table 1.5. We then plot these points on a set of coordinate axes, as in Figure 1.1. The
points have been connected with a curve so that we can see the overall pattern given by the
progression of points. Since there was not any actual data for inputs in between any two
years, the curve is dashed. That is, this curve is dashed because it just represents someone’s
best guess as to how to connect the plotted points. Only the plotted points themselves are
precise.

2
y ($ trillion)
Table 1.5
1.41
(input, output) 1.3 1.29
(x, BudgetDeficit(x))
(2007, 0.16) 1

(2008, 0.46)
(2009, 1.41) 0.46
(2010, 1.30) 0.16
(2011, 1.29) x (year)
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Figure 1.1: y = BudgetDeficit(x)

How has this graph helped us to understand the function better? All of the observations that
we made in Example 3 are perhaps even more clear now. For instance, the spike in the deficit
between 2008 and 2009 is now visually apparent. Seeking an explanation for this spike, we
recall that there was a financial crisis in late 2008. Revenue from income taxes dropped at
the same time that federal money was spent to prevent further losses. ■

Example 6 Let’s now construct a graph for sqrt. Tabulating inputs and outputs gives the points in Ta-
ble 1.6, which in turn gives us the graph in Figure 1.2. Just as in the previous example, we’ve

3
y

Table 1.6
(input, output) 2

(x, sqrt(x))
(0, 0)
(1, 1) 1
≈ (2, 1.41)
≈ (3, 1.73)
(4, 2) x
-1 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 1.2: y = BudgetDeficit(x)

plotted points where we have concrete coordinates, and then we have made our best attempt
to connect those points with a curve. Unlike the previous example, here we believe that points
could continue to be computed and plotted indefinitely to the right, and so we have added
an arrowhead to the graph.
What has this graph done to improve our understanding of sqrt? As inputs (x-values) increase,
the outputs ( y-values) increase too, although not at the same rate. In fact we can see that
our graph is steep on its left, and less steep as we move to the right. This confirms our earlier
observation in Example 4 that outputs increase by smaller and smaller amounts as the input
increases. ■
The graph of a function
Given a function f , when we refer to a graph of f we are not referring to an entire
picture, like Figure 1.2. A graph of f is only part of that picture - the curve and the
points that it connects. Everything else: axes, tick marks, the grid, labels, and the
surrounding white space is just useful decoration, so that we can read the graph more
easily.
1.1. THE BASICS OF FUNCTION VOCABULARY 7

It is also common to refer to the graph of f as the graph of the equation y = f (x).
However we should never refer to “the graph of f (x)”. That would indicate a funda-
mental misunderstanding of our notation. We have decided that f (x) is the output
for a certain input x. That means that f (x) is just a number; a relatively uninteresting
thing compared to f the function, and not worthy of any two-dimensional picture.

While it is important to be able to make a graph of a function f , we also need to be capable

of looking at a graph and reading it well. A graph of f provides us with helpful specific
information about f ; it tells us what f does to its input values. When we were making
graphs, we plotted points of the form

(input, output)

Now given a graph of f , we interpret coordinates in the same way.

y
3

x
1 2 3 4

Figure 1.3: y = f (x)

In Figure 1.3 we have a graph of a function f . If we wish to find f (1), we recognize that 1
is being used as an input. So we would want to find a point of the form (1, ). Seeking out
x-coordinate 1 in Figure 1.3, we find that the only such point is (1, 2). Therefore the output
for 1 is 2; in other words f (1) = 2.
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 2
Use the graph of f in Figure 1.3 to find f (0), f (3), and f (4).
make sure you try it!

Example 7 Suppose that u is the unemployment function of time. That is, u(t) is the unemployment rate
in the United States in year t. The graph of the equation y = u(t) is given in Figure 1.42 .

10
y (%)
8

t
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Figure 1.4: Unemployment in the United States

What was the unemployment in 2002? It is a straightforward matter to use Figure 1.4 to
find that unemployment was about 6 % in 2002. Asking this question is exactly the same
thing as asking to find u(2002). That is, we have one question that can either be asked in a
everyday-English way or which can be asked in a terse, mathematical notation-heavy way:

“What was unemployment in 2002?” “Find u(2002).”

2
US Bureau of Labor Statistics
8 1.1. THE BASICS OF FUNCTION VOCABULARY

If we use the table to establish that u(2009) ≈ 9.25, then we should be prepared to translate
that into everyday-English using the context of the function: In 2009, unemployment in the
U.S. was about 9.25 %.
If we ask the question “when was unemployment at 5 %”, we can read the graph and see that
there were two such times: early 2005 and mid-2007. But there is again a more mathematical
notation-heavy way to ask this question. Namely, since we are being told that the output of
u is 5, we are being asked to solve the equation u(t) = 5. So the following communicate the
same thing:

“When was unemployment at 5 %?” “Solve the equation u(t) = 5.”

And our answer to this question is:

“Unemployment was at 5 % in early 2005 and mid-2007” “t ≈ 2005 or t ≈ 2007.5” ■

Æ try it yourself Æ
Use the graph of u in Figure 1.4 to respond to the following.
Problem 3
Find u(2011) and interpret it.
Problem 4
Solve the equation u(t) = 6 and interpret your solution(s).
make sure you try it!

1.1.2 Translating Between Four Descriptions of the Same Function

We have noted that functions are complicated, and that we are seeking out ways to make
them easier to understand. It’s common to encounter a problem involving a function and not
know how to proceed toward a solution to that problem. As it happens, most functions have
at least four standard ways to think about them. If we become capable of translating between
these four perspectives, perhaps we will find that one of them makes a given problem easy to
solve.

Verbal
Description

Table of
Inputs and A function, f Graph
Outputs

Formula

Figure 1.5: Translating Between Perspectives

The four modes for working with a given function are:

• a verbal description • a graph of the function

• a table of inputs and outputs • a formula for the function
1.1. THE BASICS OF FUNCTION VOCABULARY 9

This has been visualized in Figure 1.5.

Example 8 Consider a function f that squares its input and then adds 1. Translate this verbal description
of f into a table, a graph, and a formula.

Solution To make a table for f , we’ll have to select some input x-values. These choices are left entirely
up to us, so we might as well choose small, easy-to-work-with values. However we shouldn’t
shy away from negative input values. Given the verbal description, we should be able to
compute a column of output values. Table 1.7 is one possible table that we might end up
with.

Once we have a table for f , it’s a simple matter to make a graph for f as in Figure 1.6, using
the table to plot points.

Table 1.7 15

x f (x)
−2 (−2)2 + 1 = 5 10
−1 (−1)2 + 1 = 2
0 02 + 1 = 1
1 12 + 1 = 2 5

2 5
x
3 10
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
4 17

Figure 1.6: y = f (x)

Lastly, we must find a formula for f . This means we need to write a mathematical expression
that says the same thing about f as the verbal description, the table, and the graph. For this
example, we can focus on the verbal description. Since f takes its input, squares it, and adds
1, then we have that
f (x) = x 2 + 1
■

Example 9 Let F be the function that takes a Celsius temperature as input and outputs the corresponding
Fahrenheit temperature. Translate this verbal description of F into a table, a graph, and a
formula.

Solution To make a table for F , we will need to rely on what we know about Celsius and Fahrenheit
temperatures. It is a fact that the freezing temperature of water at sea level is 0 ◦C, which
equals 32 °F. Also, boiling temperature of water at sea level is 100 ◦C, which is the same as
212 °F. One more piece of information we might have is that standard human body temper-
ature is 37 ◦C, or 98.6 °F. All of this is compiled in Table 1.8. Note that we tabulated inputs
and outputs by working with the context of the function, not with any computations.

Once a table is established, making a graph by plotting points is a simple matter, as in Fig-
ure 1.7. The three plotted points seem to be in a straight line, so we think it is reasonable to
connect them in that way.

To find a formula for F , the verbal definition is not of much direct help. But F ’s graph does
seem to be a straight line. And linear equations are familiar to us. This line has a y-intercept
at (0, 32) and a slope we can calculate: 212−32 180 9
100−0 = 100 = 5 . So the equation of this line is
y = 95 C + 32. On the other hand, the equation of this graph is y = F (C), since it is a graph of
the function F . So evidently,
9
F (C) = C + 32
5
■

Example 10 – Referencing a function: Label each of the following snippets as correct use of vocabulary
(✓) or incorrect use (×); if the usage is incorrect, give a brief reason why.
10 1.1. THE BASICS OF FUNCTION VOCABULARY

y
212
200

150
Table 1.8
C F (C) 98.6
100
0 32
37 98.6
50
100 212 32
x
20 40 60 80 100

Figure 1.7: y = F (x)

(a) The function f is shown in Figure . . .

(b) The function f (x) is shown in Figure . . .
(c) Consider the function g that has formula g(x) = x 2 + 3.
(d) Consider the function g(x) = x 2 + 1 . . .

Solution Items (a) and (c) are fine usage of vocabulary (✓). Item (b) is not (×), since f (x) is the
value of f at x; it is not a function. Also item (d) is bad usage (×) because g is the function;
g(x) = x 2 + 1 is the formula for the function g. ■
We will be using the correct language throughout this document; pay close attention to it and
try your best to use it in all of your mathematical work, both verbal and written. ■

Exercises

Problem 5 (Slope and vertical intercept)

In each of the following problems you are given a formula for a linear function. State the slope of each function, and
state the vertical intercept of each function as an ordered pair.

x
5.1 f (x) = 3x − 1 5.2 g(x) = 5 − 2 5.3 h(x) = π − 10x 5.4 k(x) = mx + b

Problem 6 (Linear or quadratic)

Decide which of the following formulas correspond to a linear function, and which correspond to a quadratic function.

4
6.1 f (x) = 2x + 1 6.3 h(s) = 9 − 5s 6.5 α(c) = c 2 + 2c + 4 6.7 γ(h) = 3 − h2
6.2 g(t) = t 2 + 2 6.4 j(u) = 42 − u 6.6 β(m) = 4 6.8 δ(z) = z
5

Problem 7 (Vertex of a quadratic function)

Each of the following formulas corresponds to a quadratic function. State the vertex and range of each function (the
domain of each function is (−∞, ∞)).

7.1 f (x) = (x − 3)2 + 4 7.3 h(x) = 2(x − 5)2 7.5 F (x) = x 2 + 1 7.7 H(x) = 4 − 21 x 2
7.2 g(x) = 4 − (x − 3)2 7.4 j(x) = 5(3x − 4)2 + 7 7.6 G(x) = 3x 2 + 5x 7.8 J(x) = 1
− x
− x2
3 2 5
 1.2 Domain and Range
A function is a process for turning input values into output values. Occasionally a function f
will have input values for which the process breaks down.

Example 1 Let P be the population of Portland as a function of the year. According to Google3 we can
say that:

P(2011) = 593 820 P(1990) = 487 849

But what if we asked to find P(1600)? The question doesn’t really make sense anymore.
While there were indigenous peoples living in the area then, the city of Portland was not
incorporated until 1851. We say that P(1600) is undefined. ■

Example 2 If m is a person’s mass in kg, let w(m) be their weight in lb. There is an approximate formula
for w:
w(m) ≈ 2.2m
From this formula we can find:

w(50) ≈ 110 w(80) ≈ 176

which tells us that a 50-kg person weighs 110 lb, and an 80-kg person weighs 176 lb.
What if we asked for w(−100)? In the context of this example, we would be asking for the
weight of a person whose mass is −100 kg. This is clearly nonsense. That means that w(−100)
is undefined. Note that the context of the example is telling us that w(−100) is undefined even
though the formula alone might suggest that w(−100) = −220. ■

Example 3 Let g have the formula

x
g(x) =
x −7
For most x-values, g(x) is perfectly computable:

2
g(2) = − g(14) = 2
5
But if we try to compute g(7), we run into an issue of arithmetic.

7
g(7) =
7−7
7
=
0
7
The expression 0 is undefined. There is no number that this could equal. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 1
x +2
Find an input for the function f that would cause an undefined output, where f (x) = .
x +8
make sure you try it!

Definition 2 (Domain)
The domain of a function f is the collection of all of its valid input values.

Example 4 Referring to the functions from Examples 1–3,

• The domain of P is all years starting from 1851 and later. It would be reasonable to say
the the domain is actually all years from 1851 up to the current year, since we cannot
guarantee that Portland will still exist into the future.
3
http://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=kf7tgg1uo9ude_&met_y=population&idim=place:4159000
&dl=en&hl=en&q=population+of+portland

11
12 1.2. DOMAIN AND RANGE

• The domain of w is all positive real numbers. It is nonsensical to have a person with
negative mass or even one with zero mass. While there is some lower bound for the
smallest mass a person could have, and also an upper bound for the largest mass a
person could have, these boundaries are gray. We can say for sure that nonpositive
numbers should never be used as input for w.
• The domain of g is all real numbers except 7. This is the only number that causes a
breakdown in g’s formula. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 2
What is the domain of the function sqrt?
make sure you try it!

1.2.1 Interval, Set, and Set-Builder Notation

Communicating the domain of a function can be wordy. In mathematics, we can communi-
cate the same information using concise notation that is accepted for use almost worldwide.
Table 1.9 contains example functions from this section, their domains, and illustrates interval
notation for these domains.

Table 1.9: Domains from Example 2, Example 3, and Problem 2

function verbal illustration of interval notation
domain domain for domain

m
w from Example 2, com- all real numbers greater −∞ 0 ∞
(0, ∞)
puting mass from weight than 0

x
g from Example 3, with all real numbers except 7 −∞ 7 ∞
(−∞, 7) ∪ (7, ∞)
x
formula g(x) = x−7

x
sqrt from Problem 2 all numbers greater than −∞ 0 ∞
[0, ∞)
or equal to 0

Interval notation comes in many forms. Each of the expressions (a, b), (a, b], [a, b), and [a, b]
are examples of simple intervals. The notation is communicating that we wish to consider all
real numbers between a and b. If a round parenthesis is used, then that number itself should
be excluded from consideration. If a square bracket is used, then that number itself should
be included under consideration. The ‘a’ might be the symbol −∞, and the ‘b’ might be the
symbol ∞. If these symbols are used, then there is no lowermost or uppermost bound to the
interval. Lastly, two or more simple intervals can be joined together with the union symbol ∪.
Table 1.10 gives more examples of interval notation in use.
Sometimes we will consider collections of only a small, finite number of numbers. In those
cases, we use set notation. With set notation, we have a list of numbers in mind, and we
simply list all of those numbers. Curly braces are standard for encasing the list. Table 1.11
illustrates set notation in use.
While most collections of numbers that we will encounter can be described using a combina-
tion of interval notation and set notation, there is another commonly used notation that all
students of college algebra should be exposed to: set-builder notation. Set-builder notation
also uses curly braces. Set-builder notation provides a template for what a number that is
under consideration might look like, and then it gives you restrictions on how to use that
template. A very basic example of set-builder notation is

{x | x ≥ 3}
1.2. DOMAIN AND RANGE 13

Table 1.10: Interval Notation

picture of interval
interval notation

x
−∞ −2 3 ∞
(−2, 3]

x
−∞ −5 1 3 5 ∞
[−5, 1] ∪ (3, 5)

x
−∞ 2 5 ∞
(−∞, 2) ∪ (2, 5) ∪ (5, ∞)

x
−∞ ∞
(−∞, ∞)

Table 1.11: Set Notation

picture of set
set notation

x
−∞ −2 3 ∞
{−2, 3}

x
−∞ −5 1 3 5 ∞
{−5, 1, 3, 5}

x
−∞ 2 5 ∞
{2} ∪ (5, ∞)

Verbally, this is ‘the set of all x such that x is greater than or equal to 3’. Table 1.12 gives
more examples of set-builder notation in use.

The domain of a function is the collection of its possible inputs; there is a similar notion for
output.

Definition 3 (Range)
The range of a function f is the collection of all of its possible output values.

Example 5 Let f be the function defined by the formula f (x) = x 2 . Finding f ’s domain is particularly ba-
sic. Any number anywhere can be squared to produce an output, so f has domain (−∞, ∞).
What is the range of f ?

Solution We would like to describe the collection of possible numbers that f can give as outputs. First
we will use a graphical approach. Figure 1.8 displays a graph of f , and the visualization that
reveals f ’s range.
14 1.2. DOMAIN AND RANGE

Table 1.12: Set-Builder Notation

picture of set-builder
set notation

x
−∞ −2 3 ∞
{x | −2 < x and x ≤ 3}

x
−∞ 1 3 ∞
{x | x < 1 or x > 3}

x 
−∞ 4 4 ∞
x x 2 ≤ 16

x 
−∞ 0 ∞
x 2 x is a real number

y y y
4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

x x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.8: y = f (x), where f (x) = x 2

Output values are the y-coordinates in a graph. If we ‘slide the ink’ across to the y-axis
(Figure 1.8b) to emphasize what the y-values in the graph are, we have y-values that start
from 0 and continue upward forever. Therefore the range is [0, ∞) (see Figure 1.8c). ■

Solution Here is an alternative solution. Occasionally it is possible to find the range directly , without
the help of a graph. In the case of this function, we understand that the outputs must be
nonnegative, since any real number squared is not negative. We also understand that any
nonnegative output y that you could imagine (0, 0.01, 244, . . . ) is a possible output if we
p
feed f the right input, namely y. So the domain of f is [0, ∞). ■
Finding range from a formula
Example 5 shows us that it is sometimes possible to compute a range without the aid
of a graph. However until students learn some topics that will be covered later in this
text and in a calculus course, it will often be difficult to do so. Therefore when you are
asked to find the range of a function based on its formula, your first approach should
be a graphical one.

Example 6 Given the function g graphed in Figure 1.9, find the domain and range of g.

Solution To find the domain, we can visualize all of the x-values that are valid inputs for this function,
 1.2. DOMAIN AND RANGE 15

y y
3
2

1
2

x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

1
−1

x −2

−1 1

Figure 1.9: y = g(x) Figure 1.10: y = h(x)

by ‘sliding the ink down onto the x-axis. The arrows indicate that whatever pattern we see
in the graph continues off to the left and right. Here, we see that the arms of the graph are
tapering down to the x-axis and extending left and right forever. Every x value is covered, so
the domain is (∞, ∞).
If we visualize the possible outputs by ‘sliding the ink’ sideways onto the y-axis, we find that
outputs as high as 3 are possible (including 3 itself). The outputs appear to be very close to
0 when x is large, but they aren’t quite equal to 0. So the range is (0, 3]. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 3
Find the domain and range of the function h graphed in Figure 1.10.
make sure you try it!

The examples of finding domain and range so far have all involved either a verbal description
of a function, a formula for that function, or a graph of that function. Recall that there is
a fourth persepctive on functions: the table. In the case of a table, we have very limited
information about the function’s inputs and outputs. If the table is all that we have, then
there are a handful of input values listed in the table for which we know outputs. For any
other input, the output is undefined.
Table 1.13: The function k
Example 7 Consider the function k given in Table 1.13. What is the domain and range of k?
x k(x)
3 4 Solution All that we know about k is that k(3) = 4, k(8) = 5, and k(10) = 5. Without any other
8 5 information such as a formula for k or a context for k that tells us its verbal description, we
10 5 must assume that its domain is {3, 8, 10}; these are the only valid input for k. Similarly, k’s
range is {4, 5}. ■
y
5 Note that we have used set notation, not interval notation, since the answers here were lists
4
of x-values and not intervals. Also note that we could graph the information that we have
3
regarding k, as in Figure 1.11, and the visualization of ‘sliding ink’ to determine domain and
2

1
range still works. ■
x
1
Exercises
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Figure 1.11: y = k(x)

Problem 4 (Domain of radical functions)
Find the domain of each of the functions associated with the following formulas.
p p p p9
4.1 f (x) = 4.3 h(x) = 4.5 k(x) = 4.7 m(x) = 4 − x 2
3 7
x 5x 3− x
p p p p
4.2 g(x) = x + 10 4.4 j(x) = 5x + 2
4
4.6 l(x) = 2 − x
6 8
4.8 n(x) = 2 − x 2 + 1
 1.3 Increasing, decreasing, concave up/down
Many functions that are worth studying use time as the input variable. This is quite convenient
when you have a graph of those functions. As we read the graph and follow the curve left-to-
right, we can imagine time moving forward. From this perspective, in Figure 1.12 we see a
function whose outputs grow as time passes, while in Figure 1.13 the outputs decrease. We
would like to take this understanding and declare that some functions are increasing functions,
while others are decreasing functions.
10 10
y y
9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
x x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1 −1

−2 −2

Figure 1.12: y = f (x) Figure 1.13: y = g(x)

Given a graph of some function f , it is usually apparent whether or not we would want to call
the function increasing, decreasing, or neither. But if we left it that, then these new vocabulary
terms wouldn’t be very helpful. We would not be able to use them to prove anything of con-
sequence, because their definitions would be vague. For this reason more formal definitions
have been developed.

Definition 4 (Increasing and Decreasing)

A function f is an increasing function if whenever b > a with both b and a in f ’s
domain, the nature of f implies that f (b) > f (a).
Similarly, f is a decreasing function if whenever b > a with both b and a in f ’s domain,
the nature of f implies that f (b) < f (a).

This definition is consistent with our graphical intuition for what “increasing” and “decreasing”
should mean. For instance in Figure 1.13, you can choose any two numbers that you like on
the input-axis and label the larger number b and the smaller one a. Once you do this, see
that g(b) < g(a). This confirmation of cause (b > a) and effect (g(b) < g(a)) on your part
makes g meet the definition of “decreasing” in Definition 4. But the defintion can be used in
other nongraphical ways as the Examples 1 and 2 show.

Example 1 Suppose we have a function h given by h(x) = 3x +1. Is h an increasing function, a decreasing
function, or neither? It is important to learn to answer a question like this according to the
formal definition that we have introduced.

Solution Suppose that b and a are two numbers with b > a. Both of these numbers are in h’s domain,
since h’s domain is (−∞, ∞). We must decide if the nature of h guarantees that f (b) > f (a),
that f (b) < f (a), or guarantess no such thing.
Well,
b>a
=⇒ 3b > 3a
=⇒ 3b + 1 > 3a + 1
=⇒ h(b) > h(a)
So we have confirmed that h is increasing. ■

16
 1.3. INCREASING, DECREASING, CONCAVE UP/DOWN 17

Table 1.14: k Example 2 Let k be the function given in Table 1.14. We only know outputs of k for inputs in {2, 3, 4}.
We can see inputs 3 > 2 with outputs k(3) > k(2). This is evidence that k might be increasing.
x k(x)
But then se see inputs 4 > 3 and k(4) < k(3), which is evidence that k might be decreasing.
2 3 So the only conclusion we can make is that k is neither increasing nor decreasing. ■
3 8
4 7 It’s not satisfying to look at the graph of function like f in Figure 1.14a and simply state
that it is neither increasing nor decreasing. Part of that graph shows increasing behavior,
and part of it shows decreasing behavior. We’d like to be able to specify this. Since f seems
to be decreasing above the interval [0, 2] and increasing above the interval [2, ∞), we are
motivated to introduce more definitions.
5 5 5
y y y
4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

x x x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

(a) y = f (x) (b) f is increasing on. . . (c) f is decreasing on. . .

Figure 1.14: Incresing and decreasing behavior

Definition 5 (Increasing and Decreasing on an Interval)

Given a function f , we say that f is increasing on the interval I if whenever b > a
with both b and a in I, the nature of f implies that f (b) > f (a). Here, I could be an
interval of any form: (p, q), (p, q], etc.
Similarly, f is decreasing on the interval I if whenever b > a with both b and a in I,
the nature of f implies that f (b) < f (a).

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 1
Find all intervals on which the function f in Figure 1.15 is increasing.

10
9 y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
−2
−3
−4
−5

Figure 1.15: y = f (x)

make sure you try it!

1.3.1 Concavity
In earlier math classes you spent a lot of time talking about linear functions. One defining trait
Table 1.15: f (x) = 3x + 2 of a linear function is that its rate of change is constant; we call this constant rate of change
x f (x) the slope of the function. For example, the slope of the function f , where f (x) = 3x + 2, is
1 5 three. This tells us (among other things) that every time the value of x increases by 1, the
2 8 value of f (x) increases by 3. This is reflected in the values shown in in Table 1.15.
3 11
On the other hand, the function g defined by g(x) = x 2 does not change at a constant rate. If
4 14
we look at how the function behaves over the positive integers (see Table 1.16), we clearly see
5 17
that as the value of x continually increases by 1, the value of the function increases at a faster
 18 1.3. INCREASING, DECREASING, CONCAVE UP/DOWN

and faster rate; another way to express this is to say that g is concave up. This vocabulary is
motivated by the graph of g, which has a concavity above it.
Table 1.16: g(x) = x 2
x g(x) Definition 6 (Concavity)
A function f is concave up on an interval I if every way of taking two numbers a and b
1 1
from I, locating (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) on the graph of f , and connecting them with a
2 4
straight line segment yields a line segment that is above the graph of f , touching the
3 9
graph of f only at the segment’s endpoints.
4 16
5 25 Here, I may be an interval of any type: (p, q), (p, q], etc.
A function f is concave down on an interval I if such line segments are below the graph
Figure 1.16: y = x 2 of f .
30
y
25
25 Example 3 Figures 1.17 and 1.18 demonstrate some functions and their concavities.
20
16 y
15

10 9
y y
5 4
1 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−5 x x

x
Figure 1.17: Concave up on (∞, ∞) −1 2

Figure 1.18: Concave down on [−1, 2]

Example 4 Graph each of the functions defined by the following formulas on the interval (−5, 5), using
either a table of values or technology; state if each function is concave up or concave down
on (−∞, ∞).

1
f (x) = (x − 2)4 g(x) = 3 + 2x − x 2 k(x) = 5 − 2 x
4

Solution We graph the functions f , g, and h in Figures 1.19–1.21. We observe that

• f is concave up on (−∞, ∞);

• g is concave down on (−∞, ∞);

• k is concave down on (−∞, ∞). ■

y y y
4 4 4

2 2 2

x x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4

Figure 1.19: f Figure 1.20: g Figure 1.21: k

1.3. INCREASING, DECREASING, CONCAVE UP/DOWN 19

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 2
Graph each of the functions defined by the following formulas on the interval (−5, 5), using
either a table of values or technology; state if each function is concave up or concave down
on (−∞, ∞).

f (x) = −x 2 g(x) = 0.1x 4 + 0.5x 2 − 3x + 2 h(x) = x 3

make sure you try it!

We introduced this section on concavity by discussing the rate of change of the functions
in Tables 1.15 and 1.16, but then defined concavity as a geometric property of a function’s
graph. There is a connection. Let’s take a look at the functions in Figures 1.22a–1.22c which
are concave up on (−∞, ∞), reading each graph left-to-right.

5 5 5
y y y
4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

x x x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

(a) Concave up and increasing (b) Concave up and decreasing (c) Concave up

Figure 1.22: Concave up functions

In Figure 1.22a, the graph is increasing everywhere. At the beginning it is increasing slowly,
and as we move to the right, it increases with a higher and higher rate of change.
In Figure 1.22b, the graph is decreasing everywhere. At the beginning it is decreasing quickly,
and as we move to the right, it decreases with a smaller and smaller rate of change.
In Figure 1.22c, the graph is decreasing at first, and then increases. At the beginning it is
decreasing quickly, and as we move toward the low point, it decreases with a smaller and
smaller rate of change. Beyond the low point, it is increasing slowly at first, and then increases
with a larger and larger rate of change.
These three situations capture what it could mean for a funciton to be concave up.
Concavity and rates of change
A function f is concave up on an interval I if any of the following statements is true
(see Figures 1.22a–1.22c):
• f increases at a faster and faster rate;
• f decreases at a slower and slower rate;
• f transitions from decreasing at a slower and slower rate to increasing at a faster
and faster rate.
Here, I may be an interval of any type: (p, q), (p, q], etc.
A function f is concave down on an interval I if any of the following statements is
true:
• f decreases at a faster and faster rate;
• f increases at a slower and slower rate;
• f transitions from increasing at a slower and slower rate to decreasing at a faster
and faster rate.

If you are comfortable with negative numbers, then there is an even simpler way to summarize
this. In ??, the rate of change begins small and positive and gradually becomes larger. In
20 1.3. INCREASING, DECREASING, CONCAVE UP/DOWN

??, the rate of change begins large and negative and gradually becomes a smaller negative
number; that is the rate of change becomes larger on a number line. In ??, the rate of change
begins negative and gradually moves higher on a number line until it is positive.
Concavity and rates of change again
A function f is concave up on an interval I if the rate of change becomes larger and
larger in a number-line sense.
Here, I may be an interval of any type: (p, q), (p, q], etc.
A function f is concave up on an interval I if the rate of change becomes smaller and
smaller in a number-line sense.

Exercises

Problem 3 (Intervals of increase, decrease and concavity)

Figure 1.23 shows the graphs of four functions p, q, r, and s.
3.1 Approximate the zeros of each function.
3.2 Approximate the local maximums and minimums of each of the functions.
3.3 Approximate the global maximums and minimums of each of the functions.
3.4 Approximate the intervals on which each function is increasing and decreasing.
3.5 Approximate the intervals on which each function is concave up and concave down.
Problem 4 (Given properties, sketch a function)
In each of the following problems, sketch a function that has the given properties.
4.1 Increasing and concave up.
4.2 Decreasing and concave up.
4.3 Decreasing and concave down.
4.4 Increasing and concave down.
Problem 5 (Increasing or decreasing from a table)
Tables 1.17a–1.17d show values of functions f , g, h, and j. Decide if each function is increasing or decreasing.

Table 1.17: Tables for Problem 5

(a) y = f (x) (b) y = g(x) (c) y = h(x) (d) y = j(x)

x y x y x y x y
0 0 −10 π −4 −7 −4 1/16

1 −1 −6 π −3 −5 −3 1/8

2 −4 −2 π −2 −3 −2 1/4

3 −9 2 π −1 −1 −1 1/2

4 −16 6 π 0 1 0 1
5 −25 10 π 1 3 1 2
6 −36 14 π 2 5 2 4
7 −49 18 π 3 7 3 8
8 −64 22 π 4 9 4 16

Problem 6 (Determine concavity from a table)

Decide if each of the functions depicted in Tables 1.17a–1.17d are concave up or concave down. You might like to plot
the values from each table to help you visualize the concavity.
Problem 7 (Counter examples)
The following statements are all false. Provide the formula for a function that contradicts each statement– note that there
are many different functions that will work and as we progress through the later chapters, you will be able to provide
more interesting examples.
7.1 All increasing functions are concave up.
1.3. INCREASING, DECREASING, CONCAVE UP/DOWN 21

8
y 8
y 8
y
6 6

4 4 4

2 2
x x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −4 4 8
−2 −2

−4 −4 −4

−6 −6

−8 −8 −8

(b) y = q(x) (c) y = r(x) (d) y = s(x)

−4 −2 2 4 6

−4

−8

(a) y = p(x)

Figure 1.23: Graphs for Problem 3.

7.2 All increasing functions are concave down.

7.3 All decreasing functions are concave up.
7.4 All decreasing functions are concave down.
7.5 Quadratic functions always increase.
7.6 Quadratic functions always decrease.
 1.4 Simplification Issues
Throughout your algebra course (and beyond), you are going to encounter the algebra sim-
plification steps that we are about to discuss. Algebra simplification is a skill - like cooking
noodles or painting a wall. It’s not always the most exciting thing in the world, but it does
serve a greater purpose. Also like cooking noodles or painting a wall, it’s not usually difficult.
And yet there are common avoidable mistakes that people make. With practice from this sec-
tion, you’ll have experience to prevent yourself from overcooking the noodles or ruining your
paintbrush.
Let’s start by reminding ourselves one more time what the meaning of our function notation
is. When we write f (x), we have a process f that is working its business on an input value
x. Whatever is inside those parentheses is the input to the function.

Example 1 If f (x) = x 2 + 3x − 4, find and simplify a formula for f (−x).

Solution Those parentheses encase “−x”, so we are meant to treat “−x” as the input. The rule that we
have been given for f is
f (x) = x 2 + 3x − 4
But the x’s that are in this formula are just place holders. What f does to a number can just
as well be communicated with

f ( ) = ( )2 + 3( ) − 4

So now that we are meant to treat “−x” as the input, we will insert “−x” into those slots, after
which we can do more familiar algebraic simplification:

f (−x) = (−x)2 + 3(−x) − 4

= x 2 − 3x − 4 ■

Example 2 If f (x) = 2x 2 + 8, find and simplify a formula for f (3x).

Solution Those parentheses encase “3x”, so we are meant to treat “3x” as the input.

f ( ) = 2( )2 + 8
f (3x) = 2(3x)2 + 8
= 2(9x 2 ) + 8
= 18x 2 + 8 ■

Example 3 If f (x) = x 2 − 3x, find and simplify a formula for f (x − 4).

Solution This kind of example is often challenging for college algebra students. But let’s focus on those
parentheses one more time. They encase “x −4”, so we are meant to treat “x −4” as the input.

f ( ) = ( )2 − 3( )
f (x − 4) = (x − 4)2 − 3(x − 4)
= x 2 − 8x + 16 − 3x + 12
= x 2 − 11x + 28 ■

The tasks that are shown in Examples 1–3 are the kind of task that will make it easier to under-
stand interesting and useful material in later chapters and sections, particularly in Section 1.6.
This skill is also essential for getting off the ground in a calculus course, which might be in
your future.

Example 4 Consider the function f given by f (x) = 41 x 2 + x + 2, graphed in Figure 1.24. Let’s introduce
a value on the x-axis and call that value a. Figure 1.25 illustrates a possible location for a, but
we do not wish to specify any particular number for a. Directly above a, we have the point

22
1.4. SIMPLIFICATION ISSUES 23

6 6
y y
5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2

−1 −1

Figure 1.24: figure Figure 1.25: figure

y = f (x) y = f (x)

(a, f (a)) on the graph of f . Let’s imagine stepping 3 units forward on the x-axis4 . What
x-value would we now be at?
After stepping 3 units forward, the new x-value would be a + 3. Since points on the graph
are all of the form (input, output), then above this on the graph is the point (a + 3, f (a + 3)).
This is also marked in Figure 1.25.
We are interested in the slope of the line that connects these two points on f ’s graph. Our
task is to find and simplify an expression for that slope.

Solution As we recall, the slope of a line can be computed by measuring the rise and run between two
points on that line, and taking their ratio. We see a run of 3 between these two points. What
is the rise between them? The right point has y-value f (a + 3) and the left point has y-value
f (a). So the rise is f (a + 3) − f (a). And that means the slope of the line is given by

f (a + 3) − f (a)
3
To simplify this, we will again pay careful attention to the meaning of those parentheses. In
general,
1
f ( ) = ( )2 + ( ) + 2
4
So
1 1


4 (a + 3) + (a + 3) + 2 − 4 (a) + (a) + 2
2 2
f (a + 3) − f (a)
=
3 3
1
4 (a 2
+ 6a + 9) + a + 5 − 14 a2 − a − 2
=
3
1 2 3 9
4 a + 2 a + 4 + a + 5 − 14 a2 − a − 2
=
3
3 21
2a + 4
=
3
1 7
= a+
2 4

To clarify what we just computed: wherever we place the x-value a, the slope of the segment
that connects the graph to a point 3 units further to the right will always be 12 a + 47 . ■

4
There is nothing special about 3; we are just choosing a number for the example.
 1.5 Composition
f g

x f (x) g( f (x))

g◦f

Figure 1.26

Example 1 – Coupons: Jon and Kevin are shopping for a pair of jeans; they have a coupon for $5 off a
pair of jeans. When they arrive at the store, they find that all jeans have an extra 25 % marked
off the price. They find a pair of jeans for $55; they would like to save as much money as
possible, but can’t agree on a good stratedgy:
(a) Jon wants to use the coupon first, and then apply the 25 % off.
(b) Kevin wants to apply the 25 % off first, and then use the coupon.
Help them resolve their dispute.

Solution (a) If they use the coupon first, then the total cost of the jeans is calculated using

(55 − 5) · (0.75) = 37.5

The jeans cost $37.50 using Jon’s method.

(b) If they deduct 25 % first, then the cost of the jeans is calculated using

(0.75) · 55 − 5 = 36.25

The jeans cost $36.25 using Kevin’s method.

If Jon and Kevin want to minimize cost, they should take 25 % off the price first, and then use
the coupon. ■

Example 2 – Coupons continued: Jon and Kevin (from Example 1) are still thinking about jeans, and
decide to try and generalize their findings to jeans that cost x dollars.
They let f be the function that represents the cost of the jeans after using the $5 coupon, and
g be the function that represents the cost of the jeas after applying the 25 % discount. They
write the following formulas for f (x) and g(x)

f (x) = x − 5
g(x) = 0.75x

Jon suggests using a function r to represent the cost of the jeans when using the coupon first
and then applying the 25 % off; Kevin suggests using a function s to represent the cost of the
jeans when applying the 25 % first, and then the coupon. They find the following formulas
for r(x) and s(x)

r(x) = (g ◦ f )(x) s(x) = ( f ◦ g)(x)

= g(x − 5) = f (0.75x)
= 0.75(x − 5) = 0.75x − 5

They decide to test their formulas by evaluating r(55) and s(55) as follows

r(55) = 0.75(55 − 5) s(55) = 0.75(55) − 5

= 37.5 = 36.25

Both calculations agree with what they found in Example 1, as expected. ■

24
 1.5. COMPOSITION 25

Example 3 – Composition: Let f and g be the functions that have formulas

f (x) = x 2 , g(x) = 2x + 1

We can compose the functions to form new functions f ◦ g and g ◦ f as follows

( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) (g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x))

= (2x + 1) 2
= 2x 2 + 1 ■

Example 4 Isla is considering the functions f and g that have formulas

p 3
f (x) = x − 3, g(x) =
x
Help Isla find the domain of the following functions:
(a) g ◦ f
(b) f ◦ g

Solution (a) The function g ◦ f has formula

3
(g ◦ f )(x) = p
x −3
The domain of g ◦ f is (3, ∞).
(b) Isla composes f and g to form the function f ◦ g that has formula
v
t3
( f ◦ g)(x) = −3
x
and says that the domain of f ◦ g is (−∞, 1) because
3 3
−3≥0⇒ ≥3
x x
⇒1≥ x

Oscar stops by and says that since 0 is supposedly in the domain of f ◦ g, he should be
able to compute ( f ◦ g)(0), but immediately runs into trouble since g(0) is undefined.
Oscar retraces Isla’s steps and remembers that
y 3
4
y =3
≥3⇒1≥ x
x
2
y= 3
but only when x > 0; when x < 0 it switches the inequality symbol and implies that
x
x ≥ 1 which is clearly a contradiction. Oscar visualizes this algebra in Figure 1.27; in
x
particular, the shaded region highlights the interval on which 3x ≥ 3.
−4 −2 2 4

Isla and Oscar therefore conclude that the domain of f ◦ g is actually (0, 1]. ■
−2

Exercises
−4

Problem 1 (Composition using tables)

Figure
Tables 1.27
1.18a–1.18d show values of the functions F , G, H, and J. Use these tables to find the following values; if the
values are defined, state so.

1.1 (F ◦ G)(8) 1.3 (H ◦ J)(11) 1.5 (G ◦ F )(5) 1.7 (J ◦ H)(4)

1.2 (G ◦ H)(−3) 1.4 (J ◦ F )(7) 1.6 (H ◦ G)(7) 1.8 (F ◦ J)(17)

Problem 2 (Composition using graphs)

The functions p, q, r, and s are shown in Figure 1.28. Use the graphs to evaluate each of the following– if the value is
undefined, then state so.
26 1.5. COMPOSITION

Table 1.18: Tables for Problem 1

(a) y = F (x) (b) y = G(x) (c) y = H(x) (d) y = J(x)

x y x y x y x y
0 0 0 8 −4 2 2 0
1 1 1 7 −3 3 3 1
2 2 2 6 −2 5 5 2
3 3 3 5 −1 7 7 3
4 4 4 4 0 11 11 4
5 5 5 3 1 13 13 5
6 6 6 2 2 17 17 6
7 7 7 1 3 19 19 7
8 8 8 0 4 23 23 8

2.1 (q ◦ p)(8) 2.3 (q ◦ r)(0) 2.5 (q ◦ r)(6)

2.2 (p ◦ q)(0) 2.4 (p ◦ r)(−2) 2.6 (q ◦ s)(6)

y y y y
4
4
x 8

6
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
2 3 4
−2
2
x 2 x
−4
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 1 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2

−2
x −6
−4
2 4 6 8 −6
−1 −8
−4 −8

(a) y = p(x) (b) y = q(x) (c) y = r(x) (d) y = s(x)

Figure 1.28
 1.6 Transformations
Example 1 Figure 1.29a shows a function f ; Figure 1.29b shows a function g that is a horizontal trans-
formation of f . The formula for g(x) is

g(x) = f (2x − 4) (1.1)

Find the sequence of transformations that transforms f (x) into g(x).

y y

(5,5) (4.5,5)

4 4

2 2

(−1,1) (2,1) (1.5,1)(2.5,1)

x x
(0,0) (3,0) (2,0) (3.5,0)
2 4 6 2 4 6

(a) y = f (x) (b) y = g(x)

Figure 1.29: A function f and a transformation of f

Solution Let’s consider how we can get the new x-values, x n , for g(x) in terms of the old x-values, x o ,
from f (x).

We set the argument of g(x) equal to an old x-value, and then solve for the new value

2x n − 4 = x 0 original function
2x n = x 0 + 4 shift to the right by 4 units
x0 + 4 1
xn = compress by a factor of towards the y-axis
2 2

You might prefer to look at this using ordered pairs; Table 1.19 shows how the steps above
can be applied to the ordered pairs of the original function f depicted in Figure 1.29a.

Table 1.19: Transforming f (x) into g(x) numerically

1
(a) Shift right 4 (b) Compress by factor of 2

f (x) New Result from Table 1.19a g(x)

(−1, 1) (−1 + 4, 1) = (3, 1) (3, 1) (3 ÷ 2, 1) = (1.5, 2)
(0, 0) (0 + 4, 0) = (4, 0) (4, 0) (4 ÷ 2, 0) = (2, 0)
(2, 1) (6, 1) (6, 1) (3, 1)
(3, 0) (7, 0) (7, 0) (3.5, 0)
(5, 5) (9, 5) (9, 5) (4.5, 0)

The original formula for g(x) in Equation (1.1) can be expressed in a slightly different way

g(x) = f (2x − 4)
= f (2(x − 2))

It seems that this formula for g(x) will lead us to make different transformations from f (x)
to g(x); let’s see if we can replicate our previous result.

27
28 1.6. TRANSFORMATIONS

We set the argument of g(x) equal to an old x-value, and then solve for the new value

2(x n − 2) = x o the original function

x0 1
xn − 2 = compress by a factor of towards the y-axis
2 2
x0
xn = +2 shift to the right by 2 units
2
If you prefer an approach using ordered pairs, then study Table 1.20.

Table 1.20: Transforming f (x) into g(x) (alternative approach)

1
(a) Compress by a factor of 2
(b) Shift right by 2 units

f (x) New Result from Table 1.20a g(x)

(−1, 1) (−1 ÷ 2, 1) = (−0.5, 1) (−0.5, 1) (−0.5 + 2, 0) = (1.5, 0)
(0, 0) (0 ÷ 0, 0) = (0, 0) (0, 0) (0 + 2, 0) = (2, 0)
(2, 1) (1, 1) (1, 1) (3, 1)
(3, 0) (1.5, 0) (1.5, 0) (3.5, 0)
(5, 5) (2.5, 5) (2.5, 5) (4.5, 5)

Notice that in the end, both sets of transformations yeild the same formula for g(x). ■
 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 2

Contents
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Solving exponential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3 Finding an exponential function given two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4 Exponential modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5 The number e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.6 Comparing linear and exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.7 Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

29
 2.1 Introduction
Section Themes, Concepts, Issues, Competencies, and Skills:
• Explore increasing and decreasing functions, particularly in the context of concavity;
• Determine a function’s concavity based on a table of values, a graph, or a description.
Core problems in this section (Æ): 2.1, 3.1, 3.3
In our mathematical adventures so far we have studied linear, quadratic, and radical functions.
The simplicity of these functions is useful when introducing new concepts such as transfor-
mations, composition, and inverse functions; but it is somewhat restrictive when we wish to
consider interesting real-world application problems.
For example, let’s say that we were interested in modeling the temperature of a hot cup of
coffee since it was first poured. We cannot write a formula for such a model yet, but perhaps
Figure 2.1a depicts a reasonable approximation of the graph of it. Or perhaps we would like
to model the growth in population of the world; again, we can not write a formula for such a
model at this stage, but you might agree that Figure 2.1b is a likely candidate for the graph
of the model.
Clearly the functions depicted in Figure 2.1 belong to a different class than those that we have
considered so far. In fact, they belong to the class known as exponential functions, the study
of which is a fascinating topic that encompasses many applications, and a lot of interesting
mathematical features. Prepare yourself for a colorful and exciting journey that will take us
through the landscape of some of the most useful functions that we will every encounter.

y y

t t

(a) (b)

Figure 2.1

Example 1 Congratulations, you’ve been offered a job! Human Resources told you that you would start
out making 2 ¢ on the first day, and every day you work thereafter your pay will double. Would
you take this job?

Table 2.1 Table 2.2

d (days worked) p (cents) d (days worked) p (cents)
1 2 1 2
2 4 2 22
3 8 3 23
4 16 4 24
5 32 5 25
10 1024 10 210
30 1 073 741 824 30 230

Table 2.1 shows how much money you would make per day, in cents, for the first 5 days, and
how much you would make on the 10th and 30th days. The amount you make on day 30 is
1073741824 cents, which is
$10,737,418.24
That’s over 10 million dollars in a single day! How did this happen? Can we develop a formula
to help us understand the mathematics behind this?

30
2.1. INTRODUCTION 31

It seems that the dollar amount is multiplied by 2 each day. An alternative way of writing
our daily income is shown in Table 2.2. Can we write a formula that calculates the pay, p, in
cents, as a function of the number of days worked, d? According to Table 2.2, it appears that
the day of the month is in the exponent, so let’s write

p = 2d

where d is a positive integer. This is our first example of an exponential function – exploring
these types of functions is our primary goal in this chapter. ■

Definition 7 (Exponential functions)

An exponential function is a function f that can be described with the formula

f (x) = a b x

where a is a non-zero real number (a ∈ R, a ̸= 0) and b is a positive number other

than 1 (b > 0, b ̸= 1). Notice that the variable is in the exponent and the base is the
fixed constant b.
Note that in an exponential term the base is fixed and the variable is in the exponent
(e.g. 5·4 x ), whereas in a polynomial term the exponent is fixed the base is the variable
(e.g 6x 3 ).

Example 2 – Rice on a chessboard: Many years ago there lived a Queen who loved to play games; so
much so, that she had a jester dedicated to devising interesting games for her. The Queen
particularly enjoyed mathematical games.
One day the jester brought her a chessboard (see Figure 2.2) and a bucket filled with rice.

Table 2.3
square on board grains of rice
x g(x)
1 3
2 9
3 27
4 81
.. ..
. .
.. ..
. .
20 3 486 784 401
.. ..
. .
.. ..
. .
x 3x

The jester asked the Queen to follow these instructions

• Place 3 grains of rice on the square in the lower left hand corner of the board.
• Place 9 grains of rice on the square immediately to the right of the square you were just
working with.
Figure 2.2 • Place 27 grains of rice on the square immediately to the right of the square you were
just working with.
The Queen starts to notice a pattern, and records her findings in Table 2.3. She also notes
that as she progresses from square to square, the number of grains appears to be tripling each
time.
The Queen, being mathematically inclined, decides to try to model the game using a formula.
She decides to let x be the number corresponding to the square on the chessboard, and let
 32 2.1. INTRODUCTION

g(x) represent the number of grains of rice on that square, and assumes that she works each
row from left to right as she moves up the chessboard.
10
y The Queen notices that each of the numbers she writes in Table 2.3 can be written as a power
of 3, and concludes that the formula for the number of grains on square x of the chessboard
is
5
g(x) = 3 x
The Queen decides to test her formula by calculating the number of grains on the 17th square.
She finds that
x g(17) = 129 140 163
−4 −2 2 4 and says that there are (or would be, if they could fit) 129 140 163 grains of rice on the 17th
square – wow!
Figure 2.3: g
Of course, the Queen knows that this formula only works when x takes the integer values
{1, 2, . . . , 64}, but wonders what would happen if she graphed g on her calculator (which she
always has with her for just such a situation). The Queen graphs g on her calculator assuming
that g can take values outside of the contextual domain, and obtains the graph in ??.
The Queen concludes that g is increasing at a faster and faster rate, and cannot imagine ever
being able to fit the appropriate amount of rice on each square. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 1
Repeat Example 2, but instead of tripling the number of grains of rice on each square, try
quadrupling them.
make sure you try it!

We have so far seen two exponential functions, p and g, both of which increase at a faster
and faster rate. You may wonder if all exponential functions behave in this way – the next
example demonstrates that they do not.

Example 3 – Folding paper: Have you ever tried to fold a piece of paper in half more than 7 times?
No matter the size of the paper, it becomes quite difficult – the MythBusters tried quite an
elaborate experiment along these lines.1
We are going to experiment with paper folding and study the mathematics behind the results.
The area of a ‘letter’ sheet of paper is 8.5 in × 11 in, or 93.5 in2 . We will use two decimal places
in what follows.
If we fold a sheet of letter paper in half, the visible surface area is
93.52 in2 1
 ‹
= 93.5 in2
2 2
= 46.75 in2
Note that we say, ‘visible’, because the actual surface area of the paper has not changed.
If we fold the sheet in half again, the visible surface area is
46.75 in2 93.52 in2
=
2 4
 ‹2
1
= 93.5 in2
2
≈ 23.38 in2
If we fold the sheet in half a third time, the visible surface area is
 ‹3
93.5 in2 1
= 93.5 in2
8 2
≈ 11.69 in2
Let’s try and generalize our results by letting x be the number of paper folds; x will start at
0, and increase in integer values. Table 2.4 has two columns, one for the number of folds (up
to 7), and one for the visible surface area of the (folded) paper.
1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kRAEBbotuIE
 2.1. INTRODUCTION 33

Table 2.4 y
350
number of folds visible area
x (in2 ) 300

0 93.50 250

1 46.75 200

2 23.38 150

3 11.69 100
4 5.84 50
5 2.92 x
6 1.46 −4 −2 2 4

7 0.73 Figure 2.4: y = A(x)

If we let A(x) represent the visible surface area of the paper after x folds, then a formula for
A is  ‹x
1
A(x) = 93.5
2
where x = 0, 1, 2, . . .. If we allow A to take values outside of its contextual domain, then we
can graph y = A(x) on a graphing calculator, and obtain Figure 2.4. Notice in particular that
A decreases at a slower and slower rate. ■
The graphs of exponential functions have certain features that tell us a lot about the quantities
they are modeling. Graphical features like increasing/decreasing and the position of any
asymptotes translate to important information about population sizes, bank accounts, and
more.

Example 4 Consider the function f in Figure 2.5. There are a number of features that we can note:
• f is increasing;
• f is concave up; in particular, f is increasing at a faster and faster rate;
• the line y = 3 is a horizontal asymptote of f as x → −∞;
• f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞;
• the range of f is (3, ∞).
Note that f never touches its horizontal asymptote (see Figure 2.6). ■

4
y
4 3.5

3
2

2.5

x x
2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−6 −5 −4 −3

Figure 2.5: f (x) = 2 x + 3 Figure 2.6: Close up!

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 2
Repeat Example 4 for each of the functions defined by the following formulas.
FIX
34 2.1. INTRODUCTION

2 x


Æ 2.1 g(x) = 5 − 4 x 2.2 h(x) = 3 −4

make sure you try it!

Exponential modeling will require familiarity with percentages. This example aims to help
you (re)acquaint yourself with them.

Example 5 Wild honeybee colonies tend to have around 15 % drones (males). If a colony has 4,280 bees,
about how many of them are drones?

Solution The percentage 15 % should be converted to a decimal in order to do arithmetic with it: 0.15.

drone count = 15 % of total bee count

= 0.15 · 4280
= 642

So there are about 642 drones in the colony. ■

Definition 8 (Growth factor and growth rate)

An exponential function f can be written in (at least) two ways.

f (t) = a b t f (t) = a(1 + r) t

• The constant b is called the growth factor. When t increases by 1, the value of
f (t) changes by a factor of b; that is, every unit of time the value of f (t) is
multiplied by b.
• The constant r is called the growth rate. We usually write r as a decimal and
interpret it as a percent. When t increases by 1, the amount of change in f (t) is
r. For example, if r = 0.10, when t increases by 1 the value of f (t) increases by
10 %. Whereas if r = −0.05, when t increases by 1 the value of f (t) decreases
by 5 %.

Example 6 A population is modeled by the formula P(t) = P0 (1.15) t , where t is the amount of time that
has passed (in years) since the population was P0 . Find each of the following:

(a) 1-year growth factor (b) 2-year growth factor (c) 10-year growth factor
and 1-year growth rate and 2-year growth rate and 10-year growth
rate

Solution (a) The 1-year growth factor is what we multiply P0 by after one year: (1.15)1 = 1.15. So
the 1-year growth factor is 1.15 and the 1-year growth rate is 15 %.
(b) The 2-year growth factor is what P0 would be multiplied by after two years: (1.15)2 ≈
1.32. So the 2-year growth factor is about 1.32 and the 2-year growth rate is about
32 %.
(c) The 10-year growth factor is (1.15)10 ≈ 4.05, and the 10-year growth rate is approxi-
mately 305 %. ■

Example 7 The bacterium Clostridium perfringens can reproduce every 9 minutes. Suppose that there
are initially 50 bacteria in a jar and that they have access to an adequate supply of nutrients.
Write a model for this situation and find the following:

(a) 9-minute growth factor (b) 1-minute growth factor (c) 1-hour growth factor
and 9-minute growth and 1-minute growth and 1-hour growth rate
rate rate

Solution Let P(t) be the number of bacteria where t is the amount of time that has passed (in minutes)
since the population was 50 bacteria.
2.1. INTRODUCTION 35

Table 2.5
t P(t) Exponential form
50 · 2 /9 = 50 · 2
0
0 50
9/9
9 100 50 · 2 = 50 · 21
50 · 2 /9 = 50 · 22
18
18 200
27/9
27 400 50 · 2 = 50 · 23

Table 2.5 shows values of P(t) for the first 27 hours.

We can deduce from Table 2.5 that

P(t) = 50 · 2 /9
t

(a) The 9-minute growth factor is 2 /9 = 2.00, and the 9-minute growth rate is 100 % (not
9

surprising since we knew the population doubled in 9 minutes).

(b) The 1-minute growth factor is 2 /9 ≈ 1.08, and the 1-minute growth rate is approxi-
1

mately 8 %.
60/9
(c) The 1-hr growth factor is 2 ≈ 101.59 (or 10 159 %), and the 1-hr growth rate is
approximately 10 059 %. ■

Investigations Problem 3 (The Legend of Payasam)

Example 2 is a version of the Legend of Payasam.
According to legend, Lord Krishna once appeared in the form of a sage in the court of a king
who ruled a region of southern India. Lord Krishna challenged the king to a game of chess.
The king, being a chess enthusiast, gladly accepted the challenge.
The players decided to put a wager on the game; the king let the sage choose the prize. The
sage told the king that he was a man of few material needs, and thus all he wished for was a
few grains of rice.
The sage suggested that the amount of rice should be determined using the chessboard in the
following manner. Two grains of rice will be placed on the first square, four grains on the
second square, eight on the third square, and so on. That is, every square will have double
the number of grains as its predecessor.
Upon hearing the demand, the king was unhappy since the sage requested only a few grains
of rice instead of other riches from the kingdom.
We are going to attach monetary value to our calculations. We will assume that
• there are approximately 7200 grains of rice in a cup;
• there are 3 cups of rice in a 1-lb bag;
• a 1-lb bag of rice is worth $2.
Æ 3.1 Approximate the number of grains of rice that are in a 1-lb bag.
3.2 What is the first square on the chessboard that could be used to fill a 1-lb bag (without using
rice from the previous squares)?
Æ 3.3 Before we begin our money calculations, write down how much money you would like to get
as a prize from the king.
3.4 If you were to exchange the rice on the 16th square for money, how much would you get?
3.5 Using the value you obtained in Problem 3.4, determine the value of the rice on the 17th
square.
3.6 Using the value you obtained in Problem 3.4, determine the first square that would give you
more than $1,000,000 worth of rice.
36 2.1. INTRODUCTION

3.7 Using the value you obtained in Problem 3.4, determine the value of the rice put on the last
square.
3.8 How does the value of the rice on the last square compare to the amount you wrote down in
Problem 3.3?
Problem 4 (Changing Rates of Change)
4.1 The graphs of several increasing functions are given in Figures 2.7–2.9. For each function, de-
cide whether the function increases at a constant rate, increases at an increasing rate (concave
up), or increases at a slower and slower rate (concave down).

15 y 15 y 15 y

10 10 10

5 5 5

x x x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 2.7: y = m(x) Figure 2.8: y = n(x) Figure 2.9: y = o(x)

4.2 Tables 2.6–2.8 show values for 3 increasing functions. For each function, decide whether the
function increases at a constant rate, increases at an increasing rate (concave up), or increases
at a slower and slower rate (concave down).

Table 2.6: y = p(x) Table 2.7: y = q(x) Table 2.8: y = r(x)

x y x y x y
1 3 1 6 1 4
2 8 4 7 2 8
4 18 9 8 3 16
8 38 16 9 4 32
16 78 25 10 5 64

4.3 Several functions are described below. For each function, decide whether the function in-
creases at a constant rate, increases at a faster and faster rate (concave up), or increases at a
slower and slower rate (concave down).
(a) The amount in a bank account where $5000 is initially invested and the money sits and
earns interest at a rate of 6 % per year.
(b) The distance your car has traveled t seconds after you slammed on the brakes.
(c) The elevation of a typewriter that is falling, t seconds after it is dropped from a plane
flying at an elevation of 30,000 feet.
4.4 For each function below, decide whether the function increases at a constant rate, increases
at an increasing rate (concave up), or increases at a slower and slower rate (concave down).
p
(a) The function f , where f (x) = 3 + 2 x
(b) The function g, where g(x) = 3 + 2x
(c) The function h, where h(x) = 3 + 2(4 x )
Problem 5 (Medication)
A medication is injected into your body. The amount of medication in your body decays
exponentially over time. The original dose you receive is 4 cc, and the amount in your body
decays at a rate of 8.5 % per hour.
5.1 Let Q(t) be the amount of medication in your body (in cc) at time t in hours since it was
injected. Write a formula for Q(t).
5.2 What are the growth rate and growth factor of Q?
5.3 According to your model, does the medication ever go away completely? Why or why not?
2.1. INTRODUCTION 37

Problem 6 (Melting of Arctic Sea Ice)

Using satellite imagery, scientists now believe that the Arctic sea ice cover is being reduced in
area by 8% every ten years. In September of 2005 the area of the ice cover was 5.35 million km2 ,
according to the National Snow and Ice Data Center2 .
6.1 Generate an exponential model for the melting of the Arctic sea ice cover.
6.2 Find the half-life of the ice. In what year will the Arctic sea ice reach half of its 2005 level?
6.3 According to your model, what was the area in 1995?
6.4 Use the two data points you determined in Problems 6.2 and 6.3 to generate a linear model
for the melting of the Arctic sea ice cover. Comment on the differences in your two models’
predictions for 2010, 2030, and 2050.
6.5 When do each of your models (from Problems 6.1 and 6.4) predict the Arctic sea ice cover
will melt to less than 100 km2 ?
6.6 Graph your exponential model twice. For the first graph, choose a scale which supports the
view that these changes are minimal and nothing to worry about. For the second graph,
choose a scale which supports the view that these changes are drastic and of great concern.
When reading graphs produced by someone else which seem to support a particular opinion,
what aspects of the graphs are important to consider?
6.7 If all the ice melts in the summer, does this mean that the Arctic sea ice cover has permanently
disappeared? What effect does the disappearing Arctic sea ice cover have on the planet? Are
there consequences beyond the Arctic region?

Exercises

Problem 7 (Exponential or not)

Decide if the following formulas correspond to exponential functions or not.

x
7.1 f (x) = 5 x 7.4 k(x) = −3 · 2 x 7.7 p(x) = 4 7.10 s(x) = − 23
7.2 g(x) = x 5 7.5 m(x) = 3x 2 7.8 q(x) = 0 7.11 t(x) = 5x

x 2 x
7.6 n(x) = 12


7.3 h(x) = 3 · 2 x 7.9 r(x) = 3 7.12 u(x) = π

Problem 8 (Identify a and b)

Each of the following formulas define exponential functions, and have the form f (x) = a b x . Identify a and b in each
case.

2 t w
8.1 f (x) = 2 · 3 x 8.5 F (s) = 3−s 8.7 H(w) = − 45


8.3 h(t) = 3

8.2 g(x) = −4 · 5 x 2 y 2


8.4 k( y) = − 3 8.6 G(r) = 3r 8.8 K(z) = −10 · 5−z

Problem 9 (Exponential function evaluation)

Evaluate each of the following formulas at −10, −5, 0, 5, and 10. Give the exact answer, and an approximation (where
appropriate) using two figures after the decimal.

1 x 2 x



9.1 f (x) = 2 x 9.2 g(x) = 3 9.3 h(x) = −5 x 9.4 k(x) = − 5

Problem 10 (Features of exponential functions)

Refer to the functions f , g, h, and k defined in Problem 9 throughout this problem.
10.1 Decide if each function is always increasing or always decreasing.
10.2 Decide if each function is concave up or concave down.
10.3 Determine the domain and range of each function.
2
http://nsidc.org/
 38 2.1. INTRODUCTION

Problem 11 (Prerequisite percentage skills)

Answer these questions concerning percentages.
11.1 Wild honeybee colonies tend to have around 15 % drones (males). If a colony has 4,280 bees, about how many of
them are drones?
FIX 11.2 The human body is made up of approximately 66 % water. If a person weighs 180 lb, how much water do they
contain?
11.3 The air we breathe is roughly 20 % oxygen. If you are in a room with dimensions 40 ft × 4 ft × 10 ft, approximately
how much oxygen is there in the room?
11.4 You are at a restaurant and receive the check for $26. You tip 15 %. How much is the total bill?
11.5 You are working in a sales job and manage to secure a client worth $100,000. You get a 1 % commission, of which
your supervisor gets 50 %. How much do you get?
Problem 12 (Growth factor)
For each of the following, identify the growth factor, the growth rate, and the initial value.

12.1 y = 5 · 3 x 12.3 y = 2 · (3/4) x

12.2 y = 6 · (0.5) x 12.4 y = 500 · (2.5) x

Problem 13 (Growth factor applications)

Use the following descriptions to determine the growth rate and growth factor as decimals.
13.1 A store has 100 hats and is increasing their stock at a rate of 10 % per day.
13.2 A fire department is losing 6 % of its annual funding with each passing year, where they had $10,500 in annual
funding when the station opened.
Problem 14 (Increasing exponential functions)
Consider the functions f and g that have formulas f (x) = 2 x and g(x) = 3 x + 4.

Table 2.9 Table 2.10

x f (x) g(x) x m(x) n(x)
−3 −3
−2 −2
−1 −1
0 0
1 1
2 2

14.1 Graph the functions f and g over the interval −3 ≤ x ≤ 2 after first filling in Table 2.9. Label the functions f and
g on your graph.
14.2 What are the horizontal asymptotes of f and g?
14.3 Notice that both f and g are increasing as x increases. Which function is increasing at the faster rate?
14.4 Can the value of f (x) be zero? Can it be negative? Why or why not?
14.5 What are the domain and range of the functions f and g?
Problem 15 (Decreasing exponential functions)
Consider the functions m and n that have formulas m(x) = (1/2) x and n(x) = (1/3) x − 2.
15.1 Graph these functions over the interval −2 ≤ x ≤ 3 after first filling in Table 2.9. Label the functions m and n.
15.2 What are the horizontal asymptotes of m and n?
15.3 What are the domain and range of the functions m and n?
15.4 Notice that both of these functions are decreasing as x increases. Why do these functions decrease when the
functions in Problem 14 increase?
2.1. INTRODUCTION 39

Problem 16 (Horizontal asymptotes when b > 1)

Consider the functions f , g, h, and j that have formulas
f (x) = 3 x − 1, g(x) = −4 x − 3, h(x) = 2 x + 1, j(x) = −5 x + 2

8
y 8
y 8
y 8
y

4 4 4 4

x x x x
−8 −4 4 8 −8 −4 4 8 −8 −4 4 8 −8 −4 4 8

−4 −4 −4 −4

−8 −8 −8 −8

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.10: Graphs for Problem 16.

16.1 Match each of the functions f , g, h, and j with one of the graphs in Figure 2.10.
16.2 As x → −∞, f (x) → −1. This tells us two things:
• the horizontal asymptote as x → −∞ is the line y = −1;
• since the function is increasing, the range of the function is (−1, ∞).
For the remaining three functions g, h, and j, deduce the behavior as x → −∞, the horizontal asymptote as
x → −∞, and the range.
16.3 Using the appropriate function in Figure 2.10, we can observe that f (x) → ∞, as x → ∞. Make analogous
statements about the remaining functions in Figure 2.10.
16.4 Recall that an equivalent way of writing that f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞ is to use limit notation:
lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞

Similarly, we can say

lim f (x) = 1.
x→−∞
Use limit notation to re-write your answers from Problems 16.2 and 16.3.
Problem 17 (Horizontal asymptotes when 0 < b < 1)
Consider the functions F , G, H and J that have formulas
 ‹x  ‹x  ‹x  ‹x
1 1 1 1
F (x) = − 1, G(x) = − − 3, H(x) = − + 2, J(x) = +1
3 4 5 2

17.1 Match each of the functions F , G, H, and J with one of the graphs in Figure 2.11.

8
y 8
y 8
y 8
y

4 4 4 4

x x x x
−8 −4 4 8 −8 −4 4 8 −8 −4 4 8 −8 −4 4 8

−4 −4 −4 −4

−8 −8 −8 −8

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.11: Graphs for Problem 17.

x
17.2 Using the appropriate function in Figure 2.11, we can say that 21 + 1 → 1 as x → ∞. Similarly, we can say that
1 x


2 + 1 → ∞ as x → −∞. Make analogous statements about the remaining functions in Figure 2.11.
17.3 Use limit notation to re-write your answers from Problem 17.2.
40 2.1. INTRODUCTION

Problem 18 (Increasing and decreasing functions)

Let f be an exponential function that has formula

f (x) = a b x

where b > 0. In each of the following cases, give values of a and b that satisfy the given requirements.
18.1 f is always increasing, and b > 1
18.2 f is always increasing, and 0 < b < 1
18.3 f is always decreasing, and 0 < b < 1
18.4 f is always decreasing, and b > 1
Problem 19 (Successive ratios)
In this activity, we are going to focus on functions that grow at faster and faster rates (concave up). In casual conversation,
all such functions are sometimes said to be “growing exponentially”. While that’s just fine while you are muttering about
the price of gas, in the sciences the phrase “exponential growth” has a much more precise meaning.
One thing implied by the definition of an exponential function is that if f (x) = a b x (where b > 0, b ̸= 1), then for all
f (x + 1)
values of x, = b.
f (x)
ab x+1
19.1 Verify that last assertion by simplifying the expression ab x .

19.2 For each of the functions graphed in Figures 2.14–2.13, determine whether or not the function is exponential. If
it is, determine the base b of the function. Your first step might be to choose 3 ordered pairs that have successive
x-values (e.g 1, 2, 3), and compare the ratio of the y-values.

y y y
8 8 8

4 4 4

x x x
−1 1 2 3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −2 −1 1 2 3

Figure 2.12: y = n(x) Figure 2.13: y = r(x) Figure 2.14: y = m(x)

19.3 For each of the functions implied by the data in Tables 2.11–2.13, determine whether or not the function is expo-
nential. If it is, determine the base b of the function.

Table 2.11: y = g(x) Table 2.12: y = h(x) Table 2.13: y = k(x)

x y x y x y
1 3 1 5 1 4
2 9 4 25 2 16
3 27 7 125 4 64
4 81 10 625 8 256
5 241 13 3125 16 1024

Problem 20 (True or false?)

Consider the function f that has formula
f (x) = a b x + c
where a and c are any real numbers and b is a positive real number not equal to 1. Label each of the following statements
as true (T) or false (F); if you believe a statement is false, provide an example that supports your answer.
20.1 If b > 1, then f is an increasing function for any value of a.
20.2 If 0 < b < 1, then f is a decreasing function for any value of a.
20.3 If b > 1, then f (x) → c as x → −∞.
2.1. INTRODUCTION 41

20.4 If 0 < b < 1, then f (x) → c as x → ∞.

20.5 If b > 1, then f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞.
20.6 If 0 < b < 1, then f (x) → ∞ as x → −∞.
20.7 If 0 < b < 1, then lim f (x) = 0.
x→∞

20.8 If b > 1, then lim f (x) = ∞.

x→−∞

20.9 If b > 1, then lim f (x) = ∞ or lim f (x) = −∞.

x→∞ x→∞

20.10 If b > 1, then the line defined by y = 0 is an asymptote of f .

20.11 If 0 < b < 1, then the line defined by y = 0 is an asymptote of f .
20.12 If 0 < b < 1, then the line defined by x = 0 is an asymptote of f .
 2.2 Solving exponential equations

As we have seen in the past, we are often interested in finding what value or values of a
variable will cause certain conditions to be met. We’ve solved for the unknown variable x in
equations like 2x +4 = 5 and x 2 +8x −6 = 0. Now we will solve for x in equations where x is
in the exponent. Before we begin though, we will refresh ourselves on the rules of exponents.
Properties of exponents
Recall some of the basic rules for exponents, assuming that a, b, x, and y are real
numbers:
(E1 ) a x b x = (a b) x
(E2 ) a x a y = a x+ y
(E3 ) a(x y) = (a x ) y

We can often make use of these rules to simplify exponential expressions.

essential skills
The following problems contain prerequisite skills that are essential for success. Make sure that
you can complete them before moving on!
Problem 1
Evaluate each of the following without the use of a calculator.

2
1.1 22 1.4 (−3)2 1.7 − 56 1.10 40

2
1.5 23 7 2


1.2 −23 1.8 − 10 1.11 −580
4
2
0
1.3 −24 1.6 92
7
1.9 − 10 1.12 −3 −2768

Example 1 Use properties of exponents to write the following formulas in the form f (t) = a b t . Leave
your answer in exact form.

€ t+1 Š
(a) f (t) = 2 (3 t ) 33t (b) g(t) = 7(1.08) t (3.2) t (c) h(t) = 8 t 2 2

Solution We use the properties of exponents, and demonstrate the simplification one step per-line

(a) f (t) = 2 3 t 33t


=2 3 t+3t
property (E2 )


=2 3 4t

= 2(34 ) t property (E3 )

= 2(81) t

(b) g(t) = 7(1.08) t (3.2) t

= 7(1.08 · 3.2) t property (E1 )
= 7(3.456) t 42
2.2. SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS 43

€ t+1 Š
(c) h(t) = 8 t 2 2
€ t+1 Š
= (23 ) t 2 2
€ t+1 Š
= 23t 2 2
t+1
= 23t+ 2 property (E2 )
7t+1
=2 2

7t+1
= 2 /2
1
property (E1 )
p
p
7t
= 2 2 property (E2 )
p
€ p
7 Š t
= 2 2 property (E1 )
p
p
t
= 2 128
■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 2
Use properties of exponents to write the following formulas in the form f (t) = a b t . Leave
your answer in exact form.
f (t) = 2 t+1 · 23t
make sure you try it!

Example 2 Use your knowledge of exponents to solve the following equations:

2
(a) 3 x = 27 (b) 2 x = 16

Solution (a) We know that 33 = 27, so x = 3.

(b) We know that 24 = 16, which means that

x2 = 4

The two solutions are 2 and −2. It is left an exercise to check that both of these solutions
2
satisfy the equation 2 x = 16. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 3
Solve the following exponential equation. Check your solution.

2x = 4

make sure you try it!

Example 3 Solve the following equation by factoring. Hint: put t = 3 x as your first step.

32x − 10 · 3 x + 9 = 0 (2.1)

Solution Following the hint, we substitute t = 3 x into Equation (2.1), which gives

t 2 − 10t + 9 = 0

This equation can be factored and written as (t − 9)(t − 1) = 0. We therefore have to solve
the equations
3 x = 9, 3x = 1
Using our knowledge of exponents, we see that x = 2 or x = 0. It is left an exercise to check
that both of these solutions satisfy Equation (2.1). ■
44 2.2. SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 4
Solve the following equation. Try putting t = 4 x as your first step. Check your solutions.

42x − 5 · 4 x − 4 = 0

make sure you try it!

Not all solutions are integers; in fact in applied problems solutions are almost never integers.
We don’t yet have the tools to find exact solutions to most exponential equations, so we are
going to explore techniques for approximating solutions to equations.

Example 4 Use a table of values or a graph to solve the following exponential equation

2 x = 13

Solution Table 2.14 shows the solution is on the interval [3, 4]; given that 13 is closer to 16 than it is
to 8, we expect our solution to be closer to 4 than it is to 3.
Figure 2.15 shows y = 2 x and y = 13. The solution to the equation 2 x = 13 is the x-
coordinate of the point of intersection; using a calculator, we find the x-coordinate is approx-
imately 3.70. ■
2.2. SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS 45

Table 2.14
x 2x
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16

15

10

1 2 3 4

Figure 2.15: y = 2 x
46 2.2. SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 5
Solve the following exponential equation using either a graph or a table of values; state your
solution to 2 decimal places, and check your answer.

2 x = 10

make sure you try it!

Investigations Problem 6 (To the Moon)

Let x represent the horizontal distance (in inches) that you are from your front door. Imagine
that for every inch that you move away from your front door, your elevation above the ground
y (in inches) magically increases according to the rule y = 2 x .
6.1 What is your elevation above the ground when you are at a horizontal distance of 1 ft from
your front door? State your answers in ft, using the fact that there are 12 in in 1 ft.
6.2 What is your elevation above the ground when you are at a horizontal distance of 2 ft from
your front door? State your answers in mi, using the fact that there are 63 360 in in 1 mi.
6.3 Given that the distance between the Earth and the Moon is approximately 1.595 × 1010 in,
what is your horizontal distance from your front door when you reach the Moon? Use a
graphing calculator to help you. 3

Exercises

Problem 7 (Algebraic manipulation)

Use properties of exponents to write each of the following formulas in the form f (t) = a b t . Leave your answers in exact
form.
t+1
7.1 f (t) = 4 t+1 · 23t 7.2 f (t) = 4 2 · 32t .

Problem 8 (Integer solutions)

Solve each of the following exponential equations. Check your solutions.

1 2
8.1 2−x = 8 8.3 3 · 5 x = 75 8.5 2 x −5x
= 2−6
2 2
8.2 4 x = 64 8.4 2 x − 16 = 0 8.6 7 x = 49 x

Problem 9 (Non-integer solutions)

Solve each of the following exponential equations using either a graph or a table of values; state your solutions to 2
decimal places, and check your answers.

9.1 3 x = 11 9.3 5 x = 61 9.5 −6 x = −31 9.7 2 x + 5 = 10

9.2 4 x = 29 9.4 7 x = −1 9.6 3 · 5 x = 7 9.8 7 x = 50

Problem 10 (Factoring)
Use the technique demonstrated in Example 3 to help you solve the following equations. For Problem 10.1 try putting
t = 4 x as your first step. Check your solutions.

10.1 42x + 2 · 4 x = 3 10.2 52x − 1 = 0 10.3 125 x − 26 · 25 x + 25 · 5 x = 0

3
The distance from the Earth to the Moon (in miles) is 227 037 mi.
 2.2. SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS 47

Problem 11 (Matching graphs to equations)

Jake and Marisa are solving the following exponential equations. To guide them, they have graphed the functions involved
in Figure 2.16. Match the equations with the appropriate graph.
 ‹x
2 1 1 2
4−x = , − = −3, 5 x = 5, 3x = 3
4 3

y y y y

2
1
2 2
x x x
−2 2 x −2 2 −2 2
−2 −2 −2
−2 2

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 2.16: Graphs for Problem 11

Problem 12 (Zeros)
Consider the functions f , g, h, and k that have formulas
 ‹x
2 1 1 2
f (x) = 4−x − , g(x) = 3 − , h(x) = 5 x − 5, k(x) = 3 x − 3
4 3

Use your work from Problem 11 to help you decide how many zeros each function has.
Problem 13 (True or false?)
Myron and Win have studied all of the exponential equations so far, and are trying to generalize their results. They begin
with the equation
2x = c
where c can be any real number. Help them decide if the following statements are true of false, if they are false, provide
an example that supports your answer.
13.1 If c > 0 then the equation has a solution.
13.2 If c < 0 then the equation has a solution.
13.3 If c = 0 then the equation has a solution.
Problem 14 (Beyond exponential equations)
x
The function f that has formula f (x) = 21 + 21 is shown in Figure 2.17, along with a mystery function g.
FIX y
2

x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

−2 f
g

Figure 2.17

14.1 Use Figure 2.17 to decide how many solutions there are to the equation f (x) = g(x) on the interval [0, 9].
14.2 Hence determine how many zeros the function h(x) = f (x) − g(x) has on the interval [0, 9).
 2.3 Finding an exponential function given two points
Section Themes, Concepts, Issues, Competencies, and Skills:
• You will be able to find a formula for an exponential curve that connects two points in the
plane.

• You will be able to predict the population of the United States and other countries in the
year 2050.

• You will be able to model the amount of CO2 emitted in the United States over time.
Consider a puzzle where two points are given on the plane, and you are asked to connect
them with a curve. There are infinitely many ways to do this. In the past, you’ve connected
two points with a straight line (as in Figure 2.18a) and found the equation that represents
that line. Of course, you could also connect the points with a random curve of your liking (as
in Figure 2.18b). In this section we will try to connect the points with an exponential curve
(as in Figure 2.18c) and simultaneously find that curve’s equation.

9 y 9 y 9 y

6 6 6

3 3 3

x x x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(a) Points connected with (b) Points connected with (c) Points connected with
a line an arbitrary curve an exponential curve

Figure 2.18: Connecting two points with various curves

essential skills
The following problems contain prerequisite skills that are essential for success. Make sure that
you can complete them before moving on!
Problem 1
Simplify the given expressions.

b−4 b−3
b −2
b−1

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
b−2 b−10 b3 b−5

Problem 2
Simplify the given expressions.

1/3 p
2.1 8 /3 2.2 8− /3
1 2 3
2.3 85 2.4 274

Problem 3
Solve the equations for x. Give both exact values and decimal approximations.

3.1 x 4 = 81 3.2 x 5 = −32 3.3 x 6 = −64 3.4 x 4 = 19

In many application problems we will encounter situations where we wish to find an expo-
nential function that goes through the two points (x 1 , y1 ) and (x 2 , y2 ). Let’s practice this skill
before moving on to the applied problems.

exponential function f given by f (t) = a b whose graph goes through the points
t
Example 1 Find an
3
−2, 4 and (2, 12) as shown in Figure 2.19.

48
2.3. FINDING AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION GIVEN TWO POINTS 49

14
y

12

10

x
−4 −2 2 4

Figure 2.19

Solution We will need to find a and b in the equation f (t) = a b t . We begin by using the given ordered
pairs to write a system of equations
3/4 = a b−2
12 = a b2

We can eliminate a by equating the quotients formed by the two sides of the equations. One
result is
12 a b2
= =⇒ 16 = b4
3/4 a b−2

This implies that either b = 2 or b = −2. Since the base of an exponential function must
be positive (b > 0), we can conclude that b = 2. Substituting this into one of the original
equations, we find that
12 = a (2)2 =⇒ a=3
Note that we can substitute the value of b into either of the original equations.
We conclude that f (t) = 3 · 2 t , which is graphed in Figure 2.19. The number 2 is called the
growth factor; every time t increases by 1, the value of f (t) grows by a factor of 2. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 4
Find an exponential function f of the form f (t) = a b t whose graph goes through the ordered
pairs (1, 8) and (3, 128). Identify the growth factor.
make sure you try it!

When dealing with application problems the values of a and b will rarely evaluate to integers.
The method for finding an exponential model remains the same though.

Example 2 Find an exponential function f (x) = a b x that goes through the points (1, 7) and (10, 53).

Solution We will need to find a and b in the equation f (x) = a b x . We begin by using the given ordered
pairs to write a system of equations

7=ab
53 = a b10

We can eliminate a by equating the quotients formed by the two sides of the equations.
53 a b10
=
7 ab
53
which simplifies to b9 = 7 . This means that
‹1/9
53

b=
7
50 2.3. FINDING AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION GIVEN TWO POINTS

If we substitute this value of b into the first equation, we obtain

7
a=
b
7
=
53 1/9


7
10/9
7
=
531/9
We conclude that
7 /9 53 /9
10  ‹x
f (x) =
531/9 7
 ‹1/9  x
7 /9
10
53
=
531/9 7
≈ 5.59(1.252237) x ■

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 5
Find an exponential function f of the form f (x) = a b x whose graph goes through the ordered
pairs (2, 10) and (11, 23). Identify the growth factor.
make sure you try it!

Suppose that we have some reason to model a situation using an exponential function. In
real-world applications, we might only have two points of data to work with. If we treat
these data points as two points on a plane, we can use the skills we have been practicing to
explicitly give the exponential model that we would like to use.

Example 3 An outbreak of avian flu occurs in a crowded city. Doctors immediately identify 25 patients
who are infected. One week later, there are 2391 people infected. If we assume that the
number of infected patients can be modeled with exponential growth, what is the rule for the
exponential model?

Solution We choose to model this situation by treating the given data as points on a plane. Initially (or
when t = 0) there are 25 patients, so (0, 25) is one point. At time 7 (measured in days) there
are 2391 patients, so (7, 2391) is the other point. These points are sketched in Figure 2.20.

y
2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

t
5 10

Figure 2.20: Flu patient data

Since we are trying to use an exponential model, we are searching for values of a and b such
that the curve y = a b t will pass through these points. We need
25 = a b0
2391 = a b7
The first equation immediately tells us that a = 25. Now the second equation reduces to
2391
2391 = 25 b7 =⇒ = b7
25
2391 /7
 ‹1
=⇒ b=
25
2.3. FINDING AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION GIVEN TWO POINTS 51

So we can model the number of infected people as a function of the number of days since the
outbreak was first noticed using the model
‹1  t
2391 /7

f (t) = 25
25
2391 /7
 ‹t
= 25 ■
25

Once we have this model we can answer interesting questions with it. For example, how many
people will be infected 3 days after the initial outbreak?

Solution Since
‹3/7
2391

f (3) = 25
25
≈ 177

we can say that there will be about 177 infected people 3 days after the initial outbreak. ■

We can also look at a graph of the model (as in Figure 2.21) and answer other interesting
questions. For example, when will the number of infected persons reach 20,000?

y
25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

t
2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Figure 2.21: Flu patient model

Solution The graph suggests that around the tenth day after the initial outbreak, there will be 20000
infected persons. ■

Example 4 Many buildings in Detroit have been vacant and unattended for several years. Suppose that
the amount of wood (in ft3 ) that remains attached to a building t years after it has been
abandoned is an exponential function of time. A particular building was abandoned on July
3, 1999. On July 3, 2002 there were 53 cubic yards of wood attached to the building and on
July 3, 2009 there were 47 cubic yards of wood attached to the building.

Find a function w, given by w(t) = a b t , that outputs the volume of remaining wood on the
structure t years after July 3, 1999. Round the value of a to the nearest tenth and the value
of b to the nearest thousandth.

Solution We are given that w(3) = 53 and w(10) = 37 so

a b3 = 53 (2.2)
10
ab = 47

47
Eliminating for b gives b7 = 53 and therefore
v
7 47
t
b=
53
≈ 0.983
52 2.3. FINDING AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION GIVEN TWO POINTS

Using this value of b in Equation (2.2) gives

53
a=
3/7
47
53
≈ 55.8

We conclude that
w(t) ≈ 55.8(0.983) t
■

Investigations Problem 6 (US population)

The population of the United States has increased roughly exponentially from 76.2 million
people in 1900 to 309 million people in 2010.4
6.1 Find a formula that approximates the number of people in the U.S.A., p(t), in millions, t years
after 1900 assuming that the population grows exponentially.
6.2 Use your model to approximate the population of the U.S.A. in the year 2000.
6.3 The actual population of the U.S.A. in 2000 was about 282 million people.5 Did your approx-
imation from Problem 6.2 underestimate or overestimate, and by how much?
6.4 Use the actual populations of the U.S.A. in the years 2000 and 2010 to find a formula that ap-
proximates the number of people in the U.S.A., P(t), in millions, t years after 2000 assuming
that the population grows exponentially.
6.5 The population of the U.S.A. was 151 million people in 19506 . How close of an approximation
does your model from Problem 6.4 give? How close of an approximation does your model
from Problem 6.1 give? Why are both models off? Which model is better for making a
prediction about 1950?
Problem 7 (Greenhouse gases)
As our cars, homes, businesses and industry become more efficient, each person is responsible
for the production of less carbon dioxide (CO2 ) a greenhouse gas. The US Energy Informa-
tion Administration provides the estimates for future quantities of CO2 that each person will
produce. They know that in 2010, on average each US citizen was responsible for the produc-
tion of 18.1 metric tons of CO2 , and they predict that in 2031 the average US citizen will be
responsible for 16.3 metric tons of CO2 .7
7.1 Find a formula for c(t), an approximation for the average amount of CO2 each US citizen
will be responsible for emitting, in metric tons, t years after the year 2010 assuming that the
amount of CO2 produced decays exponentially.
7.2 Use your model to approximate the average amount of CO2 each US citizen was responsible
for in the year 2000.
7.3 If you have an answer to Problem 6.4, use it to find a formula for C(t), an approximation
for the total amount of CO2 that all citizens of the U.S.A. will be responsible for emitting, in
millions of metric tons, t years after the year 2000.
Problem 8 (Tapfish app)
Tapfish is a free mobile device app where you set up a digital aquarium. We can use the
application to create approximations of exponential functions. We have simplified the nature
of the application to make this problem easier. The app allows you to buy and sell fish once
per day. The fish grow in size (and therefore value) after owning them for just one day. Our
goal is to maximize the number of fish in our aquarium over a period of 9 days.
4
http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=us+population+1900
5
http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=us+population+2000
6
http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=us+population+1950
7
http://www.eia.doe.gov/forecasts/aeo/
2.3. FINDING AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION GIVEN TWO POINTS 53

Each fish costs 10 coins and sells for 15 coins after 1 day (because of its larger size). Given
that we start with 20 coins on day 0, the transactions for the first 3 days will be as follows:
• on day 0 we buy 2 fish;
• on day 1 we sell both fish for a total of 30 coins, and then buy 3 fish;
• on day 2 we sell our 3 fish for a total of 45 coins,and then buy 4 fish; we have 5 coins
remaining as we cannot have fractions of fish.
Table 2.15 8.1 Let F (t) be the number of fish we have in our aquarium on day t. Complete the F (t) column
t F (t) A(t) in Table 2.15. Assume that we always buy and sell the maximum number of fish, that we use
0 2 whatever leftover coins we have from previous transactions, and that we cannot buy fractions
1 3 of fish.
2 4 8.2 Make a graph of y = F (t) using the points in your table.
3
4 8.3 The function F represents the exact number of fish that we have on a given day. We are going
5 to find an approximate formula for F using an exponential function. To be clear, we will use
6 A to represent the function that approximates F .
7 Pick any two of the points from Table 2.15 and find a function of the form, A(t) = a b t ,
8 that approximates the number of fish in the tank t days after starting. (Answers will vary
depending on which two points you use.)
8.4 Complete the A(t) column in Table 2.15 using 6 decimal places, and compare the values of
A(t) to the values of F (t).

Exercises

Problem 9 (Prerequisite simplification skills)

Simplify the given expressions.
−3
14x 5

3x
9.1 12 x 12 y 3x −4 9.10 3b /3
 4
9.5 9.7
12x 2 4x 2
9.2 a5x a x+3
9.11 16 t (64) /3
t

2
9.8 8 /3
x
9.3 3x 3 y 2
6x 7
9.6
4/3
9.9 100 /2


x
9.4 2b9 c 4 5bc 3 27x −3 9.12 27t 3

Problem 10 (Prerequisite solving skills)

Solve each of the following equations. Give both the exact value and the decimal approximation where appropriate.

10.1 2x 2 = 32 1 1 10.5 x 4 − 9 = 0
10.3 =
x2 25
27
10.2 y 3 = 1
8 10.4 5 =1 10.6 x 6 − 2x 3 − 35 = 0
x +1

Problem 11 (Find a formula, a and b rational)

In each of the following problems, find an exponential function of the form f (t) = a b t that goes through the given
ordered pairs. Identify the growth factor in each problem.

11.4 −3, 2125 , 3, 136

11.1 (0, −3), (4, −1875) 8 125

11.2 (2, 36), (5, 7776) 11.5 (−1, 279), (1, 124)
11.3 2, 29 , 4, 812



11.6 (2, 64), (−1, 125)

Problem 12 (Find a formula, a and b irrational)

In each of the following problems, find an exponential function of the form f (x) = a b x that goes through the given
ordered pairs. Be sure to give both the exact form and the approximate form of f .
54 2.3. FINDING AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION GIVEN TWO POINTS

12.1 (−5, 10), (3, 4) 12.3 (3, 6), (13, 29)

12.2 (4, 7), (8, 2) 12.4 (−5, 6), (7, 20)

Problem 13 (Find a formula from a graph)

For each of the functions in Figure 2.22, assume that the vertical intercept is an integer value. Use this, together with
the information in each caption, to find a formula for each function.

y y y y
x x
6
6
−4 −2
−2 2 4
4 −2
4
−2
2 −4
2

x x −4
−6
−4 −2 2 4
−4 −2

1 1 4
(a) f (1) = 6 (b) g(2) = (c) h(−4) = − (d) k(3) = −
2 625 27

Figure 2.22

Problem 14 (Concavity)
For the functions in Figure 2.22, which graphs are concave up? Which are concave down?
Problem 15 (Find a formula from a table)
Find a formula for each of the functions implied by the data values in Tables 2.16–2.19. Assume that each function has
the form f (x) = a b x .

Table 2.16 Table 2.17 Table 2.18 Table 2.19

x y x y x y x y
1 10 −5 9/16 897 2 −2/3 −12 732 421 875
2 100 −4 9/2401 4 −2/27 −9 5 859 375
3 1000 −3 9/343 6 −2/243 −6 46 875
4 10 000 −2 9/49 8 −2/2187 −3 375
5 100 000 −1 9/7 10 −2/19 683 0 3

Problem 16 (Increasing and decreasing functions)

Refer to the functions in Figure 2.22 and Tables 2.16–2.19 to help you decide if the following statements are true or false.
If the answer is false, provide an example that supports your answer.
16.1 Exponential functions always increase.
16.2 Exponential functions always decrease.
16.3 Some exponential functions increase and some decrease.
16.4 If x increases by a constant amount, then y increases by a constant amount.
16.5 If x increases by a constant amount, then the successive ratios of y are the same.
16.6 If x increases by a constant amount, then the successive ratios of y increase by the same amount.
Problem 17 (Solar capacity)
The global solar photovoltaic power capacity (in MW) grew from 2000-20078 and is shown in Figure 2.23.
17.1 Let S(t) represent the Solar PV Power Capacity (in MW) at time t in years since 2000. Use the first and last data
points in Figure 2.23 to write down two ordered pairs that lie on the graph of S.
17.2 Use your ordered pairs to find a formula for S in the form S(t) = a b t . State b to three decimal places.
17.3 What are the growth rate and growth factor for your function S?
8
http://www.energyandcapital.com/articles/solar-stock-outlook/750
2.3. FINDING AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION GIVEN TWO POINTS 55

Solar PV Power Capacity by Year (MW)

8000 8,325

7000

6000
5,990

5000

4,556
4000

3000

2,919
2000
2,090
1,543
1000
1,161
877
t
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Figure 2.23: Solar capacity.

17.4 According to the article, the data implies ‘a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 37.9 %.’ Is your model
consistent with this statement?
17.5 According to your model, what is the Solar PV Power Capacity in 2010? Compare this with the actual value of
13 729 MW, and give reasons for the difference.
 2.4 Exponential modeling
Section Themes, Concepts, Issues, Competencies, and Skills:
• stuff
In this section we explore some common applications of exponential functions. This will
require a working knowledge of percentages.
essential skills
The following problems contain prerequisite skills that are essential for success. Make sure that
you can complete them before moving on!
Problem 1
Perform the given percentage calculations. Give your answer correct to two decimal places
when an approximation is appropriate.

1.1 Find 10 % of 100. 1.5 Increase 17 by 28 %.

1.2 Find 20 % of 10. 1.6 Increase 42 by 67 %.
1.3 Find 13 % of 28. 1.7 Decrease 107 by 10 %.
1.4 Find 81 % of 3. 1.8 Decrease 243 by 76 %.

Simple population models

Exponential functions are often used to model the size of a population as time passes. A
population could be growing or declining at an exponential rate.

Definition 9 (Simple population model)

If an initial population, P0 , changes by the same percentage each year, then the popu-
lation at time t in years, P(t), is given by the formula

P(t) = P0 (1 + r) t ,

where r is the decimal form of the percentage change.

When dealing with human population models, we generally restrict the domain of P
to integer values of t. This means that we are only modeling population values on one
specific day of the year.
Note that r can be positive (for a growing population) or negative (for a declining
population). Also, note that we don’t have to measure time in years. Using years
makes sense for modeling human populations, but a smaller unit like hours might
make sense for a bacteria population.

Example 1 Since 2001 the population of an inner city has been decreasing as people move to the suburbs.
It is decreasing at a rate of 1 % per year; find a model for this situation.

Solution Let P(t) be the population of the inner city at time t in years since 2001. Let P0 be the
population of the inner city in 2001. Then, since r = −0.01,
P(t) = P0 (0.99) t
■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 2
Repeat Example 1 for a population that decreases at a rate of 8 % per year.
make sure you try it!

Example 2 At the beginning of the year 2000, the population of One Horse was 10,000 people. By
the beginning of 2005 the population had decreased to 9700. Assuming exponential decay,
determine the population at the beginning of 2012. Round your answer to the nearest person.

56
2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING 57

300
Solution Over 5 years, the population decreased by 300 people. As 10000 = 0.03, the population
decreased by 3 % over the five-year period. The growth factor for this five-year period is 0.97
and therefore the growth factor for one year is (0.97)1/5 . Using this, the population P(t) at
time t in years after 2000 can be represented by

P(t) = 10000 (0.97) t/5

To estimate the population in 2012, we evaluate P(12):

P(12) = 10000 (0.97)12/5

≈ 9295

In 2012, the population of One Horse is expected to be approximately 9,295 people. ■

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 3 (Oregonians)
In 2000 there were 3.83 million people living in Oregon. By 2010, the population had in-
creased by 12.0 %.9 Assuming the population continues to grow at this rate, find a model
representing the size of the population t years after 2000.
make sure you try it!

Radioactive decay
One common application of decaying exponential functions involves radioactivity. If you have
a substance where some of the atoms are radioactive, the radioactive atoms will decay into
other atoms in a very predictable way. In fact, each radioactive element has an associated
half-life, which is the time it takes for 50 % of the radioactive atoms to decay into something
else.

Example 3 Suppose that we have 8000 atoms of Carbon-12 (which is non-radioactive). Without an in-
tervening act, 1,000,000 years from now that sample of carbon will still have 8000 atoms of
Carbon-12. However, if we start with a sample of 8000 radioactive C-14 atoms, over time
fewer and fewer of those atoms remain radioactive.
If we define R(t) to be the number of radioactive atoms that remain in the sample t years
from today, then we can model the function R using the template R(t) = a b t for unknown
constants a and b. The number of remaining radioactive atoms t years from today is shown
in Table 2.20.

Table 2.20: Decaying Radioactive Carbon-14

Number of years Number of remaining
from today radioactive atoms
0 8000
5730 4000
11 460 2000
17 190 1000
22 920 500

Using the data in Table 2.20 we can determine the formula for R(t), the number of atoms that
remain radioactive after t years; choosing two ordered pairs and assuming that R(t) = a b t

8000 = ab0
4000 = ab5730

This clearly means that a = 8000, and

1
1 1
 ‹ 5730
= b5730 =⇒ b =
2 2
9
2000 census
 58 2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING

We can therefore say that

1
t
1
 ‹ 5730
R(t) = 8000
2
We can now determine how many atoms remain radioactive after 100 years
R(100) ≈ 7904
Approximately 7904 atoms remain radioactive after 100 years.
How long it would take until there are only 6000 radioactive atoms remaining? We need to
solve the equation
t
1
 ‹ 5730
6000 = 8000
2
Using a graphing calculator, we obtain t ≈ 2378. We conclude that 6000 radioactive atoms
remain after approximately 2378 years. ■

Simple interest
Let’s assume that we invest an amount P into an account that pays an interest rate r per year.
At the end of year 1 we have
beginning interest
balance added
↓ ↓
A= P + P·r
= P(1 + r)
At the end of year 1 we have
beginning int er est
balance
added

FIX z}|{ z}|{

A= P + P ·r
= P(1 + r)
After 2 years we have

year 1 interest
balance added
↓ ↓
A = P(1 + r) + P(1 + r) · r
= P(1 + r) · 1 + P(1 + r) · r
= P(1 + r)(1 + r)
= P(1 + r)2
After 3 years we have
year 2 interest
balance added
↓ ↓
A = P(1 + r)2 + P(1 + r)2 · r
= P(1 + r)2 (1 + r)
= P(1 + r)3
After t years we have
year t − 1 interest
balance added
↓ ↓
A = P(1 + r) t−1 + P(1 + r) t−1 · r
= P(1 + r) t−1 (1 + r)
= P(1 + r) t
 2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING 59

Definition 10 (Simple interest)

If we invest an amount P in an account with interest rate r (per year), then the amount
in the account is
A(t) = P(1 + r) t (2.3)
where t is the amount of time that has passed (in years) since the initial investment.

Example 4 You invest $5000 in an account that pays 3 % simple interest. What is the balance after four
years? How long will it take your investment to double in value?

Solution We use Equation (2.3), with P = 5000, r = 0.03, and t = 4.

A(4) = 5000(1 + 0.03)4

≈ 5627.54

There is approximately $5627.54 in the account after 4 years.

To find when the investment will double in value, our first thought might be to solve the
equation
10000 = 5000(1.03) t
for t. This is problematic in that the solution to this equation is almost certainly non-integer
and the domain of our function is restricted to the integers. A more straight forward approach
might be to simply find the first year the balance is at least $10,000.
Table 2.21: Simple interest Using Table 2.21, we conclude that the investment will double in about 24 years. ■
t A(t)
0 5000.00 Compound interest
1 5150.00 We have just studied simple interest. Most banks, however, use a slightly more complicated
.. ..
. . system.
23 9867.93
24 10 163.97Example 5 – An offer you can’t refuse: Two brothers, Michael and Fredo, each deposited $100 into
brand new bank accounts.
Michael’s bank account gave him a 12 % annual interest rate. How much money did he have
in his account after one year if he earned 12 % in simple annual interest?
We need to calculate 100(1.12) = 112. Michael had $112 after one year.
Fredo’s bank account gave him a 12% annual rate compounded monthly, which means that
each month he received one-twelfth of the 12 % (which is 1 % interest) on his account:
• after one month, he had $100(1.01) = $101.00 in his account;
• after two months he had $100(1.01)2 = $102.01 in his account.
We complete Table 2.22 using 2 decimal places, where t indicates the number of months since
Table 2.22: Fredo’s account first investing and A(t) is the amount of money that was in his account (in dollars) at time t.
t A(t) If we look closely at what happened in Table 2.22, we notice that to find A(2) we calculate
0 100.00
1 101.00 A(2) = 100(1.01)(1.01)
2 102.01 = 100(1.01)2
3 103.03
4 104.06 Similarly, A(12) = 100(1.01)12 .
5 105.10
Fredo didn’t actually earn 12 % interest after one year on his initial investment, so the 12 %
6 106.15
is in name only, and is called the nominal interest rate.
7 107.21
8 108.29 After one year, what percent did Fredo actually earn? We calculate the effective rate:
9 109.37
0.12 12
 ‹
10 110.46 1+ − 1 ≈ 0.126825
11 111.57 12
12 112.68
The effective rate is approximately 12.68 %.
 60 2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING

Note that although both Michael and Fredo both had accounts that were nominally at 12 %
annual interest, they ended up with different effective annual interest rates due to the different
compounding periods.
A third brother, Sonny, invested $100 into another account. His account earned 12 % nominal
rate compounded daily. This means that he earned 12 %
365 , which is approximately 0.032 876 7 %
each day. Find how much money Sonny had in his account after 1 year.
We calculate
0.12 365
 ‹
100 1 + ≈ 112.75
365
and therefore Sonny had $112.75 after one year.
We can calculate the effective interest rate on Sonny’s account using

0.12 365
 ‹
1+ − 1 ≈ 0.127475
365
The effective rate was approximately 12.75 %. ■
Table 2.23
Definition 11 (Compound interest)
Words n
The compound interest formula is
yearly 1
annually 1  r nt
semi-annually 2 A(t) = P0 1 + (2.4)
n
quarterly 4
monthly 12 where:
biweekly 26 • P0 is the initial amount invested;
weekly 52
daily 365 • r is the nominal interest rate;
non-stop ??
• n is the compounding frequency (see Table 2.23);
• t is the amount of time that has passed since the initial investment (in years);
• A(t) is the account balance (in dollars).

Example 6 We have $7000 to invest into an account that earns interest at a 3 % nominal rate. Find
the amount that we will have after four years assuming each of the following compounding
frequencies:

(a) yearly (b) monthly (c) weekly (d) daily

Solution Apply the compound interest formula (Equation (2.4)) to each case.

(a) yearly: (c) weekly:

0.03 1·4 0.03 52·4

 ‹  ‹
A(4) = 7000 1 + A(4) = 7000 1 +
1 52
≈ 7878.56 ≈ 7892.20

(b) monthly: (d) daily:

0.03 12·4 0.03 365·4

 ‹  ‹
A(4) = 7000 1 + A(4) = 7000 1 +
12 365
≈ 7891.30 ≈ 7892.44

After 4 years, assuming compounding frequencies of yearly, monthly, weekly, daily, the balance
will be, respectively, $7878.56, $7891.30, $7892.20, and $7892.44. ■
 2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING 61

We have covered a lot of rates including growth rates and decay rates. In the context of
finance we’ve talked about nominal interest rates and effective interest rates. Recall that the
nominal interest rate is the stated rate before any compounding has been applied. Now we
will formally define effective interest rate.

Definition 12 (Effective rate)

Given a nominal annual interest rate, r, and a compounding frequency, n, the effective
rate is the interest rate that is actually earned over the course of one year. The effective
rate is calculated using the expression
 r n
1+ −1
n

n
The quantity 1 + nr represents the annual growth factor defined in Definition 8. This
comes from the compound interest formula (Definition 11) and the equality
 r nt  r n  t
1+ = 1+
n n

Example 7 Find the effective rate of interest for each of the problems in Example 6.

Solution We will keep many decimal places in our solutions so that we can see the differences between
the results.
(a) 1 + 0.03


1 − 1 = 0.03 (not surprising)

12
(b) 1 + 0.03
12 − 1 ≈ 0.030415957
52
(c) 1 + 0.03


52 − 1 ≈ 0.030445620
365
(d) 1 + 0.03


365 − 1 ≈ 0.030453264
These have been tabulated in Table 2.24. ■
Table 2.24
Example 7 demonstrates that the nominal interest rate is usually different from the effective
n nominal effective interest rate. In practice, an effective interest rate is almost always a bit more than the nominal
rate (%) rate (%) interest rate.
1 3 3
12 3 3.041 595 7
52 3 3.044 562 0
365 3 3.045 326 4
Investigations Problem 4 (Atmospheric C-14)
During the Cold War, many above-ground thermonuclear tests were done in the South Pacific
region, making many islands completely uninhabitable for decades (if not centuries) due
to lingering radiation. In fact, the thermonuclear testing drastically increased the amount of
atmospheric C-14 above normal levels worldwide. In this problem, we are going to investigate
the long-term effects of worldwide nuclear testing half a world away from the South Pacific.

y
100 95

80
70
60 52
40
40
30
22
20

t
1955 1965 1975 1985 1995

Figure 2.24: Atmospheric C-14 in Austria (% above pre-nuclear age levels)

 62 2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING

Figure 2.24 charts the percent of atmospheric C-14 above the natural pre-nuclear test level in
the air above Austria10 . The decay that you see has to do with C-14 being flushed out of the
atmosphere and into the ground and ocean, not radioactive decay.
4.1 Write a sentence that contextually interprets the data point (1963, 95).
4.2 Using the first and last data point determine a formula that gives an approximation of C-14
in the atmosphere in Austria as a function of the number of years since 1963. Round your
growth factor to the second digit after the decimal point. Use your calculator to check the
relative accuracy of your graph.
4.3 Repeat Problem 4.2 using the data points (1970, 52) and (1976, 40).
11
4.4 Which model is the better fit?
Problem 5 (CSI)
Almost every compound in your body is replaced frequently by the food, water, and air that
you take in. One of the few exceptions is the enamel in your teeth. Enamel is formed in early
childhood, and is never replaced. Whatever C-14 level was in the atmosphere at that time
becomes permanently locked in your teeth. Because the half-life of C-14 is so long, the level
will remain steady throughout your life.
Forensic scientists have found a fascinating application for this information. After the devas-
tating tsunami in Indonesia in 2004, there were many unidentified bodies. To help identify
bodies with the names on lists of missing persons, researchers examined the C-14 level in
the teeth of the tsunami victims. Through comparison with known C-14 levels, the forensic
scientists were able to determine the birth year of victims to within 18 months.
Suppose that skeletal human remains are found in a forest in Austria. A first-molar from the
remains is found to have 145 % of pre-nuclear age C-14. First-molars develop while a person
is about 6 or 7 years of age. In what year was the person born? Use the model determined in
Problem 4.2 while working this problem.
Problem 6 (Resources)
In 2005 a town has 1000 barrels of oil in a well. Some of the oil is easy to reach and some of
it is hard to reach. As more of the easily accessible oil is drilled, the amount that they can drill
in a given year is reduced. In fact, limitations of drilling equipment lead to a 20 % reduction
in drilling capacity each year. In 2005, 200 barrels of oil were drilled. Let Q(t) represent the
amount of oil (in barrels) that is drilled where t is the number of years after 2005. Assume
that in each year the town drills to its maximum capacity.
Table 2.25 6.1 Complete Table 2.25 to two decimal places.
t (years) Q (barrels)
6.2 Find a formula for Q(t).
0
1 6.3 What is the first year that the amount of oil drilled will be less than 100 barrels?
2
3 6.4 How long should it take until no more oil can be drilled? Make sure to justify your answer.
4 Problem 7 (Revisiting greenhouse gases)
5 Recall in Problem 6 on page 53 we modeled the US population and in Problem 7 on page 53
we modeled the average amount of CO2 emissions for which each US citizen is responsible.
The functions we came up with were, respectively,
‹t/10 ‹−10/21  ‹t/21
309 16.3 16.3
 
P(t) = 282 and C(t) = 18.1
282 18.1 18.1

7.1 The total amount of CO2 that the U.S.A. emits can be found by multiplying the amount that
each person emits with the total U.S. population. Find and simplify a formula for T (t), the
total amount of CO2 released by the U.S.A., in millions of metric tons, t years since 2000.
7.2 Based on your answer to Problem 7.1, is the total amount of CO2 produced in the U.S.A. each
year increasing or decreasing, and by what percent?
10
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-14
11
In fact in statistics you learn techniques called regression that allows you to take all of the data points into
consideration and develop the most accurate model.
2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING 63

7.3 The US Energy Information Administration estimates that the U.S.A. will produce 5,679 mil-
lion metric tons of CO2 in the year 2015. Use your model from Problem 7.1 to estimate
the average CO2 emissions in the year 2015. How close is your approximation to the USEIA
estimate?

Exercises

Problem 8 (Given description, write formula)

In each of the following, assume that the population of a town changes at the given rate. Write a formula for P(t), the
population at time t, measured in years since 2012.

8.1 P0 = 500, increasing at 6 % per year. 8.5 P0 = 700, decreasing at 6 % per year.
8.2 P0 = 1500, increasing at 12 % per year. 8.6 P0 = 2405, decreasing at 12 % per year.
8.3 P0 = 2700, increasing at 23 % per year. 8.7 P0 = 4302, decreasing at 23 % per year.
8.4 P0 = 3600, increasing at 52 % per year. 8.8 P0 = 7300, decreasing at 52 % per year.

Problem 9 (Given formula, write interpretaion)

Each of the following formulas model the population of a town at time t (in years) since 1998. Determine the initial
population, P0 , and the percentage change, r, and give a sentence that describes the model.

9.1 P(t) = 1000(1.1) t 9.3 P(t) = 200(0.87) t

9.2 P(t) = 1800(1.07) t 9.4 P(t) = 907(0.76) t

Problem 10 (US population)

In the year 2000, the population of the U.S.A. was around 281 million people with an estimated percentage growth rate
of 0.7 % per year12 .
10.1 Let P(t) represent the number of people in the U.S.A., in millions of people, at time t in years since the year 2000.
Write a formula for P(t).
10.2 According to your model, how many people lived in the U.S.A. in 2010? How many will live in the U.S.A. in 2035?
Round your answers to the nearest million.
10.3 Graph P using the grid in Figure 2.25. When graphing the population, we graph it continuously to see the trend,
even though we are only modeling it for one specific day of the year.
10.4 What are the strengths and weaknesses of an exponential model like this? Are there any other factors or information
you might want to know before making a more informed decision on whether this percentage growth rate changes
or stays the same? What other information might help solidify or change your model?
Problem 11 (China population)
In the year 2009 China had a population around 1.3 billion people and its government had a goal of reducing the
population to 700 million by 2050. It aimed to do this by limiting the number of children people had. Assume that with
natural death rates and the restricted birth rate the population is decreasing by 0.5 % each year.
11.1 Let P(t) represent the number of people in China, in billions of people, at time t in years since 2009. Write a
formula for P.
11.2 According to your model, how many people will live in China in 2025? 2050?
11.3 Graph P using the grid in Figure 2.26. When graphing the population, we graph it continuously to see the trend,
even though we are only modeling it for one specific day of the year.
11.4 According to your model, in what year will China reach its goal of having a population of 700 million people?
11.5 Do you think the decay rate is likely to stay at 0.5 % per year? If not, how do you think it might change?
11.6 What are the strengths and weaknesses of an exponential model like this? Are there any other factors or information
you might want to know before making a more informed decision on whether this population rate changes or stays
the same? What other information might help solidify or change your model?
12
2000 census
64 2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING

y y
1.3
1000
1.2
900
1.1

800 1

700 0.9

0.8
600
0.7
500
0.6

400 0.5

0.4
300
0.3
200
0.2

100 0.1

t t
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Figure 2.25: US population Figure 2.26: China population

Problem 12 (Textiles)
When textiles are made from a certain plant that grows alongside the Nile river, each square inch contains 142 billion
atoms of radioactive C-14.
12.1 Using the half-life of 5730 years for C-14, determine a formula for the number of radioactive atoms (in billions),
N (t), that remain in a one-square-inch sample of this textile after t years.
12.2 How many atoms in the sample would remain radioactive after 3000 years?
12.3 Archaeologists found clothing preserved in a tomb made from this textile, and the clothing contained 93 billion
atoms of radioactive C-14 per square inch. Roughly how old is the clothing?
Problem 13 (Simple interest)
Use Equation (2.3) to find the given unknowns in each of the following problems. Give your answers to 2 decimal places.

13.1 P = 1000, r = 4 %; find A(3) 13.4 A(6) = 3600, r = 10 %; find P

13.2 P = 2500, r = 7 %; find A(4) 13.5 A(6) = 3600, P = 1200; find r
13.3 A(4) = 2500, r = 7 %; find P 13.6 A(20) = 5000, P = 600; find r

Problem 14 (Investment)
You invest $15,000 in the year 2010 into an investment account earning 5% simple interest annually.
14.1 Find a formula for the amount of money you have in total, A(t), at time t in years since 2010.
14.2 How much will this investment be worth in 2020? 2030? 2040? Give your answers to two decimal places.
14.3 How long will it be until you have at least $20,000 in the account?
Problem 15 (Compound interest)
Assume that you invest $8000 into an account that earns interest at a 5 % nominal rate.
15.1 How much will you have after four years if the interest is compounded yearly?
15.2 How much will you have after four years if the interest is compounded weekly?
15.3 How much will you have after four years if the interest is compounded daily?
15.4 If the interest is compounded daily, how long will it take your investment to double? Triple? Use two decimal
places in your answers.
15.5 The bank manager gives you the option to invest in a mystery account. You are told that the interest is compounded
daily, and that if you invest your $8000 for 3 years you will have $10479.40. What is the interest rate in this mystery
account?
2.4. EXPONENTIAL MODELING 65

Problem 16 (Exploring effective rate)

We have an amount P0 to invest in an account that earns interest at a 6 % nominal rate. Answer each of the following
through the eighth digit after the decimal point.
16.1 Find the effective rate if the interest is compounded annually.
16.2 Find the effective rate if the interest is compounded quarterly.
16.3 Find the effective rate if the interest is compounded daily.
16.4 Find the effective rate if the interest is compounded every second.
16.5 Do you think there would be much difference if the interest was compounded every half second compared to
compounding it every second?
Problem 17 (Credit card)
A credit card company advertises an annual rate of 24%. What is the effective annual interest rate if your bill is compiled
monthly?
Problem 18 (Payday loan)
A payday loan company makes this offer to a customer: they will receive $375 today and when they get paid in two
weeks, they owe the payday loan company $450.
18.1 What percent interest is charged over the two-week period?
18.2 Using your answer in Problem 18.1, compute the effective annual rate.
Problem 19 (Find the rate)
The amount of money in an account grows by a total of 45 % over a period of 10 years. Find the nominal interest rate
(to 5 decimal places) if the account was compounded:

19.1 annually 19.2 monthly

 e
2.5 The number e
Section Themes, Concepts, Issues, Competencies, and Skills:
• learn about e

Continuously compounded interest and the number e

Congratulations, you’ve just won the grand prize of one dollar in the giga-millions Genuine
Wheel of Fortune lottery game. One dollar doesn’t sound like much of a grand prize, but
here’s the thing – you can deposit that dollar into a savings account that earns interest at a
rate of 100 % per year! So after one year your prize will have grown to $2, after two years
it will have grown to $4, wait a minute . . . even after 10 years it has only grown to $1024.
But you know how these increasing exponential functions work; once they get going, they
really take off. If you can manage to hold off your withdrawal for twenty years you’ll reap a
little over a million dollars and wait just five more years after that and you’ll take home over
thirty-three million dollars!
All of those figures are based upon the assumption that the interest is compounded only once
a year – that’s where the wheel comes in. You spin the wheel to see the way in which the
interest will be compounded. Table 2.26 shows the amount that will be in your account at the
end of year one if the interest is compounded yearly, monthly, weekly, daily, every hour, every
minute,
n and every second. Make sure that you see the connection between the expression
1 + 1n and the compound interest formula as it applies to this application.
We can see that through the fifth digit after the decimal point the amount in your account will
Table 2.26 be the same whether the compounding is done by the minute or by the second. If we were to
1 n
 ‹
continue increasing the number of times we compound, we would find that the digits start to
n 1+
n get fixed farther and farther to the right of the decimal point. However, no matter how many
1 2 times we compound, if we look far enough to the right of the decimal point the digits will be
12 2.613 035 29 different if the interest is compounded just one additional time. That is to say
52 2.692 596 95
1 n
 ‹
365 2.714 567 48 lim 1 +
8760 2.718 126 69 n→∞ n
525 600 2.718 279 22
is an irrational number (a number that in decimal form never terminates and never forms a
31 536 000 2.718 282 47
forever-repeating pattern).
It turns out that this very same irrational number pops up in a wide variety of applications,
and as such it is worthy of a name. The number is called Euler’s number and is symbolized by
the letter e. If we let the number of times the interest is compounded increase without bound,
we say that interest is being compounded continuously. In our lottery game, if the interest is
compounded continuously, then the amount that would be in your giga-millions account at
the end of year one would be e dollars where e ≈ 2.71828.

Definition 13 (The number e)

The number e is called Euler’s number named after the famous Swiss mathematician
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). It is also called the natural base of an exponential func-
tion.
1 n
 ‹
e = lim 1 +
n→∞ n
≈ 2.718281828

Another definition of e is hinted at in Problem 18.

Continuous growth and decay

We can use the natural base, e, to model real life situations that involve continuous growth
and decay. The following definition will guide us in what follows.

66
2.5. THE NUMBER E 67

Definition 14 (Continuous growth and decay)

If we are modeling a situation that involves continuous growth or decay, then the
model will have the following form:

Q(t) = Q 0 e kt

• If k > 0, then the function Q is increasing, and k is called the continuous growth
rate.
• If k < 0, then the function Q is decreasing, and |k| is called the continuous decay
rate.
In the context of a continuously compounded interest problems, k is the nominal in-
terest rate and e k − 1 is the effective interest rate.

Example 1 We have $7000 to invest in an account that has a nominal interest rate of 3 % compounded
continuously.
(a) Find a model for this situation.
(b) Find the amount in the account after 4 years.
(c) Compare the answer with the results of Example 6 on page 61.
(d) Find the effective annual rate of interest.

Solution (a) Using Definition 14,

Q(t) = 7000 e0.03t

(b) We evaluate the function Q when t = 4

Q(4) = 7000 e0.03(4)

≈ 7892.48

The amount in the account after four years is $7892.48.

(c) This is larger than any of the values we found in Example 6.
(d) We calculate the effective annual rate of interest using Definition 14

e0.03 − 1 ≈ 0.030454534

The effective annual rate of interest is approximately 3.045 453 4 %. Note that this is
greater than any of the values we found in Example 7 on page 62. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 1
Repeat Example 1 using an investment of $4000, and a nominal rate of 2 %.
make sure you try it!

Example 2 You have $2000 to invest in an interest-bearing account that has a nominal interest rate of
5 %.
(a) Calculate the effective annual growth rates if the interest is compounded daily and if
the interest is compounded continuously.
(b) State the annual growth factor for each account.
(c) Calculate the account balance after 10 years if the interest is compounded annually,
daily, and continuously.

Solution (a) If the interest is compounded daily, then we calculate

0.05 365·1
 ‹
1+ − 1 ≈ 0.051267496
365
68 2.5. THE NUMBER E

The effective annual rate is approximately 5.126 749 6 %.

If the interest is compounded continuously then we calculate

e0.05 − 1 ≈ 0.05127110

The effective annual rate is approximately 5.127 110 %.

(b) If the interest is compounded daily, then the annual growth factor is calculated using

0.05 365·1
 ‹
1+ ≈ 1.051267496
365

The growth factor is approximately 1.051267496.

If the interest is compounded continuously, then the annual growth factor is calculated
using
e0.05 ≈ 1.05127110
The growth factor is approximately 1.05127110.
(c) The account balance after 10 years if the interest is compounded annually, daily, and
continuously is calculated using (respectively)

2000(1.05)10 ≈ 3257.79
0.05 10·365
 ‹
2000 1 + ≈ 3297.33
365
2000e0.05·10 ≈ 3297.44

We conclude that
• when the interest is compounded annually the balance will be $3257.79;
• when the interest is compounded daily the balance will be $3297.33;
• when the interest is compounded continuously the balance will be $3297.44. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 2
Repeat Example 2 using an initial investment of $15,000 at a nominal interest rate of 8 %.
make sure you try it!

Example 3 We have $600 to invest in an account that compounds interest continuously.

(a) If the nominal interest rate is 8 %, what will the effective annual growth rate be?
(b) If the effective annual interest rate is 8 %, what will the nominal interest rate be?

Solution (a) The amount (in dollars) in the account will be 600 e0.08t t years after the money is
invested. We need to find the value of r in the equation

A(t) = 600(1 + r) t .

Well,

A(t) = 600 e0.08t

t
= 600 e0.08
≈ 600 (1.08328707) t

So the growth rate is e0.08 − 1, or about 8.328 707 %.

(b) This time the account will have 600(1.08) t , t years after the money is invested. We
need to find the value of r in the equation

A(t) = 600 e r t .
2.5. THE NUMBER E 69

Since the two expressions for A(t) must be equal,

600 e r t = 600(1.08) t =⇒ e r t = (1.08) t

=⇒ e r = 1.08

Later we will learn how to solve for r exactly using logarithms. For now, we can find an
approximate solution for r using a graphing calculator. The value of r is about 0.077,
so the nominal interest rate is about 7.7 %. ■

Radioactive decay
You may remember that we studied radioactive decay in Example 3 on page 58. In fact it is
often more appropriate to use the natural base, e, in such applications.

Example 4 The number of radioactive atoms in a sample of Carbon-14 decays according to the model

Q(t) = Q 0 e−0.000120968t ,

where Q 0 is the initial mass of the radioactive atoms and Q(t) is the mass of radioactive atoms
t years after the sample was established.
Assuming that the radioactive atoms have an initial mass of 10 mg (Q 0 = 10), what is the
mass after 5730 years?

Solution We evaluate
Q(5730) ≈ 5
The radioactive atoms have a mass of approximately 5 mg after 5730 years; in other words,
the sample has decayed by half. ■

Another occurrence of e
By definition, a linear function is a function with constant slope. Amongst other things, this
definition implies that non-linear functions do not have constant slope. That begs the question,
just what do we mean when we talk about the slope of a non-linear function?
The slope of non-linear functions is dealt with in calculus, but it boils down to finding the
slope of the line that best mimics the direction of motion along the function at the point of
interest. These lines are called tangent lines, and the tangent lines at the point (0, 1) are
shown for three different exponential functions in Figures 2.27–2.29.
It can be proven (using calculus) that at any given point the slope of a function of the form
y = b x is directly proportional to the y-coordinate of the point; the proportionality constant
is whatever the slope is at the point (0, 1). That is, for functions of the form y = b x , at any
given point (x, y) the slope of the function is k y where k is the slope of the curve at (0, 1).
For example, the function of the form y = b x that has a slope of 4 at the point (0, 1) has
a slope of 12 at the point where the y-coordinate is 3 and a slope of 80 at the point where
y-coordinate is 20.
One implication of the proportionality between the slope of the function and the y-coordinate
of the function is that the function of the form y = b x that has a slope of one at (0, 1) has
a very unique property – at any given point the slope of the function is exactly equal to the
y-coordinate of the point. As suggested in Figure 2.28, it turns out that the base that creates
this unique situation is that same number that showed up in the continuously compounded
interest application, the number e. So on the graph of y = e x , at any given point the slope of
the curve is exactly equal to the y-coordinate of the point.

Investigations Problem 3 (Trusting the definition of e)

Definition 13 says that
1 n
 ‹
e = lim 1+
n→∞ n
70 2.5. THE NUMBER E

Let’s see if we can verify this by doing some numerical calculations. Let f be the function that
has formula
1 x
 ‹
f (x) = 1 +
x

3.1 Evaluate f (10), f (100), f (1000), f (10000), and f (100000). Give each answer correct to 5
decimal places
3.2 Now use your calculator to evaluate e correct to 5 decimal places, and compare your answer
to those you obtained in Problem 3.1.
3.3 Why can’t we just put f (∞) into our calculator?
Problem 4 (Compounding continuously)
Imagine that you deposit $100 into a bank account which accrues interest at a nominal rate
of 5 % compounded continuously. The amount Q(t) in the account t years after opening the
account is given by Q(t) = 100 e0.05t .
4.1 Find Q(1) correct to two decimal places and interpret the result.
4.2 What is the effective annual growth rate? State your answer to five decimal places.
4.3 Use your calculator to graph

Q(t) = 100 e0.05t and P(t) = 100(1.05127) t

on the same axes. What do you notice?

2.5. THE NUMBER E 71

y y

1 m=1 1 m ≈ 1.10

x x
−1 −1

Figure 2.28: g(x) = e x Figure 2.29: h(x) = 3 x

1
m ≈ 0.69

−1

Figure 2.27: f (x) = 2 x

72 2.5. THE NUMBER E

Exercises

Problem 5 (Given description, write formula)

In each of the following, assume that the population of a town changes at the given rate. Write a formula for P(t), the
population at time t, measured in years since 2012.

5.1 P0 = 600, increasing at 7 % per year. 5.5 P0 = 450, decreasing at 6 % per year.
5.2 P0 = 1500, increasing at 7 % continuously per year. 5.6 P0 = 2405, decreasing at 12 % continuously per year.
5.3 P0 = 2300, increasing at 27 % per year. 5.7 P0 = 4402, decreasing at 19 % per year.
5.4 P0 = 3600, increasing at 52 % continously per year. 5.8 P0 = 7203, decreasing at 31 % continuously per year.

Problem 6 (Given formula, write interpretaion)

Each of the following formulas model the population of a town at time t (in years) since 1998. Determine the initial
population, P0 , and the percentage change, r, and give a sentence that describes the model.

6.1 P(t) = 1000(1.1) t 6.3 P(t) = 300(0.83) t

6.2 P(t) = 1000e0.11t 6.4 P(t) = 907e−0.08t

Problem 7 (The number e)

Put the following numbers in ascending order:

e, 1/3, 9, e−1 , 1, 1/4, e, 3, 1/e2 , 2, e2

Problem 8 (Investing in an account)

You have $2000 to invest in an account that accrues interest at a nominal rate of 3.75 %. Write a formula for A(t), the
amount of money in the account t years after opening the account, assuming that the interest is compounded in each of
the following ways. Calculate the effective annual rate in each case.

8.1 Annually. 8.2 Monthly 8.3 Daily 8.4 Continuously

Problem 9 (Solving an equation involving e)

You saved $7, 000 toward the purchase of a car costing $9, 000. How long would the $7, 000 have to be invested in an
account that earns 8 % compounded continuously to grow to $9, 000?
Problem 10 (Annual effective rate vs continuous growth rate)
Imagine that you have a bank account with a principal of $2500 earning an annual effective rate of 10 %.
10.1 Write a formula for A(t), the amount of money in the account t years after opening the account.
10.2 If the interest is compounded continuously, use your calculator to find the continuous growth rate to 5 decimal
places.
Problem 11 (Newton’s Law of Cooling)
You may have noticed that when you leave a cup of hot coffee in a room, the coffee’s temperature will decrease to room
temperature. Provided that the difference between the temperature of the liquid and its surrounding is not too great,
then Newton’s Law of Cooling applies.
One day you buy a cup of coffee that starts at 90 ◦C, and you are stood outside where the temperature is 0 ◦C. Let T (t)
represent the temperature of your coffee at time t (in minutes) since you bought it.
11.1 What is T (0)?
11.2 Do you expect T (t) to tend toward a value as t → ∞?
11.3 The temperature of the coffee decreases at a continuous rate of 7 % per minute. Write a formula for T (t).
11.4 According to your model, what is the temperature of the coffee 10 min after you bought it?
11.5 According to your model, how long after you bought your coffee is the temperature of the coffee 5 ◦C?
11.6 According to your model, is the temperature of the coffee ever 0 ◦C?
2.5. THE NUMBER E 73

Problem 12 (The RC circuit)

A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in the form of charged particles. The voltage on the capacitor is a result
of the electric field created by the particles and is proportional to the amount of charge stored. A resistor is a device that
dissipates electrical energy. If a capacitor is charged up and then connected across a resistor, the capacitor discharges
and the voltage drops.
The voltage (in V), on the capacitor as it is being discharged is modeled by the function V that has formula
t
V (t) = V0 e− RC

where V0 is the initial capacitor voltage, R is the value of the resistor (in Ω), C is the value of the capacitor (in F) and t
is time (in s).
12.1 Suppose that a 2 × 10−6 -farad capacitor, initially charged up to 10 V, is connected across a 50,000-ohm resistor.
Write the formula for V (t).
12.2 Construct a table of values of V (t) using t = 0, 0.1, ..., 0.5.
12.3 Based on your answer to Problem 12.2, do you think the graph of y = V (t) will be concave up or concave down?
Why?
12.4 Graph the function V .
12.5 By what percentage has the voltage decreased on the capacitor after 0.1 s? After 0.2 s?
Problem 13 (Charging a capacitor)
If a voltage source, such as a battery, is connected to a resistor and a uncharged capacitor, the capacitor will charge up.
The voltage (in V), on the capacitor as it is being charged is modeled by the function V that has formula
€ t
Š
V (t) = VS 1 − e− RC

where VS represents the voltage of the source (in V), R is the value of the resistor (in Ω), C is the value of the capacitor
(in F) and t is time (in s).
13.1 Suppose that a 10-volt battery is connected to a 2 × 10−6 -farad capacitor and a 50,000-ohm resistor. Write the
formula for V (t).
13.2 Construct a table of values of V (t) using t = 0, 0.1, ..., 0.5.
13.3 Based on your answer to Problem 13.2, do you think the graph of y = V (t) will be concave up or concave down?
Why?
13.4 Graph the function V .
13.5 After 0.1 s, the voltage on the capicitor is what percentage of the battery voltage? After 0.2 s?
13.6 Notice that even though the charge on the capacitor increasing, the formula modeling the voltage contains a de-
caying exponential. Explain why, mathematically, the function V is increasing even though it contains a decaying
exponential.
Problem 14 (Half-life exploration)
In each of the following problems, assume that
Q(t) = Q 0 e kt
models the mass of radioactive atoms in a substance (in mg) t years after the sample was established. Use a graphing
calculator to approximate the half-life for the given values of Q 0 and k. State your answers correctly to 2 decimal places.

14.1 Q 0 = 4, k = −0.0001 14.2 Q 0 = 15, k = −0.05

14.3 Does the half-life depend upon Q 0 ? Does it depend upon k?

Problem 15 (Continuous growth rate)
For each of the exponential functions defined by the formulas below, find the continuous growth rate and the growth
rate.
74 2.5. THE NUMBER E

15.1 f (t) = e t 15.2 g(t) = e0.2t 15.3 h(t) = e−0.1t

Problem 16 (The function f (x) = e x )

Let f be the function that has formula f (x) = e x .
16.1 Use your calculator to help you construct a table of values for f (x) when x takes all integer values between −3
and 3. Use 5 decimal places for each value of f (x).
16.2 What is the domain of f ? What is the range of f ? Is f concave up or concave down?
16.3 Now graph the functions g and h that have formulas g(x) = e x + 4 and h(x) = −e x . What are the domain and
range of g and h?
16.4 Figure 2.30 shows y = 2 x , y = e x , and y = 3 x . Match each curve to the appropriate formula.

x
x
16.5 Figure 2.31 shows y = 12 , y = e−x , and y = 13 . Match each curve to the appropriate formula.

y y

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4

Figure 2.30: Graph for Problem 16.4 Figure 2.31: Graph for Problem 16.5

Problem 17 (Slopes)
In this problem you are going to explore the proportionality relationship between the slope and y-coordinate of an
exponential function.
17.1 In Figure 2.27 we see that the graph of y = 2 x has a slope of about 0.69 at the point (0, 1). That means the slope
of the curve at the point (1, 2) is about 0.69(2) which is roughly 1.4. Lay out your ruler with a slope of 1.4 at the
point (1, 2) and see that it follows the direction of the curve at that point.
17.2 In Figure 2.29 we see that the slope at (0, 1) is about 1.10. What is the slope at the point where the y-coordinate
is 2? Verify this slope using your ruler.
Problem 18 (Factorials)
There is a function called the factorial function which is symbolized by an exclamation point. The domain of the function
is limited to the non-negative integers. Table 2.27 shows enough values of the function for you to hopefully see the way
the function works.
Find, correct to 5 decimal places, the decimal values of each of the expressions in Table 2.28. What do you observe?
2.5. THE NUMBER E 75

Table 2.28
Table 2.27
k k! Exact value Decimal value
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 + + + + +
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
2 2·1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3·2·1 + + + + + +
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
4 4·3·2·1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 5·4·3·2·1 + + + + + + +
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
6 6·5·4·3·2·1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + + + +
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
 2.6 Comparing linear and exponential functions
Section Themes, Concepts, Issues, Competencies, and Skills:
• Determine if real-world data establish a linear pattern or an exponential pattern (or nei-
ther).
• Find a reasonable formula for modeling social data over time.
• Understand the long-term differences between investing your money linearly versus expo-
nentially.
In professions where people work with a lot of data, it is frequently necessary to determine the
formula that best fits the data at hand. In statistics, you learn techniques called regressions
that allow you to determine the best model for a given set of data. You also learn how to
quantify the validity of the model and where and when it is appropriate to apply the model.
essential skills
The following problems contain prerequisite skills that are essential for success. Make sure that
you can complete them before moving on!
Problem 1 (Exponential or linear)
Decide if the functions defined by the following formulas are linear or exponential.

1.1 f (x) = 2 x 1.3 k(x) = 10 − 5x

1.2 g(x) = 2x − 10 1.4 l(x) = −13 · 6 x

Problem 2 (Sketching linear functions)

Sketch a graph of each of the linear functions defined by the following formulas.

2.1 f (x) = 21 x + 10 2.2 f (x) = 15 − 0.8x 2.3 f (x) = 13 (x − 7) + 4

Problem 3 (Find the slope)

Find the slope between each pair of points.

3.1 (12, 30), (5, 28) 3.3 (t, 118), (17, y)

3.2 (2001, 18.4), (2012, 15.3)

Problem 4
Determine if the data in Tables 2.29–2.31 could reasonably be modeled with a linear function.

Table 2.29 Table 2.30 Table 2.31

x y x y x y
2005 40 42 1.7 0 312
2006 46 43 1.92 3 330
2007 52 44 2.11 6 338
2008 58 45 2.31 9 341
2009 64 46 2.53 12 340
2010 70 47 2.72 15 330

There are formal techniques for deciding the proper type of function to use to model data. It
can be useful to first think about the type of function that might work best. For example, you
might be presented with data where you need to decide whether the data is best modeled by
a linear function, an exponential function, or something else. How might you make such a
decision?

Example 1 Decide if the function that is described is more like an exponential function, a linear function,
or neither.
Every hour, the number of yeast cells in a vat of fermenting wine increases. When there are
more cells present, more cells are able to split and reproduce. The number of cells present in
the vat is a function of the number of hours the wine has been fermenting.

76
2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 77

Solution After the first hour, the cells will reproduce and the number of cells will be larger. After the
second hour, there will be even more new cells added, since we will have more cells in the first
place capable of reproducing. This pattern continues. The population is increasing at a faster
and faster rate, so an exponential model may be appropriate. ■

Example 2 Decide if the function that is described is more like an exponential function, a linear function,
or neither.

Your house is being repainted, and every hour the workers paint an additional 400 ft2 . The
amount that has been painted is a function of the number of hours that have been worked.

Solution After the first hour, the workers paint 400 ft2 . After the second hour they have painted an
additional 400 ft2 . The amount of space that has been painted is increasing at a constant rate,
so a linear model is appropriate. ■

Suppose that you have some actual data and that you want to determine whether it would be
best to model the data using a linear model or an exponential model. How might you make
that decision? If the data is truly linear, then when the input values change at a steady pace,
the output values also change at a steady pace. This is illustrated in Table 2.32 where the
values of x increase by 4 from row to row and the values of y decrease by 9 from row to row.

Table 2.32 Table 2.33 Table 2.34 Table 2.35

x y x y x y x y
−7 30 22 3.5 −8 72 −15 7
−3 21 28 7 −6 18 −10 2
1 12 34 14 −4 4.5 −5 −3
5 3 40 28 −2 1.125 0 −8
9 −6 46 56 0 0.281 25 5 −13
13 −15 52 112 2 0.070 312 5 10 −18

If the data is truly exponential, then when the input values change at a steady pace, the values
of the output change at a constant ratio. This is illustrated in Table 2.33 where the value of
x increases by 6 from row to row and the ratio of the successive values of y is always 2.

Example 3 For each of the data sets in Tables 2.34 and 2.35, determine if the data is linear, exponential,
or neither. If the data is either linear or exponential, find a formula that models the data.

In Table 2.34, every time the value of x increases by 2, the ratio of the successive y-values is
1
4 . This is indicative of an exponential function.

−6
If f (x) = a b x , then from the data points (−8, 72) and (−6, 18) we get aabb−8 = 18 1
72 . So b = 4
2
1
which means that the base of the function b must be 2 (since the base cannot be negative).
Using the data point (0, 0.28125) along with our newly discovered base we find a(0.5)0 =
0.28125, so a = 0.28125.

x the data in Table 2.34 is modeled by the exponential function f where f (x) =
In conclusion,
0.28125 12 .

In Table 2.35, every time the value of x increase by 5, the value of y decreases by 5. This is
the behavior of a linear function with a slope of −1. Using either the slope-intercept form of
a linear equation or the point-slope form of a linear equation, we can deduce that the data is
modeled by the linear function g where g(x) = −x − 8. ■

In nature, data sets are almost never exactly linear nor exactly exponential. When dealing
with data one might need to decide which model best fits the data, linear or exponential.

Example 4 Is the data in Table 2.36 better modeled with a linear function or an exponential function?
78 2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Table 2.36
x f (x)
10 8
11 12.01
12 16.02
13 20
14 24

Solution Let’s compute the successive differences and the successive ratios:

12.01 − 8 = 4.01 12.01/8 ≈ 1.50

16.02 − 12.01 = 4.01 16.02/12.01 ≈ 1.33
20 − 16.01 = 3.98 10/16.01 ≈ 1.24
24 − 20 = 4 24/20 = 1.2

The differences are not constant, but they are all fairly close to having the constant value of
4. The ratios however are not close to being constant. It might be appropriate to model this
data with a linear function, but it would not be appropriate to model it with an exponential
function. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 5
Determine if each of the data sets in Tables 2.37–2.40 suggest an exponential relationship, a
linear relationship, or neither.

Table 2.37 Table 2.38 Table 2.39 Table 2.40

x y x y x y x y
1 2 2005 1 1950 17.3 0 546
2 4 2006 3 1960 19.6 4 502
3 6 2007 9 1970 21.9 8 462
4 8 2008 27 1980 24.1 12 425
5 10 2009 81 1990 26.4 16 391
6 12 2010 243 2000 28.7 20 360

make sure you try it!

Our examples in this section so far have not had any context; they have just been tables of
numbers. As a student of the natural and social sciences, you will encounter data sets that
come from interesting sources. Understanding how to model these data sets can help you
understand that subject better.

Example 5 A study of reproductive health care found the data in Table 2.41 concerning the percentage
of births in the U.S.A. that were delivered via a Cæsarian section.

Can we model this data with a linear or exponential function?

Solution It is always a good idea to plot data like this. Some patterns might be quickly evident from a
graph that are not so quickly evident numerically.

Figure 2.32 shows us that there is a clear upward trend in Cæsarian section deliveries. Is the
trend linear, exponential, or neither?

You might be able to see a slight upward bend to the plot, suggesting an exponential growth
pattern. Then again, your eyes might see these points as lying in a relatively straight line,
suggesting a linear growth pattern. Let’s look at successive ratios and differences in Table 2.42.

In Table 2.42, we see successive differences that become larger and larger. This tells us that a
linear model would not be appropriate for the Cæsarian section data. On the other hand, the
successive ratios all bounce around close to 1.074. This suggests that an exponential model
would be appropriate.
2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 79

Table 2.41: US Cæsarian Sec-

y
tion Data 35

Year C-sections (%) 30

25
1996 21.0
20
1998 22.6
15
2000 24.2
10
2002 26.0 5
2004 27.9 t
2006 30.0 2002 2008

2008 32.2
Figure 2.32: US Cæsarian sec-
tion data

Table 2.42: US Cæsarian Section Data

Differences Ratios
1.6 1.076 . . .
1.6 1.071 . . .
1.8 1.074 . . .
1.9 1.073 . . .
2.1 1.075 . . .
2.2 1.073 . . .

If we have decided that an exponential model is appropriate, can we explicitly write down a
model?

Solution We have many data points, but we only require two in order to determine a formula for
an exponential function. And it’s likely that different choices of points will lead to slightly
different models. In an intermediate statistics course, students learn how to deal with this
issue. For now, we will use the following rule of thumb: use data points that are a little inward
from the edges. In the current example, we will use the data from 1998 and 2006.
Since we typically wish to associate t = 0 to a year where the data was relevant, we will
identify t = 0 with the year 2000. Now if f (t) = a b t , then the data from 1998 and 2006 tell
us that ¦
22.6 = a b−2 30.0 = a b6
We can eliminate a by equating the quotients formed by the two sides of the equations.
‹1/8
30.0 a b6 30.0

= =⇒ b= ≈ 1.036
22.6 a b−2 22.6
The approximation of b by 1.036 is particularly valid in an application such as this, where we
know that other choices of data points would have given different values of b anyway.
Solving for a in the equation for 2006:
‹6/8
30.0 30

30.0 = a =⇒ a=  ‹3/4 ≈ 24.26
22.6 30.0
22.6
Therefore a model for the Cæsarian section data is

30.0 /8
 ‹t
1/4 3/4
f (t) = 30 22.6
22.6
‹1  t
30.0 /8

1/4 3/4
= 30 22.6
22.6
≈ 24.26(1.036) t

and it is acceptable to say that the percentage of C-section births is growing exponentially in
the U.S.A. For completeness, we can examine a graph of this model overlaying the data in
Figure 2.33. ■
80 2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

y
35

30

25

20

15

10

5
t
2002 2008

Figure 2.33: US Cæsarian section model

We have so far modeled data using exponential and linear functions; this has helped us deter-
mine how the two classes of function behave differently in the short term. You may wonder
how the two classes of function behave differently in the long term.

Example 6 Consider the functions f and g that have formulas

f (x) = 4x + 1, g(x) = 4 x

Describe the behavior of both functions as x → ∞ and as x → −∞.

Solution The functions f and g are graphed in Figure 2.34. Note that both functions grow without
bound as x → ∞. Another way to express this is to say

f (x) → ∞ and g(x) → ∞

as x → ∞.

However, even though both functions grow without bound, the exponential function g does
so at a much faster rate.

The behavior of the functions as x → −∞ is quite different. Note that g has a horizontal
asymptote ( y = 0) and that f does not; in fact f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞. ■

f
y y
80 20
g
x
60
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
40 −20

20 −40
x
−60
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
m
−20 −80
n

Figure 2.34 Figure 2.35

Example 7 Now consider the functions m and n that have formulas

m(x) = −10 x , n(x) = −6x

Describe the behavior of both functions as x → ∞ and as x → −∞.

Solution The functions m and n are both graphed in Figure 2.35. Note that both functions decrease
without bound as x → ∞. However, m does so at a much faster rate.

As in Example 6, the behavior of m and n as x → −∞ is different. Notice that m has a

horizontal asymptote ( y = 0) and that n does not. In this case n(x) → ∞ as x → −∞. ■

Investigations
2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 81

Problem 6 (Cell phones)

A cell phone company is studying the number of cell phone subscriptions in the U.S.A. In
2003, there were 158 million cell phone users. In 2006, there were 233 million cell phone
users.13
6.1 Write two ordered pairs suggested by the information above. Then find the slope between the
two points and interpret its meaning including units. (Write a complete sentence that explains
the meaning of the slope that you have calculated, without using the word ‘slope’.)
6.2 Assuming that the relationship between years and cell phone users is linear, find a formula
that determines the number of cell phone users as a function of the number of years since
2000.
6.3 Assuming that the relationship between years and cell phone users is exponential, find a
formula that determines the number of cell phone users as a function of the number of years
since 2000.
6.4 According to your models in Problems 6.2 and 6.3, how many cell phone users were there in
2008? In 2008 there were approximately 263 million cell phone users in the United States.
Which of the two models does a better job of predicting this number?
Problem 7 (Wind power)
The wind energy production capacity (in MW) for the world14 is shown in Figure 2.36.

Wind Power Capacity By Year (MW)

200000

180000

160000

140000

120000

100000

80000

60000

40000

20000

t
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Figure 2.36: Wind power.

7.1 Which would be more appropriate to model this data, an exponential function or a linear
function?
7.2 Let W (t) represent the wind energy production (in MW) at time t in years since 1995. In 1995
the wind power capacity was 4800 MW and in 2010 the wind power capacity was 194 154 MW.
Using two ordered pairs, (0, 4800) and (15, 194154), and assuming that an exponential model
is appropriate, we can show that a formula that approximates W is

194154 /15
 ‹t
W (t) = 4800
4800
‹1  t
194154 /15

= 4800
4800
≈ 4800(1.279756) t

Using a table of values or a graph, find when the world’s wind power capacity will be 250 000 MW.

13
CTIA - The Wireless Association
14
http://www.thewindpower.net/statistics_world.php
82 2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 8 (Population of Africa)

Table 2.43 gives the population of Africa for each year form 1999 to 2009.15

Table 2.43: Human Population of Africa

Year Millions
1999 800.2
2000 819.5
2001 839.0
2002 858.9
2003 879.2
2004 899.9
2005 921.1
2006 942.7
2007 964.7
2008 987.1
2009 1009.9

8.1 Give a good reason why it would be appropriate to model this data with an exponential
function.
8.2 Find an explicit exponential model for the population of Africa as a function of time. That is,
find an exponential function P where P(t) = a b t such that P(t) approximates the population
of Africa at time t. For convenience, take t = 0 to mean the year 2000, with time measured
in years.
8.3 Use the model that you found in Problem 8.2 to estimate the population of Africa in the year
2020.
8.4 Use a graph of your model to estimate when the population of Africa might reach 1.5 billion
people. (1.5 billion is 1500 million.)
8.5 How good is your model? Use your model to add a third column to Table 2.43 that displays
the model’s predicted population. Discuss the accuracy of the model.
Problem 9 (Tortoise and the Hare)
Aesop’s fable of the Tortoise and the Hare depicts an unlikely race between the two animals.
The Hare, being known as a quick and lively animal, brims with confidence. The Tortoise,
who is known as a slow and more methodical creature is a little nervous. We are going to
model a version of this fable.
The Tortoise and the Hare are going to race over 1000 m. The Hare boasts that he can run
at 20 m/s for as long as he likes. The Tortoise doesn’t know how fast he can run, but he says
that his distance from the their starting line obeys the rule y = 2 t , where t is the time (in
seconds) since they begin the race; he does ask the Hare if he can have a 1 m head start. The
Hare laughs at the Tortoise and says, ‘Fine by me!’
9.1 Let H(t) represent the Hare’s distance from the starting line (in meters) t seconds after the
race begins. Write a formula for H.
9.2 Let T (t) represent the Tortoise’s distance from the starting line (in meters) t seconds after
the race begins. Write a formula for T .
9.3 Graph H and T on the same axis for t in [0, 10]. Who wins the race?
Unbeknown to both competitors, the Hare’s older sister has been watching the race. She
approaches the Tortoise and says that if she had been racing, she would easily have won
because she can run at 40 m/s for as long as she likes.
9.4 Let S(t) represent the Hare’s sister’s distance from the starting line (in meters) t seconds after
the race begins. Write a formula for S.
9.5 Let’s assume that all 3 animals race together. Graph H, T , and S on the same axis for t in
[0, 10]. Who wins the race?
15
http://www.earth-policy.org/books/wote
2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 83

Exercises

Problem 10 (Linear or exponential?)

Decide if the functions defined by the following formulas are linear or exponential.

10.1 B( y) = −10 · 17 y 10.2 A(t) = 4t + 10 10.3 C(α) = 5α − π 10.4 D(z) = πz

Problem 11 (Linear, exponential, or neither?)

Decide if the function that is described is more like an exponential function, a linear function, or neither.
11.1 The number of plants that germinate is a function of the number of seeds sown. For a particular crop of peas,
exactly 70 % of the seeds sown germinate.
11.2 The number of tulip bulbs in a garden is a function of the number of years since first planting. Every year, each of
the tulip bulbs divides into two.
11.3 The amount of money in Ross’ bank account is a function of the number of years since the account was opened.
Every year the amount of money in Ross’ account increases by $5000.
11.4 The amount of money in Serena’s account is a function of the number of years since she opened the account. Every
year the amount of money Serena’s account increases by 2 % of the amount that was in the account the year before.
11.5 The number of pages you still have to read in a book is a function of the page number you’re on.
Problem 12 (Linear or exponential?)
Consider the data sets in Tables 2.44–2.50.
12.1 For each data set in Tables 2.44–2.47, state whether a linear or exponential function (or neither) would better
model the data. If a linear or exponential model is appropriate, find an exact formula for the model.

Table 2.44 Table 2.45 Table 2.46 Table 2.47

x f (x) x g(x) x h(x) x k(x)
−1 −4.5 −1 64 −1 2.000 −1 20
0 −3.0 0 16 0 3.000 0 16
1 −1.5 1 4 1 4.500 1 12
2 0.0 2 1 2 6.750 2 8
3 1.5 3 1/4 3 10.125 3 4

Table 2.48 Table 2.49 Table 2.50

x y x y x y
4 7.32 2 4.27 5 20
5 8.05 3 5.4 6 30
6 8.86 4 6.52 7 42
7 9.74 5 7.63 8 56
8 10.72 6 8.75 9 72

12.2 For each data set in Tables 2.48–2.50, state whether a linear or exponential function (or neither) would better
model the data. If a linear or exponential model is appropriate, find an approximate formula for the model.
Problem 13 (Which is greater?)
Let f and g be functions that have the formulas

f (x) = 1000x + 1 × 106 , g(x) = 2 x

13.1 Evaluate f (1) and g(1). Which is greater?

13.2 Evaluate f (10) and g(10). Which is greater?
13.3 Do you think that that g(x) will ever be greater than f (x)?
13.4 Evaluate f (20) and g(20). Does this change your answer to Problem 13.3?
84 2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 14
Consider the ordered pairs (3, 10) and (7, 15).
14.1 Find the formula for the linear function, f , that goes through the ordered pairs.
14.2 Find the formula for the exponential function, g, that goes through the ordered pairs.
14.3 What is the first integer value of x that makes g(x) > f (x)?
Problem 15 (True or false)
Answer the following questions as True or False; if you believe the answer to be False, provide justification that supports
your answer.
15.1 Linear functions are concave down.
15.2 Linear functions are concave up.
15.3 It is possible to write a linear function that has a slope of 2.
15.4 It is possible to write an exponential function that has a slope of 2.
15.5 There is an exponential function that decreases at a constant rate of 5.
Problem 16 (Classify that function!)
Carlos and Anita are playing a game the call, ‘Classify that function!’ One of them describes how to plot the points or
features of the graph, and the other has to say if it is linear or exponential. Help them decide if the following describe
linear or exponential functions.
16.1 Over 2 up 3, over 2 up 3, over 2 up 3, . . .
16.2 Start negative. Over 1, 5 times farther down, over 1, 5 times farther down, over 1, 5 times farther down, . . .
16.3 Left 5 up 1, left 10 up 2, left 15 up 3, left 20 up 4, . . .
16.4 A straight line that goes through the points (0, 0) and (20, 19).
16.5 A function that is concave up, and has a horizontal asymptote of y = 0 as x → −∞.
Problem 17 (Matching stories with formulas)
Match each of the following formulas with one of the given statements. Note that y and x have deliberately been used
in each formula to avoid any extra hints; you will also notice that there are more choices than questions so you will not
be able to use all choices.

(i) y = 2π x (iv) y = 2x (vi) y = 59 x − 32 (viii) y = 100(0.9) x

(ii) y = 2πx (ix) y = 100 − 10x
5 9
(iii) y = 2 x
(v) y = 9 (x − 32) (vii) y = 5x + 32

17.1 To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 32 and then multiply by 5/9.
17.2 A population starts with 100 people, and decreases by 10 % per year.
17.3 The circumference of a circle is calculated by multiplying the radius by 2π.
17.4 What is the biggest city in the World? Dublin, because it keeps on doublin’ and doublin’, and. . .
17.5 To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9/5 and then add 32.
17.6 A population starts with 100 people and decreases by 10 people per year.
Problem 18
Did you complete Problem 8 (from Section 2.3) about the Tapfish app? If you did, do the values of F (t) suggest that an
exponential model might be appropriate? Use successive ratios to decide.
Problem 19 (Long-run behavior of linear and exponential functions)
We are going to explore long-run behavior of exponential functions that have base less than one (b < 1).
19.1 Let f and n be the functions that have formulas
 ‹x
1
f (x) = , n(x) = −3x
4
2.6. COMPARING LINEAR AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 85

which are shown in Figure 2.37. Describe the behavior of f and n as x → ∞ and x → −∞.
19.2 Let g and m be the functions that have formulas
 ‹x
1
g(x) = − , m(x) = 6x
5

which are shown in Figure 2.38. Describe the behavior of g and m as x → ∞ and x → −∞.

y f
y
80 n 20

x
60
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

40 −20

20 −40

x
−60
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−20 −80 g
m

Figure 2.37: f and n Figure 2.38: g and m

Problem 20 (Match formulas to graphs)

Match each of the following formulas with one of the graphs in Figure 2.39. Note that axis ticks and scaling have
deliberately been omitted to encourage you to think about long-run behavior.

(i) y = −4 x (iii) y = −πx (v) y = 10x + 2 (vii) y = x

 ‹x  ‹x
1 1
(ii) y = (iv) y = 4 (vi) y = 10 x (viii) y = −
2 2

y y y y

x
x
x
x

(a) (b) (c) (d)

y y y y
x

x x x

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 2.39
 2.7 Extensions
Section Themes, Concepts, Issues, Competencies, and Skills:
• Investigate the Logistic model for population growth and decay.
• Revisit composition and piecewise defined functions.
Core problems in this section (Æ): 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

A more realistic population model

We considered population models in Section 2.4. Each model had the form

P(t) = a b t

and therefore implied that as t → ∞, the population either decays to zero, or grows without
bound.
Intuitively, these models are unrealistic. A decreasing population does not necessarily decay
to zero, and an increasing population encounters limitations on food and other resources that
will prevent it from growing without bound. The Logistic Model takes resource limitations
into account.

Definition 15 (The Logistic Model)

According to the Logistic Model, the population, P(t), t years after the population
started its logistic growth is given by the formula

M P0
P(t) =
P0 + (M − P0 )e−kt

where
• P0 is the initial population: P0 = P(0);
• M is the carrying capacity, the maximum population that can be supported by
the available resources;
• k approximates the relative growth rate when the population is small, relative
to the carrying capacity, interpreted as a percent per year.

Example 1 Let P(t) represent the population of a country at time t (in years) since 2000. Use Defini-
tion 15, with k = 0.08 and M = 1000, to study the effect of changing P0 from 100 to 1400.
What happens to P as t → ∞?

Solution Using k = 0.08 and M = 1000 in Definition 15, we have

1000P0
P(t) =
P0 + (1000 − P0 )e−0.08t

If we put P0 = 100 and then P0 = 1400 then we have, respectively,

1000 7000
P(t) = , P(t) =
1 + 9e−0.08t 7 − 2e−0.08t
graphs of which are shown in Figures 2.40 and 2.41.
Notice that in both models, P(t) → 1000 as t → ∞. Remember that we called M the carrying
capacity in Definition 15, which represents the maximum population that the environment can
support.
In contrast to the models presented in Section 2.4, the populations neither grow without
bound nor decay toward zero. ■

86
2.7. EXTENSIONS 87

1,400 y

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

t
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

7000
Figure 2.41: P(t) =
7 − 2e−0.08t
1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400

200

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

1000
Figure 2.40: P(t) =
1 + 9e−0.08t

Exercises

Problem 1 (Logistic model)

Use Definition 15 and Example 1 to guide you in this problem. Assume that k = 0.05, P0 = 100 and M = 800.
1.1 Find a logistic population model, P(t).
1.2 Find P(1) and determine the relative growth over the first year. How does this compare to k?
1.3 Graph your function P on your calculator and describe its behavior as t → ∞.
1.4 Is your function P increasing or decreasing?
Problem 2 (Rats!)
In the 1800s, a ship landed on a remote island and 35 black rats (Rattus rattus) escaped to colonize the island.
2.1 If the initial relative growth rate was about 90 % per year and the island has a carrying capacity of 20,000 rats, find
a formula for P(t), the number of rats on the island at time t, assuming logistic growth.
 88 2.7. EXTENSIONS

2.2 Use a graphing calculator to determine how long will it take for the population to reach 15,000 rats.
Problem 3 (The invasive blackberry)
Himalayan blackberry is an invasive species. Some seeds found their way into a remote valley and grew into 8 kg of
blackberry biomass by the next year. Suppose that the initial relative growth rate of blackberry biomass was 350 % per
year and that the valley has a carrying capacity of 50 000 kg.
3.1 If t = 0 corresponds to the time when there was 8 kg of biomass, find a formula for the amount of blackberry biomass
in the valley after t years, assuming logistic growth.
3.2 Use a graphing calculator to determine how long will it take for the blackberry biomass to reach half of the valley’s
carrying capacity.
Problem 4
4.1 Suppose that P is a decreasing logistic function with k = 0.05 and P(t) → 800 as t → ∞. Find a formula for P and
graph the function on your calculator.
4.2 What does your formula become if P0 = 800? Is P increasing or decreasing in this case?
Problem 5 (Composition)
Let f and g be functions that have formulas f (x) = 2 x and g(x) = 3 x . Find each of the following.

Æ 5.1 ( f ◦ g)(1) Æ 5.3 ( f ◦ g)(0) 5.5 ( f ◦ g)(x)

Æ 5.2 (g ◦ f )(2) 5.4 (g ◦ f )(0) 5.6 (g ◦ f )(x)

Problem 6 (Decomposition)
In each of the following problems, you are given a formula for function h. Decompose h into two functions f and g such
that h = f ◦ g.
2 3
+2x 2 2 2
+2
6.1 h(x) = 2 x 6.2 h(x) = −4 x 6.3 h(x) = 2 x + 3 x 6.4 h(x) = e−x

Problem 7 (Inverse function evaluation)

The function f that has formula f (x) = 2 x is invertible. Evaluate each of the following.

7.3 f −1 14


7.1 f −1 (8) 7.2 f −1 (16) 7.4 f −1 (1)

Problem 8 (Piecewise functions)

Let k be the function that has formula
t < −5
 t
2,

−10, −5 ≤ t < 3

k(t) =

6t, 3<t <7
−4 , t > 7
 t

Evaluate each of the following, and leave your answers in exact form.

8.1 k(−6) 8.3 k(0) 8.5 k(5) 8.7 k(7)

8.2 k(−4) 8.4 k(2.99) 8.6 k(6) 8.8 k(8)

Problem 9 (Function algebra)

Let f and g be the exponential functions that have formulas
 ‹x
1
f (x) = 3 ,
x
g(x) =
4
Evaluate each of the following (if possible).
€ Š
9.1 ( f + g)(0) 9.2 ( f − g)(2) 9.3 ( f · g)(−2) 9.4
f
g (1)

Problem 10 (Transformations: given the transformation, find the formula)

Let f be the exponential function that has formula f (x) = 7 x . In each of the following problems apply the given
transformation to the function f and write a formula for the transformed version of f .
2.7. EXTENSIONS 89

10.1 Shift f to the right by 2 units. 10.4 Shift f down by 1 unit.

10.2 Shift f to the left by 5 units. 10.5 Reflect f over the horizontal axis.
10.3 Shift f up by 11 units. 10.6 Reflect f over the vertical axis.

Problem 11 (Transformations: given the formula, describe the transformation)

Describe each of the functions
defined by the following formulas in terms of transformations of the exponential function
x
f that has formula f (x) = 32 .

2 x+7 2 x−13 2 2(x+9) 2 −x

11.4 k(x) = 7


11.1 g(x) =


11.2 h(x) =


3 3 11.3 j(x) = 3 3
 FUNCTIONS 3

Contents
3.1 Function algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2 Piecewise-defined functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

90
 3.1 Function algebra
Definition 16 (Function algebra)
Given two functions f and g, we may combine the two functions to form new functions

f
f + g, f − g, f · g,
g

The formula for each function can be found using

( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

( f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)
( f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x)
f (x)
 ‹
f
(x) =
g g(x)

The domain of each of the functions f + g, f − g, and f · g is

(domain of f ) ∩ (domain of g)
f
The domain of the function g is

(domain of f ) ∩ (domain of g such that g(x) ̸= 0)

Example 1 – Function algebra domain: In each of the following cases you are given the formulas for
f
two functions f and g. In each case, find the domain of f + g and g .
p p
(a) f (x) = x, g(x) = 1 − x
p p
(b) f (x) = x − 1, g(x) = 1 − x
1 p
(c) f (x) = , g(x) = x + 5
x +3
Solution (a) The domain of f is [0, ∞) and the domain of g is (−∞, 1]. Therefore, the domain of
the function f + g is
[0, ∞) ∩ (−∞, 1] = [0, 1]
f
The domain of the function g is found in a similar way, except we must have the ad-
ditional condition that g(x) =
̸ 0; we therefore must exclude 1 from the domain. The
f
domain of g is therefore
[0, 1)

(b) The domain of f is [1, ∞) and the domain of g is (−∞, 1]. Therefore the domain of
f + g is
[1, ∞) ∩ (−∞, 1] = {1}
f
The domain of the function g is found in a simlar way, but we must exclude all values
f
of x that make g(x) = 0. Since g(1) = 0 we must exclude 1 from the domain of g ; we
f
therefore conclude that the domain of g is the empty set, ;.

(c) The domain of f is (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞) and the domain of g is [−5, ∞]. The domain
of f + g is therefore

((−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞)) ∩ [−5, ∞) = [−5, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞)

f f
We must exclude −5 from the domain of g since g(−5) = 0; the domain of g is

(−5, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞)

■

91
92 3.1. FUNCTION ALGEBRA

Exercises

Problem 1 (Function algebra using formulas)

f
In each of the following problems you are given formulas for functions f and g. Find the domain of f · g and g in each
case.
p
1.1 f (x) = x, g(x) = x 2 + 1 1.3 f (x) = x − 1, g(x) = x 2 + 5x + 4
4

p p
1.2 f (x) = 3x + 2, g(x) = x 1.4 f (x) = 5
x, g(x) = x 2 − 9x − 10

Problem 2 (Function algebra numerically)

Values of the functions f , g, h, and j are shown in Tables 3.1a–3.1d

Table 3.1: Tables for Problem 2

(a) y = f (x) (b) y = g(x) (c) y = h(x) (d) y = j(x)

x y x y x y x y
−4 −56 −4 −16 −4 2 −4 30
−3 −18 −3 −3 −3 4 −3 21
−2 0 −2 0 −2 6 −2 12
−1 4 −1 −1 −1 8 −1 3
0 0 0 0 0 10 0 −6
1 −6 1 9 1 12 1 −15
2 −8 2 32 2 14 2 15
3 0 3 75 3 16 3 96
4 24 4 144 4 18 4 760

Construct a table of values for each of the following functions, marking with an X any that undefined.
j

€ Š
2.1 f + g 2.2 f − g 2.3 g · h 2.4 h + j 2.5 h 2.6
j
f

Problem 3 (Function algebra graphically)

Consider the functions F , G, H, and J that have been graped in Figure 3.1. Use the graphs to plot each of the following
functions.

H
3.1 F + G 3.2 G · H 3.3 J 3.4 J − F

Problem 4 (Function algebra numerically)

Table 3.2 shows some values of the functions f , g, and some functions obtained by using some function algebra on f
and g. Use the given values to complete Table 3.2.

Table 3.2
x −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
f (x) 2 3 π
g(x) 8 1 5 −1
( f + g)(x) 2 1
( f − g)(x) 3 10
( €f · Šg)(x) 0
f
g (x) 1 6

Problem 5 (Function algebra graphically)

Consider the functions α, β, γ, and δ which have been graphed in Figure 3.2. Evaluate each of the following.

δ


5.1 (α + β)(0) 5.2 (β − γ)(3) 5.3 (γ · δ)(2) 5.4 α (0)
3.1. FUNCTION ALGEBRA 93

y y y
2 2 2

x x x
−2 2 −2 2 −2 2

−2 −2 −2

(b) y = G(x) (c) y = H(x) (d) y = J(x)

−2 2

−2

(a) y = F (x)

Figure 3.1
94 3.1. FUNCTION ALGEBRA

4
y 4
y 4
y 4
y

2 2 2 2

x x x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4

−2 −2 −2 −2

−4 −4 −4 −4

(a) y = α(x) (b) y = β(x) (c) y = γ(x) (d) y = δ(x)

Figure 3.2
 3.2 Piecewise-defined functions
The functions that we have considered so far have had just one formula throughout their
domain; for example, the quadratic function q that has formula

q(x) = 5 − 3x 2

is defined for all real numbers.

y There are many applications for which this is too restrictive; for example, electrical engineers
often work with switches that are turned on (with a value of 1) and off (with a value of 0).
An example of a function that might model such a switch over time, t, is shown in Figure 3.3.
1 It is clear that this function takes the value 0 on some intervals, and 1 on other intervals. We
can write a formula for such a function by first noting that is a piecewise-defined function.

t Definition 17 (Piecewise-defined functions)

1 2 3 4 A piecewise-defined function has different formulas for different parts of its domain.
The formula for a piecewise-defined function is written using a left brace { and is read
from top to bottom as we move from left to right through its domain.
Figure 3.3: A switch function
Example 1 Find a formula for the function that is graphed in Figure 3.3.

Solution Let’s assume that the function shown in Figure 3.3 is called f . It seems that f (t) takes the
value 0 on the intervals [0, 1) and [2, 3); similarly, f (t) takes the value 1 on the intervals
[1, 2) and [3, 4). We can translate this into a formula for the function f as follows

0, 0 ≤ t < 1



1, 1 ≤ t < 2

f (t) =
0, 2 ≤ t < 3

1, 3 ≤ t < 4


Note that we use the left brace, {, to link the formula together. Note also that the domain of
f is [0, 4) and that as we read the formula from top to bottom, the values of t go from left to
right. This will be true in every piecewise-defined function that we see. ■

Example 2 – Coupons: Wendy is going shopping at Jessica’s beauty salon. Wendy has the coupons
shown in Figure 3.4. Wendy is very interested in modeling the total amount of money that
she will spend after applying the discounts from the coupons.
Wendy observes that the amount of money that she will save depends on the total cost of
the items. She decides to let the function d represent the cost of the items after applying the
discount to items that cost x dollars initially. Wendy realizes that she needs one formula for
items that cost below $15, and one for items that cost $15 or more; she decides to write a
formula for d(x) using a piecewise-defined formula
¨
x − 5, 0 < x < 15
d(x) =
0.8x, x ≥ 15

Wendy decides to test her formula by finding how much an item that costs $13 initially will
cost after using the coupon. She evaluates d(13)

d(13) = 13 − 5
=8

The item will cost her $8.

Wendy also uses her formula to find her savings on a $40 item by evaluating

d(40) = 0.8 · 40
= 32

and concludes that she will save $8 using her coupon. ■

95
 96 3.2. PIECEWISE-DEFINED FUNCTIONS

Jessica’s
$5 beauty
$5 off any purchase less than $15

salon
(a)
Jessica’s
20% beauty
20% off any purchase $15 or more

salon
(b)

Figure 3.4: Wendy’s coupons

Example 3 – Function evaluation: Let g be the piecewise-defined function that has formula

−13, x ≤ −4
g(x) = 2, −4 < x < 3
x >3

7,
Evaluate each of the following

(a) g(−5) (b) g(−4) (c) g(0) (d) g(3) (e) g(53)

Solution (a) To evaluate g(−5) we first need to identify which part of the domain is appropriate.
Since −5 ≤ −4, we use the formula in the first row of g(x), and therefore
g(−5) = −13

(b) Since −4 ≤ −4, we use the first row in the formula for g(x) again, so
g(−4) = −13

(c) Since −4 < 0 < 3 we need to use the second row in the formula for g(x), so
g(0) = 2

(d) To evaluate g(3) we need to find the appropriate interval in the formula for g(x). Notice
that 3 does not fall into any of the intervals! This means that g(3) is undefined.
(e) We note that 53 > 3, so we need to use the third row of the formula for g(x), so
g(53) = 7
■
Example 4
t < −3
 2
t ,
f (t) = 4 − 5t, −3 ≤ t < 6
FIX p
t t >6
■
3.2. PIECEWISE-DEFINED FUNCTIONS 97

Exercises

Problem 1 (Find a formula from a graph)

Consider the functions F , G, H, and J that have been graped in Figure 3.5. Find a formula for each function.

1.1 F 1.2 G 1.3 H 1.4 J

y y y y
2 2 2 2

x x x x
−2 2 −2 2 −2 2 −2 2

−2 −2 −2 −2

(a) y = F (x) (b) y = G(x) (c) y = H(x) (d) y = J(x)

Figure 3.5
 LOGARITHMS 4

Contents
4.1 Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2 Properties of logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

98
 4.1 Logarithmic functions
In our chapter on exponential functions we considered applications that lead to equations
such as
10 x = 19
We can approximate solutions to such equations using graphical and numerical techniques.
How can we solve these equations algebraically though? The answer is to use logarithmic
functions.

Definition 18 (The logarithm function)

The logarithmic function, base b, where b > 0 and b ̸= 1, is defined by

y = log b (x)

if, and only if,

by = x
The domain of the logarithmic function y = log b (x) is (0, ∞), and the range is
(−∞, ∞).

Definition 18 says that if we are given a logarithmic expression then we can convert it into an
equivalent exponential expression. This is useful when evaluating logarithmic expressions.

Example 1 Use a sentence to describe each of the following logarithmic expressions, and then evaluate
each expression

(a) log2 (32) (b) log3 (81) (c) log5 (25) (d) log73 (1)

Solution (a) The logarithm, base 2, of 32. In order to evaluate the expression, we need to answer
the question: what power do we raise 2 to get 32? The answer is 5, so

log2 (32) = 5

(b) The logarithm, base 3, of 81. What power do we raise 3 to get 81? The answer is 4, so

log3 (81) = 4

(c) The logarithm, base 5, of 25. What power do we raise 5 to get 25? The answer is 2, so

log5 (25) = 2

(d) The logarithm, base 73, of 1. We need to raise 73 to the power 0 to get 1, so

log73 (1) = 0
■

Example 2 Convert each of the following exponential equations into their equivalent logarithm form

(a) 35 = 243 (b) 70 = 1 (c) 16 /2 = 4 (d) 33−1 = 1

1
33

Solution (a) 35 = 243 is equivalent to

log3 (243) = 5

(b) 70 = 1 is equivalent to
log7 (1) = 0

(c) 16 /2 = 4 is equivalent to
1

1
log16 (4) =
2

99
100 4.1. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

1
(d) 33−1 = 33 is equivalent to
1
 ‹
log33 = −1
33
■

Example 3 Convert each of the following logarithmic equations into their equivalent exponential form

1


(a) log4 4 = −1 (b) log6 (36) = 2 (c) log 1 (4) = −2 (d) loge (e8 ) = 8
2

1


Solution (a) log4 4 = −1 is equivalent to
1
4−1 =
4

(b) log6 (36) = 2 is equivalent to

62 = 36

(c) log 1 (4) = −2 is equivalent to

2
 ‹−2
1
=4
2

(d) loge (e8 ) = 8 is equivalent to

e8 = e8
In fact when evaluating a logarithm base e we use a special notation, as we’ll soon see.
■
We have been able to perform all of our calculations so far using our knowledge of arithmetic
and exponents. When faced with a logarithmic calculation that goes beyond this, we need to
use a calculator to compute the value. Most modern calculators can work in any base, but
of all the possible choices that we have available there are two bases that are particularly
important.

Definition 19 (The common and natural logarithm functions)

When working with logarithmic functions that have base b and formula y = log b (x),
• the common logarithmic function has base 10 and is written as

y = log(x)

• the natural logarithmic function has base e and is written as

y = ln(x)

It may help to recall from Definition 13 on page 67 that e is called the natural
base.

Example 4 – Domain: Find the domain of each the functions implied by the following formulas

(a) f (x) = log(x) (c) h(x) = ln(4x − 5)

(b) g(x) = log3 (2 + x) (d) j(x) = log7 (x 2 )

Solution (a) The domain of f is (0, ∞). Note that the base of f is 10; f is the common logarithmic
function.
(b) To find the domain of g we need to solve the inequality 2 + x > 0. The domain of g is,
therefore, (−2, ∞).
(c) To find
the domain of h we need to solve the inequality 4x − 5 > 0. The domain of h is
5
4 , ∞ . Note that the base of h is e; h is the natural logarithmic function.
 4.1. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 101

(d) To find the domain of j we need to solve the inequality x 2 > 0. The domain of g is
therefore (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). ■
One of the implications of Definition 18 is that there is a relationship between logarithmic
functions and exponential functions. Explicitly, if f is the exponential function that has for-
mula
f (x) = b x
then the inverse function, f −1 , has formula

f −1 (x) = log b (x)

We can use our knowledge of inverse functions (see ) to help us graph logarithmic functions.
FIX Example 5 – Graphing: Use your knowledge of the function f that has formula f (x) = 2 x to help you
graph its inverse function, f −1 , that has formula f −1 (x) = log2 (x).

Solution Let’s start by constructing a table of values of the function f in Table 4.1. We can easily
construct a table of values of f −1 (x) by simply swapping the input and output values, which
we have done in Table 4.2.

Table 4.1: f Table 4.2: f −1

x f (x) x f −1 (x)
−3 1/8 1/8 −3
−2 1/4 1/4 −2
−1 1/2 1/2 −1
0 1 1 0
1 2 2 1
2 4 4 2
3 8 8 3

If we plot the values we obtained in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 and connect them using a smooth
curve, then we obtain the curves given in Figure 4.1.
There are a few more observations that we can make about f and its inverse, using Figure 4.1
as a guide:
• the domain of f is (−∞, ∞), and the range of f is (0, ∞); this means that the domain
of f −1 is (0, ∞), and the range of f −1 is (−∞, ∞);
• the function f has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0; this necessarily means
that the function f −1 has a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0;
• the function f does not have a vertical asymptote| this therefore implies that the func-
tion f −1 does not have a horizontal asymptote;
• the curves of f and f −1 are symmetric about the line y = x. ■
102 4.1. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

10
y = 2x

5
y = log2 (x)

−10 −5 5 10

−5
y=x

−10

Figure 4.1

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 1
Repeat Example 5 using the function f that has formula f (x) = 3 x .
make sure you try it!

There is a strong relationship between the logarithmic function f that has formula f (x) =
log b (x) and its inverse exponential function f −1 that has formula f −1 (x) = b x . We can think
of both functions as a type of mapping from their domains to their respective ranges. There
are many possible ways to visualize the mapping| one such image is shown in Figure 4.2.
Notice that the mapping lends itself well to highlighting properties (l5 ) and (l6 ), which detail
the composition of logarithmic and exponential functions

( f ◦ f −1 )(x) = ( f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x

Our examples so far have concentrated on familiarizing ourselves with logarithmic functions
but we have yet to see an application. The logarithmic functions have a myriad of applica-
4.1. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 103

(0, ∞) (−∞, ∞)

f −1

Figure 4.2: Visualizing the mappings of f and f −1 , where f has formula f (x) = log b (x) and f −1 has
formula f −1 (x) = b x .

tions| in particular, they can be used to help us study examples that otherwise could only be
attempted from a graphical or numerical perpesctive.

Example 6 The number of radioactive atoms in a sample of Carbon-14 decays according to the model

Q(t) = Q 0 e−0.000120968t ,

where Q 0 is the initial mass of the radioactive atoms and Q(t) is the mass of radioactive atoms
t years after the sample was established.
What is the half-life of the sample?
Q0
Solution We need to find the value of t that satisfies the equation Q(t) = 2 . We proceed using the
following steps

Q0 1
= Q 0 e−0.000120968t ⇒ = e−0.000120968t
2 2 ‹
1
⇒ ln = −0.000120968t
2
1 1
 ‹
⇒t =− ln
−0.000120968 2
= 5370

We conclude that the half-life of the sample is 5370 years. ■

Example 7 – The RC circuit: A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in the form of charged
particles. The voltage on the capacitor is a result of the electric field created by the particles
and is proportional to the amount of charge stored. A resistor is a device that dissipates elec-
trical energy. If a capacitor is charged up and then connected across a resistor, the capacitor
discharges and the voltage drops.
The voltage (in V), on the capacitor as it is being discharged is modeled by the function V
that has formula
t
V (t) = V0 e− RC
where V0 is the initial capacitor voltage, R is the value of the resistor (in Ω), C is the value of
the capacitor (in F) and t is time (in s).
(a) Suppose that a 1.0 × 10−6 -farad capacitor, initially charged to 12 V, is connected across
a 10.000 Ω-resistor. How long will it take for the voltage on the capacitor to drop to
half of its original value?

(b) Suppose the capacitor is initially charged to 20 V. How long will it take for the voltage
to drop to one half of its original value?

(c) Suppose the capacitor is initially charged up to 100 V. How long will it take for the
voltage to drop to one half of its original value?
104 4.1. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

(d) What effect will doubling the resistance have on the time it takes for the voltage to drop
to one half of its initial value?
t
Solution (a) We need to solve the equation 12 V0 = V0 e− RC :

1
6 = 12e−100t ⇒ = e−100t
2 ‹
1
⇒ ln = −100t
2
1 1
 ‹
⇒t =− ln
100 2
≈ 0.007

It takes about 0.007 s for the voltage of the capacitor to reach one half of its initial value.
t
(b) We need to solve the equation 12 V0 = V0 e− RC :

1
10 = 20e−100t ⇒ = e−100t
2 ‹
1
⇒ ln = −100t
2
1 1
 ‹
⇒t =− ln
100 2
≈ 0.007

It takes about 0.007 s for the voltage of the capacitor to reach one half of its initial value.
Does this sound familiar?
t
(c) We need to solve the equation 21 V0 = V0 e− RC :

1
50 = 100e−100t ⇒ = e−100t
2 ‹
1
⇒ ln = −100t
2
1 1
 ‹
⇒t =− ln
100 2
≈ 0.007

It takes about 0.007 s for the voltage of the capacitor to reach one half of its initial value.
There seems to be a pattern here. . .
1
(d) If we double the resistance to 20.000 Ω then we need to solve the equation 2 V0 =
V0 e−50t ; note that the value of V0 does not affect our calculations

1 1
V0 = V0 e−50t ⇒ = e−50t
2 2 ‹
1
⇒ ln = −50t
2
1 1
 ‹
⇒t =− ln
50 2
≈ 0.014

We conclude that doubling the resistance doubles the time it takes (to about 0.014 s)
for the voltage on the capacitor to reach half of its initial value. ■

Exercises

Problem 2 (Domain)
Find the domain of each of the functions implied by the following formulas.
4.1. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 105

2.1 f (x) = log4 (x + 7) 2.3 h(x) = 5 log(3x) 2.5 k(x) = log6 (x 2 − 9) 2.7 m(x) = ln(2 x )
2.2 g(x) = log9 (x − 2) 2.4 j(x) = 8 − log2 (4x + 3) 2.6 l(x) = 3 log8 (4 − 2x 2 ) 2.8 n(x) = 2log(x)

Problem 3 (Transformations: given the formula, describe the transformation)

Describe each of the functions g, h, j, and k in terms of transformations of the logarithmic function f that has formula
f (x) = log(x). State the domain of each function.

3.1 g(x) = log(x + 3) 3.2 h(x) = log(x − 5) 3.3 j(x) = log(2(x + 7)) 3.4 k(x) = 5 log(−x)

Problem 4 (Transformations: given the transformation, find the formula)

Let f be the function that has formula f (x) = log(x). In each of the following problems apply the given transformation
to the function f and write a formula for the transformed version of f .

4.1 Shift f to the right by 2 units. 4.3 Shift f up by 11 units.

4.2 Shift f to the left by 5 units. 4.4 Shift f down by 1 unit.

Problem 5 (Find the base from graphs)

Consider the functions graphed in Figure 4.3. Each function has a formula of the form y = log b (x + a), where b is the
base, and a is given for each function. Use the ordered pair given in each graph to find the base, b.

y y y y

4 (8, 3) 4
−1, 1
€ Š

x 2 x x x
−4 4 −4 −4
(6, −1)
(7, −2)
−4 −4

(a) y = log b (x) (b) y = log b (x + 3) (c) y = log b (x − 4) (d) y = log b (x + 2)

Figure 4.3: Graphs for Problem 5

Problem 6 (Solving exponential equations with base 10 and base e)

Use Definition 18 to solve each of the following equations. Give both the exact and an approximate solution.

6.1 e x = 7 6.4 e5x+7 − 4 = 2 6.7 102x = 4 6.10 8 − 7e−3x = −10

6.2 e x + 5 = 10 6.5 10 x = 1 6.8 104−x = 21 6.11 9e5−x − 1 = 0
6.3 e x+5 = 10 6.6 10 x+1 = 11 6.9 5e2x + 1 = 10 6.12 e3x − 4 = −5e3x

Problem 7 (Solving logarithmic equations with base 10 and base e)

Use Definition 18 to solve each of the following equations. Give both the exact and an approximate solution.

7.1 ln(x) = 7 7.3 5 − 4 ln(2x) = 13 7.5 log(x) = 7 7.7 log(5x + 2) = −3

7.2 2 ln(x) = −3 7.4 (ln(x))2 = 5 7.6 3 − log(x) = 0 7.8 log(5 − x) = log2 (8)

Problem 8 (Find the base from tables)

Tables 4.3a–4.3d show values of four different functions; each function has the form y = log b (ax) where b is the base,
and a is given for each function. Use any ordered pair you wish from each table to find the base, b, for each function.
Problem 9 (Inverse functions)
Let f be the function that has formula f (x) = 4 x .
9.1 Construct a table of values of f , allowing x to take integer values on the interval [−3, 3].
9.2 Use your answer to Problem 9.1 to construct a table of values of the function f −1 .
9.3 Use your answer to Problem 9.2 to evaluate each of the following
106 4.1. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Table 4.3: Tables for Problem 8

(a) y = log b (3x) (b) y = log b (5x) (c) y = log b (x) (d) y = log b (−2x)

x y x y x y x y
1/16 1 1/135 −3 16 −2 −9/8 −2
1/3 0 1/45 −2 4 −1 −3/4 −1
2/3 1 1/15 −1 1 0 −1 0
4/3 2 1/5 0 1/4 1 −1/3 1
8/3 3 3/5 1 1/16 2 −2/9 2

1 1



(a) f −1 (4) (b) f −1 (16) (c) f −1 4 (d) f −1 16

9.4 Give the formula for f −1 (x).

Problem 10 (Inverse functions)
Each of the functions defined by the following formulas are invertable. For each function
(a) state its domain and range;
(b) find its inverse;
(c) state the domain and range of the inverse function.

10.1 f (x) = 25x 10.3 h(s) = 5 − 4s−7 10.5 k(v) = ln(3v + 2) 10.7 m(α) = log8 (2α − 1)
10.2 g(t) = e3t+4 10.4 j(u) = 3 · 5−u 10.6 l(w) = 5 log(2 − 7w) 10.8 n(β) = 2
log3 (4β − 7)
3

Problem 11 (The RL Circuit)

An inductor is a device that stores electrical energy in a magnetic field. As long as current is flowing through the inductor,
energy is stored. When connected to a voltage source, such as a battery, and a resistor, the current, (in A), through the
inductor is modeled by the function I that has formula

V€ R
Š
I(t) = 1 − e− L t
R
where V is voltage of the source (in V), R is the value of the resistor (in Ω), L is the value of the inductor (in H), and t
is time (in s) since the inductor was connected to the voltage source.
11.1 A switch is thrown in a circuit that connects a 5-henry inductor to a 200-ohm resistor and a 12-volt battery. Write
the formula for I(t).
11.2 What is the current in the circuit after 0.025 s? After 0.05 s?
11.3 What is the maximum value the current will reach?
11.4 Since we know that, mathematically, our model will never actually reach this value, how long will it take the current
to reach 95 % of this value?
Problem 12 (Factoring)
Use your factoring skills to solve the following exponential equations (if possible). Give both the exact and an approximate
solution.

12.1 e2x − 6e x + 8 = 0 12.2 e2x − 4e x − 3 = 0 12.3 e2x − 8e x − 20 = 0 12.4 e2x + 11e x + 30 = 0

12.5 102x − 6 · 10 x + 8 = 0 12.6 102x − 4 · 10 x − 3 = 0 12.7 102x − 8 · 10 x − 20 = 0 12.8 102x +11·10 x +30 = 0

Problem 13 (Factoring with logarithms)

Use your factoring skills to solve the following logarithmic equations (if possible). Give both the exact and an approximate
solution.
4.1. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 107

13.1 (ln(x))2 + 3 ln(x) + 2 = 0 13.2 (ln(x))2 − 3 ln(x) + 2 = 0 13.3 (ln(x))2 − 16 = 0

13.4 (log(x))2 + 6 log(x) − 7 = 0 13.5 (log(x))2 + 7 log(x) + 12 = 0 13.6 (log(x))2 − 1 = 0

 4.2 Properties of logarithms
Properties of logarithms
Assuming that x, y, and b are any positive real numbers (where b is the base) then
the following properties of logarithms hold
(l1 ) log b (x) + log b ( y) = log b (x y)
€ Š
(l2 ) log b (x) − log b ( y) = log b xy

(l3 ) log b (x t ) = t log b (x) where t is any real number

(l4 ) x = y ⇔ log b (x) = log b ( y)
(l5 ) blog b (x) = x
(l6 ) log b (b x ) = x
Note that, in particular, properties (l5 ) and (l6 ) say that if f and g are functions that
have formulas
f (x) = b x , g(x) = log b (x)
then f and g are inverse functions.

Example 1 Use the properties of logarithms to help solve the equation

ln(x − 3) + ln(x + 6) = ln(10) (4.1)

Solution When solving equations such as Equation (4.1), it is often helpful to use the symbol ⇒ which
means, ‘implies that’; this also allows us to annotate each line (if necessary).

ln(x − 3) + ln(x + 6) = ln(10) ⇒ ln((x − 3)(x + 6)) = ln(10) property (l1 )

2
⇒ ln(x + 3x − 18) = ln(10) distribute
2
⇒ x + 3x − 18 = 10 property (l4 )
2
⇒ x + 3x − 28 = 0
⇒ (x + 7)(x − 4) = 0 factor
⇒ x = −7, 4

It seems that we have two solutions| we need to check both of them by substituting each into
Equation (4.1):

? ?
ln(−7 − 3) + ln(−7 + 6) = ln(10) ln(4 − 3) + ln(4 + 6) = ln(10)
? ?
ln(−10) + ln(−1) = ln(10) ln(1) + ln(10) = ln(10)
?
domain error! ln(10) = ln(10)
true

Since −7 gives a domain error when substituted into Equation (4.1) and 4 does satisfy Equa-
tion (4.1), we conclude that 4 is the only solution to the equation. ■
FIX Example 2 another solving equation problem ■
The change of base formula
The change of base formula for logarithms is

log b (x)
loga (x) = (4.2)
log b (a)

where a, b, and x are real, positive numbers.

108
4.2. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS 109

The change of base formula may seem like a little strange, but it is fairly simple to derive, as
we show in the following steps

y = loga (x) ⇒ a y = x
⇒ log b (a y ) = log b (x)
⇒ y log b (a) = log b (x)
log b (x)
⇒y=
log b (a)

The change of base formula is particularly useful when calculating logarithms that have a
base other than e or 10. We can use it to help us explore graphical and numerical features
of logarithmic functions with such bases; even though most modern calculators can evaluate
logarithmic expressions of any base, the principle remains useful.

Example 3 Use the change of base formula, Equation (4.2), to help you graph the function f that has
formula
f (x) = log 1 (x)
4

x
Compare the graph with that of the function g that has formula g(x) = 14 .

Solution We begin by using Equation (4.2) to rewrite the formula for f

f (x) = log 1 (x)

4

ln(x)
=
ln 41

Note that the change of base formula allows us to use any base we choose; we have chosen to
use the natural base simply because the function ln(x) is easily accessible on most calculators.
Typically we will use either ln(x)

x or log(x) when changing base. We have plotted f and g
(which has formula g(x) = 14 ) in Figure 4.4.

y = log 1 (x)
€ Š4x
y=x y= 4 1
4

2 x

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−2

Figure 4.4

We can make observations about the graphs of f and g = f −1 (which are similar to the
observations we made in Example 5 on page 98)
• the domain of f is (0, ∞), and the range of f is (−∞, ∞); this means that the domain
of f −1 is (−∞, ∞), and the range of f −1 is (0, ∞);
• the function f has a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0; this necessarily means that
the function f −1 has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0;
110 4.2. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

• the function f does not have a horizontal asymptote| this therefore implies that the
function f −1 does not have a vertical asymptote;

• the curves of f and f −1 are symmetric about the line y = x. ■

Example 4 – Investing in an account: You have $2000 to invest in an account that accrues interest at
a nominal rate of 3.75 % Assuming that A(t) is the amount of money in the account t years
after opening the account, calculate the amount of time it will take the money in each account
to reach $3000 when the interest is compounded in each of the following ways

(a) Annually. (b) Monthly (c) Daily (d) Continuously

You may like to refresh your knowledge about compound interest using Definition 11 on
page 61.

Solution (a) A(t) = 2000(1.0375) t ; to calculate when A(t) = 3000 we need to solve the equation

3
3000 = 2000(1.0375) t ⇒ = (1.0375) t
2 ‹
3
⇒ ln = ln(1.0375) t
2
3
 ‹
⇒ ln = t ln(1.0375)
2
ln 32


⇒t=
ln(1.0375)
≈ 11.0139

If the interest is compounded annually, it will take about 11 years for the initial invest-
ment to reach $3000.

0.0375 12t


(b) A(t) = 2000 1 + 12 ; to calculate when A(t) = 3000 we need to solve the equa-
tion

0.0375 12t 3 0.0375 12t

 ‹  ‹
3000 = 2000 1 + ⇒ = 1+
12 2 12
3 0.0375 12t
 ‹  ‹
⇒ ln = ln 1 +
2 12
3 0.0375
 ‹  ‹
⇒ ln = 12t ln 1 +
2 12
3


ln 2
⇒ 12t =
ln 1 + 0.0375


12

ln 32


1
⇒t= ·
12 ln 1 + 0.0375


12
≈ 10.8293

If the interest is compounded monthly, it will take just under 11 years for the initial
investment to reach $3000.

0.0375 365t


(c) A(t) = 2000 1 + 365 ; to calculate when A(t) = 3000 we need to solve the equa-
4.2. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS 111

tion
0.0375 365t 3 0.0375 365t
 ‹  ‹
3000 = 2000 1 + ⇒ = 1+
365 2 365
3 0.0375 365t
 ‹  ‹
⇒ ln = ln 1 +
2 365
3 0.0375
 ‹  ‹
⇒ ln = 365t ln 1 +
2 365
3


ln 2
⇒ 365t =
1 + 0.0375


365

ln 32


1
⇒t= ·
365 1 + 0.0375


365
≈ 10.8130

If the interest is compounded daily, it will take just under 11 years for the initial invest-
ment to reach $3000.
(d) A(t) = 2000e0.0375t ; to calculate when A(t) = 3000 we need to solve the equation
3
3000 = 2000e0.0375t ⇒ = e0.0375t
2 ‹
3
⇒ ln = 0.0375t
2
1 3
 ‹
⇒t= ln
0.0375 2
≈ 10.8124

If the interest is compounded continuously, it will take just under 11 years for the initial
investment to reach $3000. ■

Example 5 – A cautionary tale: Tyrell and Latisha are studying the equation

ln(x 2 ) = 3 (4.3)

Tyrell uses property (l3 ) to solve the equation

ln(x 2 ) = 3 ⇒ 2 ln(x) = 3
3
⇒ ln(x) =
2
3
⇒ x = e2

Latisha takes a different approach:

ln(x 2 ) = 3 ⇒ x 2 = e3
p
⇒ x = ± e3
3
= ±e 2

Note that Latisha has 2 solutions, and Tyrell only has 1! Who has the correct solution set?

Solution Let’s begin by exploring property (l3 ); it is certainly true to say

ln(32 ) = 2 ln(3)

but it is not true to say that

ln((−3)2 ) = 2 ln(−3)
since we can not take the logarithm of negative number. These two examples illustrate that
Tyrell’s application of property (l3 ) was not appropriate, since we can input both positive and
negative numbers into Equation (4.3).
We conclude that Latisha has the correct solution set. ■
112 4.2. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

The properties of logarithms may seem a little mysterious. Remembering that logarithmic
expressions are closely related to exponential expressions (see Definition 18), it should sound
reasonable that the properties of logarithms are somewhat related to the properties of expo-
nents. Let’s see if we can tie the two ideas together, and prove property (l1 ).

Example 6 – Proving that log b (x y) = log b (x ) + log b (y): When proving such an identify, we have a
few options:
• We could start with one side of the identity, and try to work toward the other side of it.
• We could start with one side of the identity, simplify it, and then try to reach the same
expression by working with the other side of the identity.
We will demonstrate a proof using the second of these options.

Solution We’ll start by writing

m = log b (x), n = log b ( y) (4.4)
We can write the equations in Equation (4.4) in their equivalent exponential form

b m = x, bn = y

We clearly see that b m · b n = x y and so

x y = b m+n

Let’s write an equivalent logarithmic equation to the exponential equation x y = b m+n

log b (x y) = m + n (4.5)

Notice that this equation contains the left hand side of property (l1 ); we are at the half-way
point of our proof| let’s see if we can meet here using the right hand side of property (l1 ).
We can write log b (x) + log b ( y) in terms of m and n

log b (x) + log b ( y) = m + n (4.6)

Combining Equations (4.5) and (4.6) gives the desired result

log b (x) + log b ( y) = m + n

= log b (x y) ■

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 1
Use Example 6 to help guide you in prooving property (l2 ).
make sure you try it!

Investigations Problem 2 (True or false?)

2.1 Use the change of base formula and a calculator to help plot the function f that has formula
f (x) = log b (x) for each of the following values of b
1 1
(a) b = 2 (b) b = 4 (c) b = 5 (d) b = 3

Use your answer to Problem 2.1 to help you determine if each of the following statements are
true or false for all values of b; if you believe that the statement is false, provide an example
that supports it.
2.2 The function f is increasing.
2.3 The function f is decreasing.
2.4 The function f has a vertical asymptote at 0.
 4.2. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS 113

2.5 The function f is concave up.

2.6 The function f has a zero at 1.
2.7 The function f has a vertical intercept.
2.8 The function f is concave down.
Problem 3 (Properties (l1 ) and (l2 ))
3.1 Use properties (l1 ) and (l2 ) to help you complete Table 4.4; note that you should be able to
do so without using a calculator.

Table 4.4: Properties (l1 ) and (l2 )

A


A B b log b (A) log b (B) log b (AB) log b B
1 2 2
e5 p e 3
e
3
36 6 6
0.001 10000 10
4 1/16 1/4

Use your answer to Problem 3.1 to help you decide if the following properties of logarithms
are true or false.
3.2 log b (AB) = log b (A) · log b (B)
3.3 log b (A + B) = log b (A) + log b (B)
3.4 log b (AB) = log b (A) + log b (B)

log (A)
3.5 log b BA = log b (B)
b

A


3.6 log b B = log b (A) − log b (B)

Exercises

Problem 4 (Change of base)

Use the change of base formula, Equation (4.2), and a calculator to approximate each of the following (if possible).

4.1 log2 (3) 4.3 log3 (7) 4.5 log8 (2) 4.7 logπ (5)
4.2 log23 (−2) 4.4 log 1 (13) 4.6 log−1 (5) 4.8 log2 (0)
2

Problem 5 (Expand logarithmic expressions)

Use the properties of logarithms to write each of the following expressions as the sum and/or difference of logarithms;
leave your answer in exact form.
p €
x2
Š
5.1 log(2x) 5.3 log5 (x 7 ) 5.5 ln( x) 5.7 logπ 4

5.2 log3 4x


5.4 log9 (4x 3 )
€q 3 Š
7 x
5.6 ln x+2 5.8 3 log(10x)

Problem 6 (Condense logarithmic expressions)

Use the properties of logarithms to write each of the following expressions as a single logarithm.
FIX Problem 7 (Solving equations involving logarithms)
Use the properties of logarithms to help you solve the following equations.
FIX
7.1 log2 (x) + log2 (7) = 3 7.3 log3 (x) + log3 (9) = −2
7.2 log4 (x) − log4 (3) = −1 7.4 ln(2x) − ln(9) = 0

Problem 8 (Solving equations involving logarithms)

Use the properties of logarithms to help you solve the following equations.
114 4.2. PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

8.1 log2 (x − 2) + log2 (x + 9) = log2 (12) 8.5 log3 (x − 5) + log3 (x) = log3 (24)
8.2 ln(x + 6) − ln(x − 2) = ln(5) 8.6 ln(x + 76) − ln(x + 4) = ln(9)
8.3 log(x + 2) + log(x − 4) = log(7) 8.7 log13 (x + 3) + log13 (x + 1) = log13 (24)
8.4 log5 (x + 32) − log5 (x) = log5 (5) 8.8 logπ (x + 58) − logπ (x + 7) = logπ (4)

Problem 9 (Solving equations involving logarithms)

Use the properties of logarithms to help you solve the following equations.
p
9.1 log2 (x 2 ) + log2 (7) = 3 9.3 log3 ( x) − log3 (5) = −2
p 1
9.2 log( x + 1) + log(x + 1) = log2 (16) ln(x + 1) + 41 ln(x) = 1
3
9.4 4

Problem 10 (Piecewise logarithmic functions)

Consider the function f that has formula ¨
log(x 2 ) x < −2
f (x) =
ln(x + 2) x > −2
Evaluate each of the following (if possible), giving both the exact and an approximate answer.

10.1 f (−5) 10.2 f (−1) 10.3 f (0) 10.4 f (−2)

Problem 11 (Composition of logarithmic functions)

Let f and g be functions that have the following formulas

f (x) = log(x + 5), g(x) = ln(x)

Evaluate each of the following (if possible), giving both the exact and an approximate answer.

1




11.1 ( f ◦ g)(1) 11.3 f ◦g e−5 11.5 ( f ◦ g) 2 11.7 ( f ◦ g)(x)
11.2 (g ◦ f )(1) 11.4 (g ◦ f )(−4) 11.6 ( f ◦ g)(−3) 11.8 (g ◦ f )(x)

Problem 12 (Decomposition)
In each of the following problems, you are given a formula for function h. Decompose h into two functions f and g such
that h = f ◦ g.
p
2
12.1 h(x) = log(3x 2 ) 12.2 h(x) = −2 ln(5 − x) 12.3 h(x) = log3 3
x 12.4 h(x) = log5 (x 2 ) + 7 x

Problem 13 (Function algebra)

Let f and g be the functions that have formulas

f (x) = log(x), g(x) = ln(x)

Evaluate each of the following (if possible), giving the exact and an approximate solution (where appropriate).

13.1 ( f + g)(1) 13.3 ( f · g)(1) 13.5 ( f + g)(5) 13.7 ( f · g)(e)

13.2 ( f − g)(1) 13.6 ( f − g)(π)
€ Š € Š

f f
13.4 g (1) 13.8 g 12
 POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 5

Contents
5.1 Polynomial functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2 Rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3 Graphing rational functions (horizontal asymptotes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.4 Graphing rational functions (oblique asymptotes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

115
 5.1 Polynomial functions
In your previous mathematics classes you have studied linear and quadratic functions. The
most general forms of these types of functions can be represented (respectively) by the func-
tions f and g that have formulas

f (x) = mx + b, g(x) = ax 2 + bx + c (5.1)

We know that m is the slope of f , and that a is the leading coefficient of g. We also know that
the signs of m and a completely determine the behavior of the functions f and g. For example,
if m > 0 then f is an increasing function, and if m < 0 then f is a decreasing function. Similarly,
if a > 0 then g is concave up and if a < 0 then g is concave down. Graphical representations
of these statements are given in Figure 5.1.

y y y y

x x x x

(a) m > 0 (b) m < 0 (c) a > 0 (d) a < 0

Figure 5.1: Typical graphs of linear and quadratic functions.

Let’s look a little more closely at the formulas for f and g in Equation (5.1). Note that the
degree of f is 1 since the highest power of x that is present in the formula for f (x) is 1. Since
f has 2 terms, we may call it a binomial function. Similarly, the degree of g is 2 since the
highest power of x that is present in the formula for g(x) is 2. Since g has 3 terms, we may
call it a trinomial function.
In this section we will build upon our knowledge of these elementary functions. In particular,
we will generalize our knowledege of the functions f and g to the study of a polynomial
function p that has any degree (and any number of terms) that we wish. The only restriction
that we will enforce is that the degree of p must be an integer.
essential skills
The following problems contain prerequisite skills that are essential for success. Make sure that
you can complete them before moving on!
Problem 1 (Quadratic functions)
Every quadratic function has the form y = ax 2 + bx + c; state the value of a for each of
the following functions, and hence decide if the parabola that represents the function opens
upward or downward.

1.1 F (x) = x 2 + 3 1.3 H( y) = 4 y 2 − 96 y + 8

1.2 G(t) = 4 − 5t 2 1.4 K(z) = −19z 2

Now let’s generalize our findings for the most general quadratic function g that has formula
g(x) = a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 . Complete the following sentences.
1.5 When a2 > 0, the parabola that represents y = g(x) opens . . .
1.6 When a2 < 0, the parabola that represents y = g(x) opens . . .

Power functions with positive exponents

The study of polynomials will rely upon a good knowledge of power functions| you may
reasonably ask, what is a power function?

116
 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 117

Definition 20 (Power functions)

The most general formula for a power functions is

f (x) = an x n

where n can be any real number.

Note that for this section we will only be concerned with the case when n is a positive
integer.

You may find assurance in the fact that you are already very comfortable with power functions
that have n = 1 (linear) and n = 2 (quadratic). Let’s explore some power functions that you
might not be so familiar with. As you read Examples 1 and 2, try and spot as many patterns
and similarities as you can.

Example 1 – Power functions with odd positive exponents: Graph each the functions f , g, and h that
have formulas
f (x) = x 3 , g(x) = x 5 , h(x) = x 7

and state their domain, and their long-run behavior as x → ±∞

Solution The functions f , g, and h are plotted in Figure 5.2. The domain of each of the functions f , g,
and h is (−∞, ∞). Note that the long-run behavior of each of the functions is the same, and
in particular

f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞
and f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞

The same results hold for g and h. Note that the range of each of the functions f , g, and h is
(−∞, ∞).

It appears from Figure 5.2 that each of the functions f , g, and h are symmetric about the
FIX origin. Remember from REF that a function that exhibits this behavior is called odd. We can
test a function algebraically to see if it is odd by evaluating f (−x); let’s do that for each of
the functions f , g, and h:

f (−x) = (−x)3 g(−x) = (−x)5 h(−x) = (−x)7

= −x 3 = −x 5 = −x 7
= − f (x) = −g(x) = −h(x)

We conclude that each of the functions f , g, and h are odd. ■

Example 2 – Power functions with even positive exponents: Graph each the functions F , G, and H
that have formulas
F (x) = x 2 , G(x) = x 4 , H(x) = x 6

and state their domain, and their long-run behavior as x → ±∞

Solution The functions F , G, and H are plotted in Figure 5.3. The domain of each of the functions
is (−∞, ∞). Note that the long-run behavior of each of the functions is the same, and in
particular

F (x) → ∞ as x → ∞
and F (x) → ∞ as x → −∞

The same result holds for G and H. Note that the range of each of the functions F , G, and H
is [0, ∞).

FIX It appears from Figure 5.3 that each of the functions F , G, and H are symmetric across the
vertical axis. Remember from REF that a function that exhibits this behavior is called even.
We can test a function algebraically to see if it is even by evaluating f (−x); let;s do that for
118 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

each of the functions F , G, and H:

F (−x) = (−x)2 G(−x) = (−x)4 H(−x) = (−x)6

= x2 = x4 = x6
= F (x) = G(x) = H(x)

We conclude that each of the functions F , G, and H are even. ■

5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 119

y
4

(−1, 1) (1, 1)

x
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2

−2

F
G
−4
H

Figure 5.3: Even power functions

f
4
g
h

2
(1, 1)

−1 −0.5 0.5 1

(−1, −1)
120 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 2
Repeat Examples 1 and 2 using (respectively) the functions that have the following formulas.

2.1 f (x) = −x 3 , g(x) = −x 5 , h(x) = −x 7

2.2 F (x) = −x 2 , G(x) = −x 4 , H(x) = −x 6
make sure you try it!

Polynomial functions
Now that we have a little more familiarity with power functions, we can define polynomial
functions. Provided that you were comfortable with our opening discussion about linear and
quadratic functions (see f and g in Equation (5.1)) then there is every chance that you’ll be
able to master polynomial functions as well; just remember that polynomial functions are a
natural generalization of linear and quadratic functions. Once you’ve studied the examples
and problems in this section, you’ll hopefully agree that polynomial functions are remarkably
predictable.

Definition 21 (Polynomial functions)

The most general formula for a polynomial function, p, is

p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0

where an , an−1 , an−2 , . . . , a0 are real numbers.

• We call n the degree of the polynomial, and require that n is a non-negative
integer;
• an , an−1 , an−2 , . . . , a0 are called the coefficients;
• We typically write polynomial functions in descending powers of x.
In particular, we call an the leading coefficient, and an x n the leading term.
Note that if a polynomial is given in factored form, then the degree can be found by
counting the number of linear factors.

Example 3 – Polynomial or not: Decide if the following formulas correspond to polynomial functions
or not; if so, state the degree of the polynomial.
p
3
(a) p(x) = x 2 − 3 (d) s(x) = x −2 + x 23 (g) h(x) = x7 − x2 + x
1/2
(b) q(x) = −4x + 10 (e) f (x) = −8 (h) k(x) = 4x(x +2)(x −3)
(c) r(x) = 10x 5 (f) g(x) = 3 x (i) j(x) = x 2 (x − 4)(5 − x)

Solution (a) p is a polynomial, and its degree is 2.

1
(b) q is not a polynomial, because 2 is not an integer.
(c) r is a polynomial, and its degree is 5.
(d) s is not a polynomial, because −2 is not a positive integer.
(e) f is a polynomial, and its degree is 0.
(f) g is not a polynomial, because the independent variable, x, is in the exponent.
7
(g) h is not a polynomial, because 3 is not an integer.
(h) k is a polynomial, and its degree is 3.
(i) j is a polynomial, and its degree is 4. ■
5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 121

Example 4 – Typical graphs: Figure 5.4 shows graphs of some polynomial functions; the ticks have
deliberately been left off the axis to allow us to concentrate on the features of each graph.
Note in particular that:

• Figure 5.4a shows a degree-1 polynomial (you might also classify the function as linear)
whose leading coefficient, a1 , is positive.

• Figure 5.4b shows a degree-2 polynomial (you might also classify the function as quadratic)
whose leading coefficient, a2 , is positive.

• Figure 5.4c shows a degree-3 polynomial whose leading coefficient, a3 , is positive| com-
pare its overall shape and long-run behavior to the functions described in Example 1.

• Figure 5.4d shows a degree-4 polynomial whose leading coefficient, a4 , is positive|compare

its overall shape and long-run behavior to the functions described in Example 2.

• Figure 5.4e shows a degree-5 polynomial whose leading coefficient, a5 , is positive|

compare its overall shape and long-run behavior to the functions described in Example 1.
■

y y y y

x x x x

(b) a2 > 0 (c) a3 > 0 (d) a4 > 0 (e) a5 > 0

(a) a1 > 0

Figure 5.4: Graphs to illustrate typical curves of polynomial functions.

Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 3
Use Example 4 and Figure 5.4 to help you sketch the graphs of polynomial functions that have
negative leading coefficients| note that there are many ways to do this! The intention with
this problem is to use your knowledge of transformations- in particular, reflections- to guide
you.
make sure you try it!

The main intention behind Example 4 was to provide sketches of some typical polynomial
functions. The graphs in Figure 5.4 do not have much detail| in Example 5 we study two
polynomial functions in much more depth.

Example 5 Study the graphs of the polynomial functions p and q defined by the following formulas:

(a) p(x) = 18 (x + 6)(x + 1)(x − 5) (b) q(x) = x

20 (x + 4)(x − 3)(x − 6)

Describe the long-run behavior, the intervals of increase and decrease, and the intervals of
concavity of each function. Determine if each function is odd, even, or neither.
122 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Solution (a) The first observation we note about the function p is that since it has three linear factors,
the degree of p is 3. We can illustrate this further by expanding the formula for p(x)

x 3 x 2 29x 15
p(x) = + − −
8 4 8 4
The curve y = p(x) is graphed in Figure 5.5a. There are three zeros of p: −6, −1, and
5.
In order to determine the long-rung behavior of p, we examine the leading term of p(x)
3
which is x8 . If we view Figure 5.5a on a larger viewing window (imagine zooming out),
then we can visualize that the overall shape of the curve y = p(x) will look like the
3
curve y = x8 (see Figure 5.2).
We can approximate the intervals of increase and decrease using Figure 5.5a. p is in-
creasing on (approximately) the interval (−∞, −3.9) ∪ (2.2, ∞) and decreasing on
(approximately) the interval (−3.9, 2.2).
We may similarly approximate the intervals of concavity: p is concave down on (approx-
imately) the interval (−∞, −0.5) and is concave up on (approximately) the interval
(−0.5, ∞).
Remember that all of the power functions in Example 1 have odd exponents and are
odd functions. Does it therefore follow that since p is a degree-3 polynomial and 3 is
an odd number, that p is an odd function? Let’s evaluate p(−x) to find out

1
p(−x) = (−x + 6)(−x + 1)(−x − 5)
8
=
̸ −p(x) or p(x)

We therefore conclude that p is neither odd nor even; this is confirmed visually in Fig-
ure 5.5a since the curve y = p(x) is not symmetric about the origin nor about the
vertical axis.

y y
8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2
x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2 −2

−4 −4

−6 −6

−8 −8

(a) y = 18 (x + 6)(x + 1)(x − 5) (b) y = 20 (x

x
+ 4)(x − 3)(x − 6)

Figure 5.5: The functions p and q.

(b) The degree of q is 4 since it has four linear factors. q has four zeros: −4, 0, 3, and 6.
Furthermore, me may expand the formula for q(x)

x 4 x 3 9x 2 18x
q(x) = − − +
20 4 10 5
4
x
which allows to see that the leading term of q is 20 . If we imagine viewing Figure 5.5b
on a larger viewing window, then we can visualize that the overall shape of the curve
x4
y = q(x) will look like y = 20 (see Figure 5.3).
Using Figure 5.5b as a guide, we see that q is increasing on (approximately) the interval
(−2.2, 1.5) ∪ (4.8, ∞) and decreasing on (approximately) the interval (−∞, −2.2) ∪
(1.5, 4.8).
5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 123

We can also approximate the intervals of concavity: q is concave up on (approximately)

the interval (−∞, −1)∪(3.1, ∞), and is concave down on (approximately) the interval
(−1, 3.1).
The power functions in Example 2 have even exponents and are even functions. Since
q has degree 4, which is an even number, does it therefore follow that q is an even
function? Let’s evaluate q(−x) to find out
x
q(−x) = − (−x + 4)(−x − 3)(−x − 6)
20
=
̸ q(x) or − q(x)

We conclude that q is neither even nor odd; this is confirmed visually in Figure 5.5b,
since the curve y = q(x) is not symmetric about the vertical axis nor about the origin. ■
The polynomial functions in Example 5 had many differences, but they also had one feature
in common| at each of their zeros, the curve of the function crossed through the horizontal
axis. Not all polynomial functions exhibit this behavior as we shall see in the next example.

Example 6 – Multiple zeros: Consider the polynomial functions p, q, and r which are graphed in Fig-
ure 5.6. The formulas for p, q, and r are as follows

p(x) = (x − 3)2 (x + 4)2

q(x) = x(x + 2)2 (x − 1)2 (x − 3)
r(x) = x(x − 3)3 (x + 1)2

Find the degree of p, q, and r, and decide if the functions bounce off or cut through the
horizontal axis at each of their zeros.

Solution The degree of p is 4. Referring to Figure 5.6a, the curve bounces off the horizontal axis at
both zeros, 3 and 4.
The degree of q is 6. Referring to Figure 5.6b, the curve bounces off the horizontal axis at −2
and 1, and cuts through the horizontal axis at 0 and 3.
The degree of r is 6. Referring to Figure 5.6c, the curve bounces off the horizontal axis at −1,
and cuts through the horizontal axis at 0 and at 3, although is flattened immediately to the
left and right of 3. ■

200 40 40
y y y
20
20
x
100
−2 −1 1 2 3
x
−20 −1 1 2 3

−20
−40
x
−4 −2 2 4 −60 −40

(a) y = p(x) (b) y = q(x) (c) y = r(x)

Figure 5.6

Definition 22 (Multiple zeros)

Let p be a polynomial that has a repeated linear factor (x − a)n . Then we say that p
has a multiple zero at a of multiplicity n and
• if the factor (x − a) is repeated an even number of times, the graph of y = p(x)
does not cross the x axis at a, but ‘bounces’ off the horizontal axis at a.
• if the factor (x − a) is repeated an odd number of times, the graph of y = p(x)
crosses the horizontal axis at a, but it looks ‘flattened’ there
 124 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

If n = 1, then we say that p has a simple zero at a.

Example 7 – Find a formula: Find formulas for the polynomial functions, p and q, graphed in Fig-
ure 5.7.

Solution (a) We begin by noting that the horizontal intercepts of p are (−3, 0), (−1, 0), (0, 0) and
(2, 0). We also note that each zero is simple (multiplicity 1). If we assume that p has
no other zeros, then we can start by writing

p(x) = (x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 0)(x − 2)

= x(x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 2)

According to Figure 5.7a, the point (1, 8) lies on the curve y = p(x). Let’s check if the
formula we have written satisfies this requirement

p(1) = (1)(4)(2)(−1)
= −8

which is clearly not correct| it is close though. We can correct this by multiplying p by
a constant k; so let’s assume that

p(x) = kx(x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 2)

Then p(1) = −8k, and if this is to equal 8, then k = −1. Therefore the formula for p(x)
is
p(x) = −x(x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 2)

(b) The function q has a zero at −2 of multiplicity 2, and zero of multiplicity 1 at 3 (so 3 is
a simple zero of q); we can therefore assume that q has the form

q(x) = k(x + 2)2 (x − 3)

where k is some real number. In order to find k, we use the given ordered pair, (2, 4),
and evaluate p(2)

p(2) = k(4)2 (−1)

= −16k

We solve the equation 4 = −8k and obtain k = − 41 and conclude that the formula for
q(x) is
1
q(x) = − (x + 2)2 (x − 3)
4
■

FIX Sketching polynomial functions

In the examples that we have considered so far, we have been provided with a formula for a
polynomial function and its corresponding graph. Of course, we may not always be fortunate
enough to have access to the graph of the relevant function, and may need to construct it
ourselves. In such a scenario, we can use steps (P1 )–(P3 ) to guide us.
Steps to follow when sketching polynomial functions
(P1 ) Determine the degree of the polynomial, its leading term and leading coefficient,
and hence determine the long-run behavior of the polynomial| does it behave
like ±x 2 or ±x 3 as x → ±∞?
(P2 ) Determine the zeros and their multiplicity. Mark all zeros and the vertical inter-
cept on the graph using solid circles •.
(P3 ) Deduce the overall shape of the curve, and sketch it. If there isn’t enough infor-
mation from the previous steps, then construct a table of values.
5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 125

Remember that until we have the tools of calculus, we won’t be able to find the exact
coordinates of local minimums, local maximums, and points of inflection.

Before we demonstrate some examples, it is important to remember the following:

• our sketches will give a good representation of the overall shape of the graph, but until
we have the tools of calculus (from MTH 251) we can not find local minimums, local
maximums, and inflection points algebraically. This means that we will make our best
guess as to where these points are.
• we will not concern ourselves too much with the vertical scale (because of our previous
point)| we will, however, mark the vertical intercept (assuming there is one), and any
horizontal asymptotes.

Example 8 Use steps (P1 )–(P3 ) to sketch a graph of the function p that has formula
1
p(x) = (x − 4)(x − 1)(x + 3)
2

Solution (P1 ) p has degree 3. The leading term of p is 12 x 3 , so the leading coefficient of p is 21 . The
long-run behavior of p is therefore similar to that of x 3 .
(P2 ) The zeros of p are −3, 1, and 4; each zero is simple (i.e, it has multiplicity 1). This
means that the curve of p cuts the horizontal axis at each zero. The vertical intercept
of p is (0, 6).
(P3 ) We draw the details we have obtained so far on Figure 5.8a. Given that the curve of p
looks like the curve of x 3 in the long-run, we are able to complete a sketch of the graph
of p in Figure 5.8b.
Note that we can not find the coordinates of the local minimums, local maximums, and
inflection points| for the moment we make reasonable guesses as to where these points
are (you’ll find how to do this in calculus). ■

Example 9 Use steps (P1 )–(P3 ) to sketch a graph of the function q that has formula
1
q(x) = (x + 7)2 (2 − x)(x − 6)2
200

Solution (P1 ) q has degree 4. The leading term of q is

1 5
− x
200
1
so the leading coefficient of q is − 200 . The long-run behavior of q is therefore similar
5
to that of −x .
(P2 ) The zeros of q are −7 (multiplicity 2), 2 (simple), and 6 (multiplicity 2). The curve of q
bounces off the horizontal axis at the zeros with multiplicity
2 and cuts the horizontal
axis at the simple zeros. The vertical intercept of q is 0, 441
25 .

(P3 ) We mark the details we have found so far on Figure 5.9a. Given that the curve of q
looks like the curve of −x 5 in the long-run, we can complete Figure 5.9b. ■

Example 10 Use steps (P1 )–(P3 ) to sketch a graph of the function r that has formula
1 3
r(x) = x (x + 4)(x − 4)(x − 6)
100

Solution (P1 ) r has degree 6. The leading term of r is

1 6
x
100
 126 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

1
so the leading coefficient of r is 100 . The long-run behavior of r is therefore similar to
that of x 6 .
(P2 ) The zeros of r are −4 (simple), 0 (multiplicity 3), 4 (simple), and 6 (simple). The
vertical intercept of r is (0, 0). The curve of r cuts the horizontal axis at the simple
zeros, and goes through the axis at (0, 0), but does so in a flattened way.
(P3 ) We mark the zeros and vertical intercept on Figure 5.10a. Given that the curve of r
looks like the curve of x 6 in the long-run, we complete the graph of r in Figure 5.10b. ■

Example 11 – An open-topped box: A cardboard company makes open-topped boxes for their clients.
The specifications dictate that the box must have a square base, and that it must be open-
topped. The company uses sheets of cardboard that are 1200 cm2 . Assuming that the base of
each box has side x (measured in cm), it can be shown that the volume of each box, V (x),
has formula
x
V (x) = (1200 − x 2 )
4
Find the dimensions of the box that maximize the volume.

Solution We graph y = V (x) in Figure 5.11. Note that because x represents the length of a side, and
V (x) represents the volume of the box, we necessarily require both values to be positive; we
illustrate the part of the curve that applies to this problem using a solid line.
According to Figure 5.11, the maximum volume of such a box is approximately 4000 cm2 , and
we achieve it using a base of length approximately 20 cm. Since the base is square and each
sheet of cardboard is 1200 cm2 , we conclude that the dimensions of each box are 20 cm ×
20 cm × 30 cm. ■

Complex zeros
There has been a pattern to all of the examples that we have seen so far| the degree of the
polynomial has dictated the number of real zeros that the polynomial has. For example, the
function p in Example 8 has degree 3, and p has three real zeros; the function q in Example 9
has degree 5 and q has five real zeros.
You may wonder if this result can be generalized| does every polynomial that has degree n
have n real zeros? Before we tackle the general result, let’s consider an example that may
help motivate it.

Example 12 Consider the polynomial function c that has formula

c(x) = x(x 2 + 1)

It is clear that c has degree 3, and that c has a (simple) zero at 0. Does c have any other zeros,
i.e, can we find any values of x that satisfy the equation

x2 + 1 = 0 (5.2)

The solutions to Equation (5.2) are ±i.

We conclude that c has three zeros: 0 and ±i; we note that not all of them are real. ■
Example 12 shows that not every degree-3 polynomial has 3 real zeros; however, if we
are prepared to venture into the complex numbers, then we can state the following theo-
rem.
The fundamental theorem of algebra
Every polynomial function of degree n has n roots, some of which may be complex,
and some may be repeated.

FIX Example 13 Find all the zeros of the polynomial function p that has formula to solve it

p(x) = x 4 − 2x 3 + 5x 2
5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 127

Solution We begin by factoring p

p(x) = x 4 − 2x 3 + 5x 2
= x 2 (x 2 − 2x + 5)

We note that 0 is a zero of p with multiplicity 2. The other zeros of p can be found by solving
the equation
x 2 − 2x + 5 = 0
This equation can not be factored, so we use the quadratic formula
p
2 ± (−2)2 − 20
x=
2(1)
p
2 ± −16
=
2
= 1 ± 2i

We conclude that p has four zeros: 0 (multiplicity 2), and 1 ± 2i (simple). ■

p
Example 14 Find a polynomial that has zeros at 2 ± i 2.

Solution We know that the zeros of a polynomial can be found by analyzing the linear factors. We are
given the zeros, and have to work backwards to find the linear factors.
We begin by assuming that p has the form
p p
p(x) = (x − (2 − i 2))(x − (2 + i 2))
p p p p
= x 2 − x(2 + i 2) − x(2 − i 2) + (2 − i 2)(2 + i 2)
= x 2 − 4x + (4 − 2i 2 )
= x 2 − 4x + 6
p
We conclude that a possible formula for a polynomial function, p, that has zeros at 2 ± i 2 is

p(x) = x 2 − 4x + 6

Note that we could multiply p by any real number and still ensure that p has the same zeros.■

Investigations Problem 4 (Find a formula from a graph)

For each of the polynomial functions that are represented in Figure 5.12
(a) count the number of times the curve turns round, and cuts/bounces off the x axis;
(b) approximate the degree of the polynomial;
(c) use your information to find the linear factors of each polynomial, and therefore write
a possible formula for each;
(d) make sure your polynomial goes through the given ordered pair.
128 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

y
8

6
(2, 4)
4

x
−4 −2 2 4
−2

−4

−6

−8

(b) q

8 (1, 8)
5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 129

y y

(0, 6) (0, 6)

5 5

x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5 −5

(a) (b)

1
Figure 5.8: y = (x − 4)(x − 1)(x + 3)
2

y y
35 35

30 30

25 25

0, 441 0, 441
€ Š € Š
20 25 20 25

15 15

10 10

5 5

x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−5 −5

(a) (b)

1
Figure 5.9: y = (x + 7)2 (2 − x)(x − 6)2
200

y y

5 5

x x
−4 −2 2 4 6 8 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5 −5

−10 −10

−15 −15

(a) (b)

1
Figure 5.10: y = (x + 4)x 3 (x − 4)(x − 6)
100
130 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

y
4,000

2,000

x
−40 −30 −20 −10 10 20 30 40

−2,000

−4,000

Figure 5.11: y = V (x)

4
y y y
4
100

(2, 2) 2
2

x
x x −4 −2 2 4

−4 −2 −1 1
−2 2 4

(−3, −50)
(0, −2)
−2 −2 −100

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.12
5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 131

Exercises

Problem 5 (Prerequisite classifacation skills)

Decide if the following formulas correspond to linear or quadratic functions.

5.1 f (x) = 2x + 3 5.3 h(x) = −x 2 + 3x − 9 5.5 l(x) = −82x 2 − 4

5.2 g(x) = 10 − 7x 5.4 k(x) = −17 5.6 m(x) = 62 x − 8

Problem 6 (Prerequisite slope identification)

The following formulas correspond to the linear functions α, β, γ, and δ. State the slope of each function, and hence
decide if each function is increasing or decreasing.

6.1 α(x) = 4x + 1 6.2 β(x) = −9x 6.3 γ(t) = 18t + 100 6.4 δ( y) = 23 − y

Now let’s generalize our findings for the most general linear function f that has formula f (x) = mx + b. Complete the
following sentences.
6.5 When m > 0, the function f is . . .
6.6 When m < 0, the function f is . . .
Problem 7 (Polynomial or not?)
Decide if the following formulas correspond to polynomial functions or not; if so, state the degree of the polynomial.

7.1 p(x) = 2x + 1 7.4 p(x) = 2 x − 45 7.7 p(x) = 4x(x + 7)2 (x − 3)3

7.2 p(x) = 7x 2 + 4x 7.5 p(x) = 6x 4 − 5x 3 + 9 7.8 p(x) = 4x −5 − x 2 + x
p
7.3 p(x) = x + 2x + 1 7.6 p(x) = −5x 17 + 9x + 2 7.9 p(x) = −x 6 (x 2 + 1)(x 3 − 2)

Problem 8 (Polynomial graphs)

Three polynomial functions p, m, and n are shown in Figures 5.13a–5.13c. The functions have the following formulas

p(x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)

m(x) = −(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
n(x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 4)

Note that for our present purposes we are not concerned with the vertical scale of the graphs.
8.1 Identify both on the graph and algebraically, the zeros of each polynomial.
8.2 Write down the degree, how many times the curve of each function ‘turns around’, and how many zeros it has

y y y
50

5 5

x
x x −4 −2 2 4
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4

−5 −5 −50

(a) y = p(x) (b) y = m(x) (c) y = n(x)

Figure 5.13

Problem 9 (Horizontal intercepts)

The following formulas correspond to the polynomial functions p, q, r, and s. State the horizontal intercepts (as ordered
pairs) of each function.
132 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

9.1 p(x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 4) 9.3 r(x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
9.2 q(x) = −(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) 9.4 s(x) = (x − 2)(x + 2)

Problem 10 (Minimums, maximums, and concavity)

Four polynomial functions are graphed in Figure 5.14. The formulas for these functions are (not respectively)

x3 x2 x4 x3 6 2
p(x) =
− − 3x, q(x) = + − x +1
6 4 20 15 5
x5 x 4 2x 3 x6 x5 67x 4 17x 3 42x 2
r(x) = − − + + 6, s(x) = − − + + −
50 40 5 6000 2500 4000 750 125

8
y 8
y 8
y 8
y
6 6

4 4 4 4

2 2
x x x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −4 −2 2 4 6 −8 −4 4 8
−2 −2

−4 −4 −4 −4

−6 −6

−8 −8 −8 −8

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 5.14: Graphs for Problem 10.

10.1 Match each of the formulas with one of the given graphs.
10.2 Approximate the zeros of each function using the appropriate graph.
10.3 Approximate the local maximums and minimums of each of the functions.
10.4 Approximate the global maximums and minimums of each of the functions.
10.5 Approximate the intervals on which each function is increasing and decreasing.
10.6 Approximate the intervals on which each function is concave up and concave down.
10.7 The degree of q is 5. Assuming that all of the real zeros of q are shown in its graph, how many complex zeros does
q have?
Problem 11 (Long-run behaviour of polynomials)
Describe the long-run behavior of each of polynomial functions in Problems 9.1–9.4.
Problem 12 (True of false?)
Let p be a polynomial function. Label each of the following statements as true (T) or false (F); if they are false, provide
an example that supports your answer.
12.1 If p has degree 3, then p has 3 distinct zeros.
12.2 If p has degree 4, then lim p(x) = ∞ and lim p(x) = ∞.
x→−∞ x→∞

12.3 If p has even degree, then it is possible that p can have no real zeros.
12.4 If p has odd degree, then it is possible that p can have no real zeros.
Problem 13 (Find a formula from a description)
In each of the following problems, give a possible formula for a polynomial function that has the specified properties.
13.1 Degree 2 and has zeros at 4 and 5.
13.2 Degree 3 and has zeros at 4,5 and −3.
13.3 Degree 4 and has zeros at 0, 4, 5, −3.
13.4 Degree 4, with zeros that make the graph cut at 2, −5, and a zero that makes the graph touch at −2;
13.5 Degree 3, with only one zero at −1.
 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 133

Problem 14 (Step (P3 ))

Saheed is graphing a polynomial function, p. He is following steps (P1 )–(P3 ) and has so far marked the zeros of p on
Figure 5.15a. Saheed tells you that p has degree 3, but does not say if the leading coefficient of p is positive or negative.

y y

x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

(a) (b)

Figure 5.15

14.1 Use the information in Figure 5.15a to help sketch p, assuming that the leading coefficient is positive.
14.2 Use the information in Figure 5.15a to help sketch p, assuming that the leading coefficient is negative.
Saheed now turns his attention to another polynomial function, q. He finds the zeros of q (there are only 2) and marks
them on Figure 5.15b. Saheed knows that q has degree 3, but doesn’t know if the leading coefficient is positive or
negative.
14.3 Use the information in Figure 5.15b to help sketch q, assuming that the leading coefficient of q is positive. Hint:
only one of the zeros is simple.
14.4 Use the information in Figure 5.15b to help sketch q, assuming that the leading coefficient of q is negative.
Problem 15 (Zeros)
Find all zeros of each of the following polynomial functions, making sure to detail their multiplicity. Note that you may
need to use factoring, or the quadratic formula, or both! Also note that some zeros may be repeated, and some may be
complex.

15.1 p(x) = x 2 + 1 15.4 a(x) = x 4 − 81 15.7 h(n) = (n + 1)(n2 + 4)

15.2 q( y) = ( y 2 − 9)( y 2 − 7) 15.5 b( y) = y 3 − 8 15.8 f (α) = (α2 − 16)(α2 − 5α + 4)
15.3 r(z) = −4z 3 (z 2 + 3)(z 2 + 64) 15.6 c(m) = m3 − m2 15.9 g(β) = (β 2 − 25)(β 2 − 5β − 4)

Problem 16 (Given zeros, find a formula)

In each of the following problems you are given the zeros of a polynomial. Write a possible formula for each polynomial|
you may leave your answer in factored form, but it may not contain complex numbers. Unless otherwise stated, assume
that the zeros are simple.

16.1 1, 2 16.3 −7, 2 (multiplicity 3), 5 16.5 ±2i, ±7

p
16.2 0, 5, 13 16.4 0, ±i 16.6 −2 ± i 6
FIX
Problem 17 (Composition of polynomials)
Let p and q be polynomial functions that have formulas

p(x) = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5), q(x) = 3 − x 4

Evaluate each of the following.

17.1 (p ◦ q)(0) 17.2 (q ◦ p)(0) 17.3 (p ◦ q)(1) 17.4 (p ◦ p)(0)

134 5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Problem 18 (Piecewise polynomial functions)

Let P be the piecewise-defined function with formula

(1 − x)(2x + 5)(x + 1), x ≤ −3

2


P(x) = 4 − x 2 , −3 < x < 4

 3
x x ≥4

Evaluate each of the following

18.1 P(−4) 18.2 P(0) 18.3 P(4) 18.4 P(−3) 18.5 (P ◦ P)(0)

Problem 19 (Function algebra)

Let p and q be the polynomial functions that have formulas

p(x) = x(x + 1)(x − 3)2 , q(x) = 7 − x 2

Evaluate each of the following (if possible).

p € Š
19.1 (p + q)(1) 19.2 (p − q)(0) 19.3 (p · q)( 7) 19.4
q
p (1)

q
19.5 What is the domain of the function p ?
Problem 20 (Transformations: given the transformation, find the formula)
Let p be the polynomial function that has formula.

p(x) = 4x(x 2 − 1)(x + 3)

In each of the following problems apply the given transformation to the function p and write a formula for the transformed
version of p.

20.1 Shift p to the right by 5 units. 20.4 Shift p down by 2 units.

20.2 Shift p to the left by 6 units. 20.5 Reflect p over the horizontal axis.
20.3 Shift p up by 12 units. 20.6 Reflect p over the vertical axis.

Problem 21 (Find a formula from a table)

Tables 5.1a–5.1d show values of polynomial functions, p, q, r, and s.

Table 5.1: Tables for Problem 21

(a) y = p(x) (b) y = q(x) (c) y = r(x) (d) y = s(x)

x y x y x y x y
−4 −56 −4 −16 −4 105 −4 75
−3 −18 −3 −3 −3 0 −3 0
−2 0 −2 0 −2 −15 −2 −9
−1 4 −1 −1 −1 0 −1 0
0 0 0 0 0 9 0 3
1 −6 1 9 1 0 1 0
2 −8 2 32 2 −15 2 15
3 0 3 75 3 0 3 96
4 24 4 144 4 105 4 760

21.1 Assuming that all of the zeros of p are shown (in Table 5.1a), how many zeros does p have?
21.2 What is the degree of p?
21.3 Write a formula for p(x).
21.4 Assuming that all of the zeros of q are shown (in Table 5.1b), how many zeros does q have?
21.5 Describe the difference in behavior of p and q at −2.
5.1. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 135

21.6 Given that q is a degree-3 polynomial, write a formula for q(x).

21.7 Assuming that all of the zeros of r are shown (in Table 5.1c), find a formula for r(x).
21.8 Assuming that all of the zeros of s are shown (in Table 5.1d), find a formula for s(x).
 5.2 Rational functions
Power functions with negative exponents
The study of rational functions will rely upon a good knowledge of power functions with
negative exponents. Examples 1 and 2 are simple but fundamental to understanding the
behavior of rational functions.

Example 1 – Power functions with odd negative exponents: Graph each the functions f , g, and h
that have formulas
1 1 1
f (x) = , g(x) = 3 , h(x) = 5
x x x
and state their domain in interval notation, and their behavior as x → 0− and x → 0+ .

Solution The functions f , g, and k are plotted in Figure 5.16. The domain of each of the functions f ,
g, and h is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). Note that the long-run behavior of each of the functions is the
same, and in particular

f (x) → 0 as x → ∞
and f (x) → 0 as x → −∞

The same results hold for g and h. Note also that each of the functions has a vertical asymptote
at 0. We see that

f (x) → −∞ as x → 0−
and f (x) → ∞ as x → 0+

The same results hold for g and h. Note that the range of each of the functions f , g, and h is
(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
The curve of a function that has a vertical asymptote is necessarily separated into branches|
each of the functions f , g, and h have two branches.
It appears from Figure 5.16 that each curve is symmetric about the origin| perhaps each
FIX function is odd. Let’s test each function to see if they are odd or not:

1 1 1
f (−x) = g(−x) = h(−x) =
(−x)3 (−x)5 (−x)7
1 1 1
= = =
−x 3 −x 5 −x 7
1 1 1
=− 3 =− 5 =− 7
x x x
= − f (x) = −g(x) = −h(x)

We conclude that each of the functions f , g, and h are odd. ■

y y
f
4 4
g
h

2 2
(1, 1) (−1, 1) (1, 1)

x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2

(−1, −1)
−2 −2

F
G
−4 −4
H

Figure 5.16 Figure 5.17

136
 5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 137

Example 2 – Power functions with even negative exponents: Graph each the functions F , G, and H
that have formulas
1 1 1
F (x) = 2 , G(x) = 4 , H(x) = 6
x x x
and state their domain, and their behavior as x → 0− and x → 0+ .

Solution The functions F , G, and H are plotted in Figure 5.17. The domain of each of the functions F ,
G, and H is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). Note that the long-run behavior of each of the functions is the
same, and in particular
F (x) → 0 as x → ∞
and F (x) → 0 as x → −∞
As in Example 1, F has a horizontal asymptote that has equation y = 0. The same results
hold for G and H. Note also that each of the functions has a vertical asymptote at 0. We see
that
F (x) → ∞ as x → 0−
and F (x) → ∞ as x → 0+
The same results hold for G and H. Each of the functions F , G, and H have two branches,
and the range of each function is (0, ∞).
It appears from Figure 5.17 that each curve is symmetric about the vertical axis| perhaps each
function is even. Let’s test each function to see if they are even or not:
1 1 1
FIX F (−x) =
(−x)2
G(−x) =
(−x)4
H(−x) =
(−x)6
1 1 1
= 2 = 4 = 6
x x x
= F (x) = G(x) = H(x)
We conclude that each of the functions f , g, and h are even. ■
Æ try it yourself Æ
Problem 1
Repeat Examples 1 and 2 using (respectively) the functions that have the following formulas.

1 1 1
1.1 k(x) = − , m(x) = − 3 , n(x) = − 5
x x x
1 1 1
1.2 K(x) = − 2 , M (x) = − 4 , N (x) = − 6
x x x
make sure you try it!

Rational functions
Definition 23 (Rational functions)
The most general formula for a rational function, r, is

p(x)
r(x) =
q(x)

where both p and q are polynomial functions.

Note that
• the domain or r will be all real numbers, except those that make the denominator,
q(x), equal to 0;
• the zeros of r are the zeros of p, i.e the real numbers that make the numerator,
p(x), equal to 0.
Examples 1 and 2 are particularly important because r will behave like 1x , or x12 around
its vertical asymptotes, depending on the power that the relevant term is raised to|
138 5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

we will demonstrate this in what follows.

Example 3 – Rational or not: Decide if the following formulas correspond to rational functions or not;
if the function is rational, state its domain.

1 3+ x x +5
(a) r(x) = (d) h(x) = (g) m(x) =
x 4− x (x − 7)(x + 9)

(b) f (x) = 2 x + 3 x 3 + 2x (h) n(x) = x 2 + 6x + 7

(e) k(x) =
x − 15
3
(c) g(x) = 19 (f) l(x) = 9 − 4x (i) q(x) = 1 −
x +1

Solution (a) r is rational; the domain of r is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

(b) f is not rational.
(c) g is not rational; g is constant.
(d) h is rational; the domain of h is (−∞, 4) ∪ (4, ∞).
(e) k is rational; the domain of k is (−∞, 15) ∪ (15, ∞).
(f) l is not rational; l is linear.
(g) m is rational; the domain of m is (−∞, −9) ∪ (−9, 7) ∪ (7, ∞).
(h) n is not rational; n is quadratic (or you might describe n as a polynomial).
(i) q is rational; the domain of q is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞). ■

Example 4 – Match formula to graph: The functions r, q, and k that have formulas

1 x −2 1
r(x) = , q(x) = , k(x) =
x −3 x +5 (x + 2)(x − 3)

are graphed in Figure 5.18. Match each formula to the appropriate graph.

5 y y 4
y
4

x x
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5 −4 −4

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.18

Solution Let’s start with the function r. Note that domain of r is (−∞, 3) ∪ (0, 3), so we search for
a function that has a vertical asymptote at 3. There are two possible choices: the functions
graphed in Figures 5.18b and 5.18c, but note that the function in Figure 5.18c also has a
vertical asymptote at −2 which is not consistent with the formula for r(x). Therefore, y =
r(x) is graphed in Figure 5.18b.
The function q has domain (−∞, −5)∪(−5, ∞), so we search for a function that has a vertical
asymptote at −5. The only candidate is the curve shown in Figure 5.18a; note that the curve
also goes through (2, 0), which is consistent with the formula for q(x), since q(2) = 0, i.e q
has a zero at 2.
The function k has domain (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞), and has vertical asymptotes at −2
and 3. This is consistent with the graph in Figure 5.18c (and is the only curve that has 3
branches). ■
5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 139

We note that each function in Example 4 behaves like 1x around its vertical asymptotes, be-
cause each linear factor in each denominator is raised to the power 1; if (for example) the
definition of r was instead
1
r(x) =
(x − 3)2
then we would see that r behaves like x12 around its vertical asymptote, and the graph of r
would be very different. We will deal with these cases in the examples that follow.

Example 5 – Repeated factors in the denominator: Consider the functions f , g, and h that have for-
mulas
x −2 x −2 x −2
f (x) = , g(x) = , h(x) =
(x − 3)(x + 2) (x − 3)2 (x + 2) (x − 3)(x + 2)2

which are graphed in Figure 5.19. Note that each function has 2 vertical asymptotes, and the
domain of each function is
(−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)
so we are not surprised to see that each curve has 3 branches. We also note that the numerator
of each function is the same, which tells us that each function has only 1 zero at 2.
The functions g and h are different from those that we have considered previously, because
they have a repeated factor in the denominator. Notice in particular the way that the functions
behave around their asymptotes:
1
• f behaves like x around both of its asymptotes;
1 1
• g behaves like x around −2, and like x2 around 3;
1 1
• h behaves like x2 around −2, and like x around 3. ■

y y y

2 2 2

x x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2

−2 −2 −2

x −2 x −2 x −2
(a) y = (b) y = (c) y =
(x + 2)(x − 3) (x + 2)(x − 3)2 (x + 2)2 (x − 3)

Figure 5.19

p(x)
Definition 23 says that the zeros of the rational function r that has formula r(x) = q(x) are
the zeros of p. Let’s explore this a little more.

Example 6 – Zeros: Find the zeros of the functions α, β, and γ that formulas

x +5 9− x 17x 2 − 10
α(x) = , β(x) = , γ(x) =
3x − 7 x +1 2x + 1

Solution We find the zeros of each function in turn by setting the numerator equal to 0. The zeros of
α are found by solving
x +5=0
The zero of α is −5.
Similarly, we may solve 9 − x = 0 to find the zero of β, which is clearly 9.
The zeros of γ satisfy the equation
17x 2 − 10 = 0
140 5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

which we can solve using the square root property to obtain

10
x =±
17

The zeros of γ are ± 10

17 . ■

Long-run behavior
Our focus so far has been on the behavior of rational functions around their vertical asymp-
totes. In fact, rational functions also have interesting long-run behavior around their hori-
zontal or oblique asymptotes. A rational function will always have either a horizontal or an
oblique asymptote| the case is determined by the degree of the numerator and the degree of
the denominator.

Definition 24 (Long-run behavior)

Let r be the rational function that has formula

an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a0
r(x) =
bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + . . . + b0

We can classify the long-run behavior of the rational function r according to the fol-
lowing criteria:
• if n < m then r has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0;
an
• if n = m then r has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = ;
bm
• if n > m then r will have an oblique asymptote as x → ±∞ (more on this in
Section 5.4)

We will concentrate on functions that have horizontal asymptotes until we reach Section 5.4.

Example 7 – Long-run behavior graphically: Kebede has graphed the functions r, s, and t that have
formulas
x +1 2(x + 1) 3(x + 1)
r(x) = , s(x) = , t(x) =
x −3 x −3 x −3
in his graphing calculator and obtained the curves shown in Figure 5.20. Kebede decides to
test his knowledgeable friend Oscar, and asks him to match the formulas to the graphs.

5 y 5 y 5 y

x x x
−12 −8 −4 4 8 12 −12 −8 −4 4 8 12 −12 −8 −4 4 8 12

−5 −5 −5

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.20: Horizontal asymptotes

Oscar notices that each function has a vertical asymptote at 3 and a zero at −1. The main
thing that catches Oscar’s eye is that each function has a different coefficient in the numerator,
and that each curve has a different horizontal asymptote. In particular, Oscar notes that:
• the curve shown in Figure 5.20a has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 2;
• the curve shown in Figure 5.20b has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 1;
• the curve shown in Figure 5.20c has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 3.
5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 141

Oscar is able to tie it all together for Kebede by referencing Definition 24. He says that since
the degree of the numerator and the degree of the denominator is the same for each of the
functions r, s, and t, the horizontal asymptote will be determined by evaluating the ratio of
their leading coefficients.
Oscar therefore says that r should have a horizontal asymptote y = 11 = 1, s should have
a horizontal asymptote y = 21 = 2, and t should have a horizontal asymptote y = 13 = 3.
Kebede is able to finish the problem from here, and says that r is shown in Figure 5.20b, s is
shown in Figure 5.20a, and t is shown in Figure 5.20c. ■

Example 8 – Long-run behavior numerically: Xiao and Dwayne saw Example 7 but are a little con-
fused about horizontal asymptotes. What does it mean to say that a function r has a horizontal
asymptote?
They decide to explore the concept by constructing a table of values for the rational functions
R and S that have formulas
−5(x + 1) 7(x − 5)
R(x) = , S(x) =
x −3 2(x + 1)

In Table 5.2 they model the behavior of R and S as x → ∞, and in Table 5.3 they model the
behavior of R and S as x → −∞ by substituting very large values of |x| into each function.

Table 5.2: R(x) and S(x) as x → ∞ Table 5.3: R(x) and S(x) as x → −∞
x R(x) S(x) x R(x) S(x)
1 × 102 −5.206 19 3.292 08 −1 × 102 −4.805 83 3.712 12
1 × 103 −5.020 06 3.479 02 −1 × 103 −4.980 06 3.521 02
1 × 104 −5.002 00 3.497 90 −1 × 104 −4.998 00 3.502 10
1 × 105 −5.000 20 3.499 79 −1 × 105 −4.999 80 3.500 21
1 × 106 −5.000 02 3.499 98 −1 × 106 −4.999 98 3.500 02

Xiao and Dwayne study Tables 5.2 and 5.3 and decide that the functions R and S never actually
touch their horizontal asymptotes, but they do get infinitely close. They also feel as if they
have a better understanding of what it means to study the behavior of a function as x → ±∞.■

Example 9 – Repeated factors in the numerator: Consider the functions f , g, and h that have formu-
las
(x − 2)2 x −2 (x − 2)3
f (x) = , g(x) = , h(x) =
(x − 3)(x + 1) (x − 3)(x + 1) (x − 3)(x + 1)

which are graphed in Figure 5.21. We note that each function has vertical asymptotes at −1
and 3, and so the domain of each function is

(−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

We also notice that the numerators of each function are quite similar| indeed, each function
has a zero at 2, but how does each function behave around their zero?
Using Figure 5.21 to guide us, we note that
• f has a horizontal intercept (2, 0), but the curve of f does not cut the horizontal axis|
it bounces off it;
• g also has a horizontal intercept (2, 0), and the curve of g does cut the horizontal axis;
• h has a horizontal intercept (2, 0), and the curve of h also cuts the axis, but appears
flattened as it does so.
We can further enrich our study by discussing the long-run behavior of each function. Using
the tools of Definition 24, we can deduce that
• f has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 1;
• g has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0;
142 5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

• h does not have a horizontal asymptote| it has an oblique asymptote (we’ll study this
more in Section 5.4). ■

8
y y y
8
20

4 4

x x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4

−4 −4

−20
−8 −8

(x − 2)2 x −2 (x − 2)3
(a) y = (b) y = (c) y =
(x + 1)(x − 3) (x + 1)(x − 3) (x + 1)(x − 3)

Figure 5.21

Holes
Rational functions have a vertical asymptote at a if the denominator is 0 at a. What happens
if the numerator is 0 at the same place? In this case, we say that the rational function has a
hole at a.

Definition 25 (Holes)
The rational function
p(x)
r(x) =
q(x)
has a hole at a if p(a) = q(a) = 0. Note that holes are different from a vertical
asymptotes. We represent that r has a hole at the point (a, r(a)) on the curve y = r(x)
by using a hollow circle, ◦.

Example 10 Mohammed and Sue have graphed the function r that has formula

x2 + x − 6
r(x) =
(x − 2)

in their calculators, and can not decide if the correct graph is Figure 5.22 or Figure 5.23.

Luckily for them, Oscar is nearby, and can help them settle the debate. Oscar demonstrates
that

(x + 3)(x − 2)
r(x) =
(x − 2)
= x +3

but only when x ̸= 2, because the function is undefined at 2. Oscar says that this necessarily
means that the domain or r is
(−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)
■
and that r must have a hole at 2.

Mohammed and Sue are very grateful for the clarification, and conclude that the graph of r
is shown in Figure 5.23.

Example 11 Consider the function f that has formula

x(x + 3)
f (x) =
x 2 − 4x
5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 143

y y
8 8

4 4

x x
−8 −4 4 8 −8 −4 4 8

−4 −4

−8 −8

Figure 5.22 Figure 5.23

The domain of f is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 4) ∪ (4, ∞) because both 0 and 4 make the denominator
equal to 0. Notice that
x(x + 3)
f (x) =
x(x − 4)
x +3
= ■
x −4
provided that x ̸= 0. Since 0 makes the numerator and the denominator 0 at the same time,
we say that f has a hole at (0, −3/4). Note that this necessarily means that f does not have a
vertical intercept.
We also note f has a vertical asymptote at 4; the function is graphed in Figure 5.24.

Example 12 – Minimums and maximums: Seamus and Trang are discussing rational functions. Seamus
says that if a rational function has a vertical asymptote, then it can not possibly have local
minimums and maximums, nor can it have global minimums and maximums.
Trang says this statement is not always true. She plots the functions f and g that have formu-
las
32(x − 1)(x + 1) 32(x − 1)(x + 1)
f (x) = − , g(x) =
(x − 2) (x + 2)
2 2 (x − 2)2 (x + 2)2
in Figures 5.25 and 5.26 and shows them to Seamus. On seeing the graphs, Seamus quickly
corrects himself, and says that f has a local (and global) maximum of 2 at 0, and that g has
a local (and global) minimum of −2 at 0.
Seamus also notes that (in its domain) the function f is always concave down, and that (in
its domain) the function g is always concave up. Furthermore, Trang observes that each
function behaves like x12 around each of its vertical asymptotes, because each linear factor in
the denominator is raised to the power 2.
Oscar stops by and reminds both students about the long-run behavior; according to Defini-
tion 24 since the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree of the numerator (in
both functions), each function has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. ■

Investigations Problem 2 (The spaghetti incident)

The same Queen from Example 2 on page 33 has recovered from the rice experiments, and
has called her loyal jester for another challenge.
The jester has an 11−in piece of uncooked spaghetti that he puts on a table; he uses a book to
cover 1 in of it so that 10 in hang over the edge. The jester then produces a box of mg weights
that can be hung from the spaghetti.
The jester says it will take ymg to break the spaghetti when hung xin from the edge, according
to the rule y = 100x .
144 5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−2

−4

−6

−8

x(x + 3)
Figure 5.24: y =
x 2 − 4x

y y
8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2

x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2 −2

−4 −4

−6 −6

−8 −8

Figure 5.25: y = f (x) Figure 5.26: y = g(x)

2.1 Help the Queen complete Table 5.4, and use 2 digits after the decimal where appropriate.

2.2 What do you notice about the number of mg that it takes to break the spaghetti as x increases?

2.3 The Queen wonders what happens when x gets very small| help the Queen construct a table
of values for x and y when x = 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1.

2.4 What do you notice about the number of mg that it takes to break the spaghetti as x → 0?
Would it ever make sense to let x = 0?

2.5 Plot your results from Problems 2.1 and 2.3 on the same graph, and join the points using a
smooth curve| set the maximum value of y as 200, and note that this necessarily means that
you will not be able to plot all of the points.
5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 145

Table 5.4 2.6 Using your graph, observe what happens to y as x increases. If we could somehow construct
a piece of uncooked spaghetti that was 101 in long, how many mg would it take to break the
x y
spaghetti?
1
2 The Queen looks forward to more food-related investigations from her jester.
3 Problem 3 (Debt Amortization)
4 To amortize a debt means to pay it off in a given length of time using equal periodic pay-
5 ments. The payments include interest on the unpaid balance. The following formula gives
6 the monthly payment, M , in dollars that is necessary to amortize a debt of P dollars in n
7 months at a monthly interest rate of i
8
9 P·i
M=
10 1 − (1 + i)−n

Use this formula in each of the following problems.

3.1 What monthly payments are necessary on a credit card debt of $2000 at 1.5 % monthly if you
want to pay off the debt in 2 years? In one year? How much money will you save by paying
off the debt in the shorter amount of time?
3.2 To purchase a home, a family needs a loan of $300,000 at 5.2 % annual interest. Compare
a 20 year loan to a 30 year loan and make a recommendation for the family. (Note: when
given an annual interest rate, it is a common business practice to divide by 12 to get a monthly
rate.)
3.3 Ellen wants to make monthly payments of $100 to pay off a debt of $3000 at 12 % annual
interest. How long will it take her to pay off the debt?
3.4 Jake is going to buy a new car. He puts $2000 down and wants to finance the remaining
$14,000. The dealer will offer him 4 % annual interest for 5 years, or a $2000 rebate which
he can use to reduce the amount of the loan and 8 % annual interest for 5 years. Which should
he choose?

Exercises

Problem 4 (Rational or not)

Decide if the following formulas correspond to rational functions or not; if the function is rational, state its domain.

3 4 z2
4.1 r(x) = 4.5 v(x) = 4.9 c(z) =
x (x − 2)2 z3
y
4.2 s( y) = 9− x 4.10 d(x) = x 2 (x + 3)(5x − 7)
6 4.6 w(x) =
x + 17
4− x α2
4.3 t(z) = 4.11 e(α) =
7 − 8z 4.7 a(x) = x + 4
2 α2 − 1
2
w 3
4.4 u(w) = 4.8 b( y) = 3 y 4.12 f (β) =
(w − 3)(w + 4) 4

Problem 5 (Function evaluation)

Let r be the function that has formula
(x − 2)(x + 3)
r(x) =
(x + 5)(x − 7)
Evaluate each of the following (if possible); if the value is undefined, then state so.

5.1 r(0) 5.3 r(2) 5.5 r(7) 5.7 r(−5)

5.8 r 12


5.2 r(1) 5.4 r(4) 5.6 r(−3)

Problem 6 (Holes or asymptotes?)

State the domain of each of the rational functions implied by the following formulas. Identify any holes or asymptotes.
146 5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

12 x 2 + 5x + 4 w
6.1 f (x) = 6.3 h(x) = 6.5 l(w) =
x −2 x 2 + x − 12 w2 +1
x2 + x z+2 14
6.2 g(x) = 6.4 k(z) = 6.6 m(t) =
(x + 1)(x − 2) 2z − 3 13 − t 2

Problem 7 (Find a formula from a graph)

Consider the rational functions graphed in Figure 5.27. Find the vertical asymptotes for each function, together with any
zeros, and give a possible formula for each.

y y y
5 5

x x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−2

−5 −5

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.27

Problem 8 (Find a formula from a description)

In each of the following problems, give a formula of a rational function that has the listed properties.
8.1 Vertical asymptote at 2.
8.2 Vertical asymptote at 5.
8.3 Vertical asymptote at −2, and zero at 6.
8.4 Zeros at 2 and −5 and vertical asymptotes at 1 and −7.
Problem 9 (Given formula, find horizontal asymptotes)
Each of the rational functions implied by the following formulas has a horizontal asymptote. Write the equation of the
horizontal asymptote for each function.

1 x2 + 7 (6x + 1)(x − 7)
9.1 f (x) = 9.4 k(x) = 9.7 n(x) =
x x (11x − 8)(x − 5)
2x + 3 3x − 2 19x 3
9.2 g(x) = 9.5 l(x) = 9.8 p(x) =
x 5x + 8 5 − x4
x 2 + 2x
9.3 h(x) = 3x − 2 14x 2 + x
x2 + 3 9.6 m(x) = 9.9 q(x) =
5x 2 + 8 1 − 7x 2

Problem 10 (Given horizontal asymptotes, find formula)

In each of the following problems, give a formula for a rational function that has the given horizontal asymptote. Note
that there may be more than one option.

10.1 y = 7 10.3 y = 53 3 10.7 y = −1

10.5 y =
2
10.2 y = −1 10.4 y = −17 10.6 y = 0 10.8 y = 2

Problem 11 (Find a formula from a description)

In each of the following problems, give a formula for a rational function that has the prescribed properties. Note that
there may be more than one option.
11.1 f (x) → 3 as x → ±∞.
5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS 147

11.2 r(x) → −4 as x → ±∞.

11.3 k(x) → 2 as x → ±∞, and k has vertical asymptotes at −3 and 5.
Problem 12
Let r be the rational function that has
(x + 2)(x − 1)
r(x) =
(x + 3)(x − 4)
Each of the following questions are in relation to this function.
12.1 What is the vertical intercept of this function? State your answer as an ordered pair.
12.2 What values of x make the denominator equal to 0?
12.3 Use your answer to Problem 12.2 to write the domain of the function in both interval, and set builder notation.
12.4 What are the vertical asymptotes of the function? State your answers in the form x =
12.5 What values of x make the numerator equal to 0?
12.6 Use your answer to Problem 12.5 to write the horizontal intercepts of r as ordered pairs.
Problem 13 (Holes)
Josh and Pedro are discussing the function
x2 − 1
r(x) =
(x + 3)(x − 1)

13.1 What is the domain of r?

13.2 Josh notices that the numerator can be factored- can you see how?
13.3 Pedro asks, ‘Doesn’t that just mean that
x +1
r(x) =
x +3
for all values of x?’ Josh says, ‘Nearly. . . but not for all values of x’. What does Josh mean?
13.4 Where does r have vertical asymptotes, and where does it have holes?
13.5 Sketch a graph of r.
Problem 14 (Function algebra)
Let r and s be the rational functions that have formulas

2− x x2
r(x) = , s(x) =
x +3 x −4

Evaluate each of the following (if possible).

r


14.1 (r + s)(5) 14.2 (r − s)(3) 14.3 (r · s)(4) 14.4 s (1)

Problem 15 (Transformations: given the transformation, find the formula)

Let r be the rational function that has formula.
x +5
r(x) =
2x − 3
In each of the following problems apply the given transformation to the function r and write a formula for the transformed
version of r.

15.1 Shift r to the right by 3 units. 15.4 Shift r down by 17 units.

15.2 Shift r to the left by 4 units. 15.5 Reflect r over the horizontal axis.
15.3 Shift r up by π units. 15.6 Reflect r over the vertical axis.
148 5.2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Table 5.5: Tables for Problem 16

(a) y = r(x) (b) y = s(x) (c) y = t(x) (d) y = u(x)

x y x y x y x y
−4 7/2 −4 −2/21 −4 3/5 −4 16/7

−3 −18 −3 −1/12 −3 0 −3 X
−2 X −2 0 −2 X −2 −4/5

−1 −4 −1 X −1 3 −1 −1/8

0 −3/2 0 −2/3 0 3 0 0
1 −2/3 1 −3/4 1 X 1 −1/8

2 −1/4 2 −4/3 2 0 2 −4/5

3 0 3 X 3 3/5 3 X
4 1/6 4 6/5 4 7/9 4 16/7

Problem 16 (Find a formula from a table)

Tables 5.5a–5.5d show values of rational functions r, q, s, and t. Assume that any values marked with an X are undefined.
x −A
16.1 Given that the formula for r(x) has the form r(x) = , use Table 5.5a to find values of A and B.
x −B
16.2 Check your formula by computing r(x) at the values specified in the table.
16.3 The function s in Table 5.5b has two vertical asymptotes and one zero. Can you find a formula for s(x)?
16.4 Check your formula by computing s(x) at the values specified in the table.
(x − A)(x − B)
16.5 Given that the formula for t(x) has the form t(x) = , use Table 5.5c to find the values of A, B, C,
(x − C)(x − D)
and D; hence write a formula for t(x).
(x − A)2
16.6 Given that the formula for u(x) has the form u(x) = , use Table 5.5d to find the values of A, B, and
(x − B)(x − C)
C; hence write a formula for u(x).
 5.3 Graphing rational functions (horizontal asymptotes)
We studied rational functions in the previous section, but were not asked to graph them; in
this section we will demonstrate the steps to be followed in order to sketch graphs of the
functions.
Remember from Definition 23 on page 129 that rational functions have the form

p(x)
r(x) =
q(x)

In this section we will restrict attention to the case when

degree of p ≤ degree of q

Note that this necessarily means that each function that we consider in this section will have
a horizontal asymptote (see Definition 24 on page 132). The cases in which the degree of p is
greater than the degree of q is covered in the next section.
Before we begin, it is important to remember the following:
• Our sketches will give a good representation of the overall shape of the graph, but until
we have the tools of calculus (from MTH 251) we can not find local minimums, local
maximums, and inflection points algebraically. This means that we will make our best
guess as to where these points are.
• We will not concern ourselves too much with the vertical scale (because of our previous
point)| we will, however, mark the vertical intercept (assuming there is one), and any
horizontal asymptotes.
FIX Steps to follow when sketching rational functions
(R1 ) Find all vertical asymptotes and holes, and mark them on the graph using dashed
vertical lines and open circles ◦ respectively.
(R2 ) Find any intercepts, and mark them using solid circles •; determine if the curve
cuts the axis, or bounces off it at each zero.
(R3 ) Determine the behavior of the function around each asymptote| does it behave
like 1x or x12 ?
(R4 ) Determine the long-run behavior of the function, and mark the horizontal asymp-
tote using a dashed horizontal line.
(R5 ) Deduce the overall shape of the curve, and sketch it. If there isn’t enough in-
formation from the previous steps, then construct a table of values including
sample points from each branch.
Remember that until we have the tools of calculus, we won’t be able to find the exact
coordinates of local minimums, local maximums, and points of inflection.

The examples that follow show how steps (R1 )–(R5 ) can be applied to a variety of different
rational functions.

Example 1 Use steps (R1 )–(R5 ) to sketch a graph of the function r that has formula

1
r(x) =
x −2

Solution (R1 ) r has a vertical asymptote at 2; r does not have any holes. The curve of r will have 2
branches.
(R2 ) r does not have
any zeros since the numerator is never equal to 0. The vertical intercept
of r is 0, − 12 .
1
(R3 ) r behaves like x around its vertical asymptote since (x − 2) is raised to the power 1.

149
150 5.3. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES)

(R4 ) Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, according
to Definition 24 on page 132 the horizontal asymptote of r has equation y = 0.
(R5 ) We put the details we have obtained so far on Figure 5.28a. Notice that there is only
one way to complete the graph, which we have done in Figure 5.28b. ■

y y
4 4

2 2

x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4
0, − 1 0, − 1
€ Š € Š
2 2

−2 −2

−4 −4

(a) (b)

1
Figure 5.28: y =
x −2

The function r in Example 1 has a horizontal asymptote which has equation y = 0. This
asymptote lies on the horizontal axis, and you might (understandably) find it hard to distin-
guish between the two lines (Figure 5.28b). When faced with such a situation, it is perfectly
acceptable to draw the horizontal axis as a dashed line| just make sure to label it correctly.
We will demonstrate this in the next example.

Example 2 Use steps (R1 )–(R5 ) to sketch a graph of the function v that has formula

10
v(x) =
x

Solution (R1 ) v has a vertical asymptote at 0. v does not have any holes. The curve of v will have 2
branches.
(R2 ) v does not have any zeros (since 10 ̸= 0). Furthermore, v does not have a vertical
intercept since v(0) is undefined.
1
(R3 ) v behaves like x around its vertical asymptote.
(R4 ) v has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0.
(R5 ) We put the details we have obtained so far in Figure 5.29a. We do not have enough
information to sketch v yet (because v does not have any intercepts), so let’s pick a
sample point in either of the 2 branches| it doesn’t matter where our sample point is,
because we know what the overall shape will be. Let’s compute v(2)

10
v(2) =
2
=5

We therefore mark the point (2, 5) on Figure 5.29b, and then complete the sketch using
the details we found in the previous steps. ■

Example 3 Use steps (R1 )–(R5 ) to sketch a graph of the function u that has formula

−4(x 2 − 9)
u(x) =
x 2 − 8x + 15
5.3. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES) 151

y y

(2, 5)
5 5

x x
−5 5 −5 5

−5 −5

(a) (b)

10
Figure 5.29: y =
x

Solution (R1 ) We begin by factoring both the numerator and denominator of u to help us find any
vertical asymptotes or holes

−4(x 2 − 9)
u(x) =
x 2 − 8x + 15
−4(x + 3)(x − 3)
=
(x − 5)(x − 3)
−4(x + 3)
=
x −5

provided that x ̸= 3. Therefore u has a vertical asymptote at 5 and a hole at 3. The

curve of u has 2 branches.

(R2 ) u has a simple zero at −3. The vertical intercept of u is 0, 12

5 .

1
(R3 ) u behaves like x around its vertical asymptote at 4.

(R4 ) Using Definition 24 on page 132 the equation of the horizontal asymptote of u is y = −4.

(R5 ) We put the details we have obtained so far on Figure 5.28a. Notice that there is only
one way to complete the graph, which we have done in Figure 5.28b. ■

y y

10 10

0, 12 0, 12
€ Š € Š
5 5
x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−10 −10

(a) (b)

−4(x + 3)
Figure 5.30: y =
x −5

Examples 1–3 have focused on functions that only have one vertical asymptote; the remaining
examples in this section concern functions that have more than one vertical asymptote. We
will demonstrate that steps (R1 )–(R5 ) still apply.
152 5.3. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES)

Example 4 Use steps (R1 )–(R5 ) to sketch a graph of the function w that has formula
2(x + 3)(x − 5)
w(x) =
(x + 5)(x − 4)

Solution (R1 ) w has vertical asymptotes at −5 and 4. w does not have any holes. The curve of w will
have 3 branches.
(R2 ) w has simple zeros at −3 and 5. The vertical intercept of w is 0, 32 .

1
(R3 ) w behaves like x around both of its vertical asymptotes.
(R4 ) The degree of the numerator of w is 2 and the degree of the denominator of w is also
2. Using the ratio of the leading coefficients of the numerator and denominator, we say
that w has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 12 = 2.
(R5 ) We put the details we have obtained so far on Figure 5.31a.
The function w is a little more complicated than the functions that we have considered
in the previous examples because the curve has 3 branches. When graphing such func-
tions, it is generally a good idea to start with the branch for which you have the most
information| in this case, that is the middle branch on the interval (−5, 4).
Once we have drawn the middle branch, there is only one way to complete the graph
(because of our observations about the behavior of w around its vertical asymptotes),
which we have done in Figure 5.31b. ■

y y

5 5

€
0, 3
2
Š
x €
0, 3
2
Š
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5 −5

(a) (b)

2(x + 3)(x − 5)
Figure 5.31: y =
(x + 5)(x − 4)

The rational functions that we have considered so far have had simple factors in the denom-
inator; each function has behaved like 1x around each of its vertical asymptotes. Examples 5
and 6 consider functions that have a repeated factor in the denominator.

Example 5 Use steps (R1 )–(R5 ) to sketch a graph of the function f that has formula
100
f (x) =
(x + 5)(x − 4)2

Solution (R1 ) f has vertical asymptotes at −5 and 4. f does not have any holes. The curve of f will
have 3 branches.
(R2 ) f does not have any zeros (since 100 ̸= 0). The vertical intercept of f is 0, 45 .

1 1
(R3 ) f behaves like x around −5 and behaves like x2 around 4.
(R4 ) The degree of the numerator of f is 0 and the degree of the denominator of f is 2. f
has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0.
5.3. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES) 153

(R5 ) We put the details we have obtained so far on Figure 5.32a.

The function f is similar to the function w that we considered in Example 4| it has two
vertical asymptotes and 3 branches, but in contrast to w it does not have any zeros.
We sketch f in Figure 5.32b, using the middle branch as our guide because we have the
most information about the function on the interval (−5, 4).
Once we have drawn the middle branch, there is only one way to complete the graph
because of our observations about the behavior of f around its vertical asymptotes (it
behaves like 1x ), which we have done in Figure 5.32b.
Note that we are not yet able to find the local minimum of f algebraically on the interval
(−5, 4), so we make a reasonable guess as to where it is| we can be confident that it is
above the horizontal axis since f has no zeros. You may think that this is unsatisfactory,
but once we have the tools of calculus, we will be able to find local minimums more
precisely. ■

y y

5 5

0, 5 0, 5
€ Š € Š
4 4

x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5 −5

(a) (b)

100
Figure 5.32: y =
(x + 5)(x − 4)2

Example 6 Use steps (R1 )–(R5 ) to sketch a graph of the function g that has formula

50(2 − x)
g(x) =
(x + 3)2 (x − 5)2

Solution (R1 ) g has vertical asymptotes at −3 and 5. g does not have any holes. The curve of g will
have 3 branches.
(R2 ) g has a simple zero at 2. The vertical intercept of g is 0, 94 .

1
(R3 ) g behaves like x2 around both of its vertical asymptotes.
(R4 ) The degree of the numerator of g is 1 and the degree of the denominator of g is 4.
Using Definition 24 on page 132, we calculate that the horizontal asymptote of g has
equation y = 0.
(R5 ) The details that we have found so far have been drawn in Figure 5.33a. The function g
is similar to the functions we considered in Examples 4 and 5 because it has 2 vertical
asymptotes and 3 branches.
We sketch g using the middle branch as our guide because we have the most information
about g on the interval (−3, 5). Note that there is no other way to draw this branch
without introducing other zeros which g does not have.
Once we have drawn the middle branch, there is only one way to complete the graph
because of our observations about the behavior of g around its vertical asymptotes| it
behaves like x12 .
154 5.3. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES)

y y

5 5

0, 4 0, 4
€ Š € Š
9 9
x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5 −5

(a) (b)

50(2 − x)
Figure 5.33: y =
(x + 3)2 (x − 5)2

Each of the rational functions that we have considered so far has had either a simple zero, or no
zeros at all. Remember from our work on polynomial functions, and particularly Definition 22
on page 117, that a repeated zero corresponds to the curve of the function behaving differently
at the zero when compared to how the curve behaves at a simple zero. Example 7 details a
function that has a non-simple zero.

Example 7 Use steps (R1 )–(R5 ) to sketch a graph of the function g that has formula

(x − 3)2
h(x) =
(x + 4)(x − 6)

Solution (R1 ) h has vertical asymptotes at −4 and 6. h does not have any holes. The curve of h will
have 3 branches.
(R2 ) h has a zero at 3 that has multiplicity 2. The vertical intercept of h is 0, − 83 .

1
(R3 ) h behaves like x around both of its vertical asymptotes.
(R4 ) The degree of the numerator of h is 2 and the degree of the denominator of h is 2. Using
Definition 24 on page 132, we calculate that the horizontal asymptote of h has equation
y = 1.
(R5 ) The details that we have found so far have been drawn in Figure 5.34a. The function
h is different from the functions that we have considered in previous examples because
of the multiplicity of the zero at 3.
We sketch h using the middle branch as our guide because we have the most information
about h on the interval (−4, 6). Note that there is no other way to draw this branch
without introducing other zeros which h does not have| also note how the curve bounces
off the horizontal axis at 3.
Once we have drawn the middle branch, there is only one way to complete the graph
because of our observations about the behavior of h around its vertical asymptotes| it
behaves like 1x .
5.3. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES) 155

y y

3 3

x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2Š 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2Š 4 6 8
0, − 3 0, − 3
€ €
8 8

−3 −3

(a) (b)

(x − 3)2
Figure 5.34: y =
(x + 4)(x − 6)

Exercises

Problem 1 (Step (R5 ))

Katie is working on graphing rational functions. She has been concentrating on functions f that have formula

a(x − b)
f (x) = (5.3)
x −c
Katie notes that functions with this type of formula have a zero at b, and a vertical asymptote at c. Furthermore, these
functions behave like 1x around their vertical asymptote, and the curve of each function will have 2 branches.
Katie has been working with 3 functions that have the form given in Equation (5.3), and has followed steps (R1 )–(R4 );
her results are shown in Figure 5.35. There is just one more thing to do to complete the graphs| follow step (R5 ). Help
Katie finish each graph by deducing the curve of each function.

10 10 10
y y y

5 5 5

x x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5 −5 −5

−10 −10 −10

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.35: Graphs for Problem 1

Problem 2 (Step (R5 ) for more complicated rational functions)

David is also working on graphing rational functions, and has been concentrating on functions r that have formula

a(x − b)(x − c)
r(x) =
(x − d)(x − e)
David notices that functions with this type of formula have simple zeros at b and c, and vertical asymptotes at d and e.
Furthermore, these functions behave like 1x around both vertical asymptotes, and the curve of the function will have 3
branches.
David has followed steps (R1 )–(R4 ) for 3 separate functions, and drawn the results in Figure 5.36. Help David finish each
graph by deducing the curve of each function.
 156 5.3. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES)

10 10 10
y y y

5 5 5

x x x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5 −5 −5

−10 −10 −10

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.36: Graphs for Problem 2

Problem 3 (Steps (R1 )–(R5 ))

Use steps (R1 )–(R5 ) to sketch a graph of each of the following curves
FIX 4 x +3 (4x + 5)(3x − 4)
3.1 y = 4 − x2
3.3 y = 3.5 y = 3.6 y =
x +2 x −5 x2 − 9 (2x + 5)(x − 5)
2x − 1 2x + 3
3.2 y = 2 3.4 y =
x −9 3x − 1

Problem 4 (Inverse functions)

Each of the rational functions F and G are invertible; the functions have formulas

2x + 1 1 − 4x
F (x) = , G(x) =
x −3 x +3

4.1 State the domain of each function.

4.2 Find the inverse of each function, and state its domain.
4.3 Hence state the range of the original functions.
4.4 State the range of each inverse function.
Problem 5 (Composition)
Let r and s be the rational functions that have formulas
3 4− x
r(x) = , s(x) =
x2 x +5
Evaluate each of the following.

5.1 (r ◦ s)(0) 5.3 (r ◦ s)(2) 5.5 (s ◦ r)(4)

5.2 (s ◦ r)(0) 5.4 (s ◦ r)(3) 5.6 (s ◦ r)(x)

Problem 6 (Piecewise rational functions)

The function R has formula
2

 , x < −5
x +3

R(x) =
x −4
, x ≥ −5


x − 10
Evaluate each of the following.
5.3. GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS (HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES) 157

6.1 R(−6) 6.2 R(−5) 6.3 R(−3) 6.4 R(5)

6.5 What is the domain of R?

5.4 Graphing rational functions (oblique asymptotes)
x2 + 1
0.6 y =
x −4
x 3 (x + 3)
0.7 y =
x −5

158
Solutions to Section 2.3 159

Answers
Solutions for problems in Section 2.1
1. Answers will vary.
2. f (0) = 0.5, f (3) = 3, and f (4) = 2
3. u(2011) ≈ 9; In 2011 the US unemployment rate was about 9 %.
4. t ≈ 2003 or t ≈ 2008; The points at which unemployment was 6 % were in early 2003
and early 2008.
5.1. Slope is 3, vertical intercept is (0, −1).
5.2. Slope is − 12 , vertical intercept is (0, 5).
5.3. Slope is −10, vertical intercept is (0, π).
5.4. Slope is m, vertical intercept is (0, b).
6.1. Linear.
6.2. Quadratic.
6.3. Linear.
6.4. Linear.
6.5. Quadratic.
6.6. Linear.
6.7. Quadratic.
6.8. Linear.
7.1. Vertex: (3, 4), range: [4, ∞).
7.2. Vertex: (3, 4), range: (−∞, 4].
7.3. Vertex: (5, 0), range: [0, ∞).
7.4. Vertex: 43 , 7 , range: [7, ∞).

7.5. Vertex: − 12 , 54 , range: 54 , ∞



7.6. Vertex: − 56 , − 12
25
, range: − 25



12 , ∞

7.7. Vertex: (0, 4), range: (−∞, 4].

7.8. Vertex: − 54 , 13 , range: −∞, 13 .



Solutions for problems in Section 2.2

1. −8 would be a bad input value; it would lead to division by 0
2. Since sqrt can only be applied to nonnegative numbers, the domain is the set of all
nonnegative numbers. That is, the domain is all numbers greater than or equal to 0.
3. The domain is (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) and the range is (∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
4.1. [0, ∞)
4.2. [−10, ∞)
4.3. (−∞, ∞)
4.4. − 52 , ∞


4.5. (−∞, ∞)
4.6. (−∞, 2]
4.7. (−∞, ∞)
4.8. (−∞, ∞)
160 Solutions to Section 2.3

Solutions for problems in Section 2.3

1. f is increasng on (−∞, 3] and on [7, ∞). We could also say that f is increasing on
(−∞, 3] ∪ [7, ∞)
2. f is concave down on (−∞, ∞).
y
8

2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−2

−4

−6

−8

g is concave up on (−∞, ∞).

y
8

2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−2

−4

−6

−8

k is neither concave up on (−∞, ∞) nor concave down on on (−∞, ∞). It is concave

up on on [0, ∞) and concave down on (−∞, 0]
y
8

2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−2

−4

−6

−8

3.1. • p has zeros at about −3.8, 0, and 5.

• q has zeros at about −5.9, −1, 1, and 4.
• r has zeros at about −5, −2.9, and 4.1.
• s has zeros at about −9, −6, 4.2, 8.1, and 0.
3.2. • p has a local maximum of approximately 3.9 at −2, and a local minimum of ap-
proximately −6.5 at 3.
• q has a local minimum of approximately −10 at −4, and −4 at 3; q has a local
maximum of approximately 1 at 0.
• r has a local minimum of approximately −5.5 at −4, and a local maximum of
approximately 10 at 3.
• s has a local maximum of approximately 5 at −8, 0 at 0, and 5 at 7; s has local
minimums of approximately −3 at −4, and −1 at 3.
3.3. • p does not have a global maximum, nor a global minimum.
Solutions to Section 2.3 161

• q has a global minimum of approximately −10; it does not have a global maximum.

• r does not have a global maximum, nor a global minimum.

• s has a global maximum of approximately 5; it does not have a global minimum.

3.4. • p is increasing on (−∞, −2) ∪ (3, ∞), and decreasing on (−2, 3).

• q is increasing on (−4, 0) ∪ (3, ∞), and decreasing on (−∞, −4) ∪ (0, 3).

• r is increasing on (−4, 3), and decreasing on (−∞, −4) ∪ (3, ∞).

• s is increasing on (−∞, −8)∪(−4, 0)∪(3, 5), and decreasing on (−8, −4)∪(0, 3)∪
(5, ∞).

3.5. • p is concave up on (1, ∞), and concave down on (−∞, 1).

• q is concave up on (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞), and concave down on (−1, 1).

• r is concave up on (−∞, −3) ∪ (0, 2), and concave down on (−3, 0) ∪ (2, ∞).

• s is concave up on (−6, −2) ∪ (2, 5), and concave down on (−∞, −6) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪
(5, ∞).

4.1. y

4.2. y

4.3. y

x
162 Solutions to Section 3.1

4.4. y

5. (a) f is decreasing.
(b) g is constant– neither increasing nor decreasing.
(c) h is increasing.
(d) j is increasing.
6. (a) f is concave up.
(b) g is neither concave up nor concave down.
(c) h is neither concave up nor concave down.
(d) j is concave up.
p
7.1. f (x) = 2x or g(x) = x; many other choices are available.
7.2. g(x) = 2x; many other choices are available.
7.3. h(x) = −3x; many other choices are available.
7.4. j(x) = −5x; many other choices are available.
7.5. Consider k that has formula k(x) = x 2 which decreases on (−∞, 0).
7.6. Consider l that has formula l(x) = x 2 which increases on (0, ∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞).

Solutions for problems in Section 2.4

Solutions for problems in Section 2.5

1.1. 0
1.2. 5
1.3. 4
1.4. 13
1.5. 3
1.6. 13
1.7. 8
1.8. 6
2.1. 2
2.2. 0
2.3. 2
2.4. −4
2.5. Undefined; in fact, the function q ◦ r is not defined for any values of x.
2.6. 2
Solutions to Section 3.1 163

Solutions for problems in Section 2.6

Solutions for problems in Section 3.1

1. The equivalent of the function g is h and has formula h(x) = 4 x .

Æ 2.1. The graph of g is shown below. Note that
• g is decreasing
• g is concave down; in particular g is decreasing at a faster and faster rate;
• the line y = 5 is a horizontal asymptote of g as x → −∞;
• g(x) → −∞ as x → ∞;
• the range of g is (−∞, 5).
y
8

2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−2

−4

−6

−8

2.2. The graph of h is shown below. Note that

• h is decreasing;
• h is concave up; in particular h is decreasing at a slower and slower rate;
• the line y = −4 is a horizontal asymptote of h as x → ∞;
• h(x) → ∞ as x → −∞;
• the range of h is (−4, ∞).
y
8

2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−2

−4

−6

−8

Æ 3.1. There are approximately 7200 · 3 = 21600 grains of rice in a 1-lb bag.
3.2. 215 = 32768 > 21600. The 15th square.
Æ 3.3. Answers will vary.
3.4. The 16th square would give us 216 /21600 ≈ 3.03 bags of rice. We would get approxi-
mately $6 from the rice on the 16th square.
3.5. Using the previous value of $6, we would obtain $12 from the rice on the 17th square.
3.6. 6 · 218 ≈ 1572864 > 1000000. We would only have to get to the 34th square on the
board in order to get $1,000,000 worth of rice.
3.7. $6 · 248 ≈ $1.68884986 × 1015 . Quite a lot.
3.8. Answers will vary.
164 Solutions to Section 3.1

4.1. m(x) in Figure 2.7 is increasing at a faster and faster rate, n(x) in Figure 2.8 is increasing
at a faster and faster rate, and o(x) in Figure 2.9 is increasing at a slower and slower
rate.

4.2. p(x) is increasing at a constant rate, q(x) is increasing at a slower and slower rate, and
r(x) is increasing at a faster and faster rate.

4.3. In (a.), the investment is increasing at a faster and faster rate. In (b.), the distance
is increasing, but at a slower and slower rate. In (c.), the elevation is decreasing at a
faster and faster rate, as the speed increases.

4.4. (a.) is increasing at a slower and slower rate, (b.) is increasing at a constant rate, and
(c.) is increasing at a faster and faster rate.

5.1. Q(t) = 4(0.915) t

5.2. The growth factor is 0.915, and the growth rate is −8.5 %. (We could also say that the
decay rate is 8.5 %.)

5.3. No; the model is a limited in this way.

6.1. A(t) = 5.35(0.92) t , where t is the number of decades since 2005, and A(t) is measured
in million km2 .

6.2. A graph indicates that about 8.3 decades after 2005 (or in 2088), the Arctic sea ice
cover will have reached half of its 2005 level. So the half-life of the ice is 8.3 decades.

6.3. A(−1) = 5.35(0.92)−1 ≈ 5.82. According to the model, in 1995 the Arctic sea ice level
was about 5.82 million km2

6.4. Using B(t) to represent a linear model for the ice cover, where t is measured in decades
since 2005, B has slope of 2.675−5.815/8.3−(−1)million km2/decade or −0.3377 million km2/decade.
Using the point-slope form of a line equation, B(t) = −0.3377(t + 1) + 5.815.

For the year 2010, t = 0.5. A(0.5) ≈ 5.13 and B(0.5) ≈ 5.31. So in 2010, the exponen-
tial model predicts lower ice cover than the linear model.

For the year 2030, t = 2.5. A(2.5) ≈ 4.34 and B(2.5) ≈ 4.63. So in 2030, the expo-
nential model still predicts lower ice cover than the linear model, and the difference is
larger than it was in 2010.

For the year 2050, t = 4.5. A(4.5) ≈ 3.67 and B(4.5) ≈ 3.95. So in 2050, the exponen-
tial model still predicts lower ice cover than the linear model.

6.5. Since A(t) and B(t) are measured in million km2 , we should work with the value 0.0001 million km2 .
A graph shows that B(16.2) ≈ 0.0001 and A(130.5) ≈ 0.0001. So the linear model pre-
dicts that after 6.2 decades (in 2212) the Arctic sea ice cover will melt to less than
100 km2 . The exponential model predicts that this will not happen for 130.5 decades,
or until the year 3310.

6.6. 10
y
9 y = A(t)

7
Solutions to Section 3.1 165

10
y y = A(t)
9

1
t
−5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

One should consider the scale of a graph and location of the origin when reading graphs.

6.7. Responses will vary.

7.1. Exponential.

7.2. Not exponential.

7.3. Exponential.

7.4. Exponential.

7.5. Not exponential.

7.6. Exponential.

7.7. Not exponential.

7.8. Not exponential.

7.9. Exponential.

7.10. Not exponential.

7.11. Not exponential.

7.12. Not exponential.

8.1. a = 2, b = 3

8.2. a = −4, b = 5
2
8.3. a = 1, b = 3

2
8.4. a = −1, b = 3

1
8.5. a = 1, b = 3

1
8.6. a = 2, b = 3

8.7. a = − 51 , b = 4
1
8.8. a = −10, b = 5

1
9.1. f (−10) = ≈ 0.00
1024
1
f (−5) = ≈ 0.03
32
1
f (0) = = 1
1
f (5) = 32
f (10) = 1024
166 Solutions to Section 3.1

9.2. g(−10) = 59049

g(−5) = 243
g(0) = 1
1
g(5) = ≈ 0.00
243
1
g(10) = ≈ 0.00
59049
1
9.3. h(−10) = − ≈ −0.00
9765625
1
h(−5) = − ≈ −0.00
3125
h(0) = −1
h(5) = −3125
h(10) = −9765625

9765625
9.4. k(−10) = − ≈ −9536.74
1024
3125
k(−5) = − ≈ −97.66
32
k(0) = −1
32
k(5) = − ≈ −0.01
3125
1024
k(10) = − ≈ −0.00
9765625

10.1. f is increasing, g is decreasing, h is decreasing, k is increasing.

10.2. f is concave up, g is concave up, h is concave down, and k is concave down.

10.3. • f has domain (−∞, ∞), and range (0, ∞).

• g has domain (−∞, ∞), and range (0, ∞).

• h has domain (−∞, ∞), and range (−∞, 0).

• k has domain (−∞, ∞), and range (−∞), 0.

11.2. 0.66 · 180 = 118.80. The person contains approximately 118 lb of water.

11.3. 0.20 · 16000 = 3200. There is approximately 3200 ft3 of oxygen in the room.

11.4. (1.15) · 26 = 29.90. The total bill is $29.90.

11.5. 0.01 · 100, 000 · 0.5 = 500. You get $500.

12.1. Growth factor is 3, initial value is 5. Growth rate is 200 %.

12.2. Decay factor is 0.5, initial value is 6. Growth rate is −50 %.

12.3. Decay factor is 0.25, initial value is 2. Growth rate is −25 %.

12.4. Growth factor is 2.5, initial value is 500. Growth rate is 150 %.

13.1. Growth rate is 10 % or 0.1, growth factor is 1.1.

13.2. Growth rate is −6 % or −0.06, growth factor is 0.94.

14.1. x f (x) g(x)

−3 1/8 109/27

−2 1/4 37/9

−1 1/2 13/3
Solutions to Section 3.1 167

The functions f and g are graphed below.

y
y = 2x

y = 3x + 4

x
−2 −1 1 2

14.2. f has asymptote y = 0, and g has asymptote y = 4.

14.3. g is increasing at a faster rate than f .
14.4. No. There is no number such that 2 x = 0, and no real number such that 2 x is negative.
14.5. Both have domain (−∞, ∞); the range of f is (0, ∞) and the range of g is (4, ∞).
15.1. x m(x) n(x)
−3 8 25
−2 4 7
−1 2 1
0 1 −1
1 1/2 −5/3

2 1/4 −17/9

The functions m and n are graphed below.

y € Šx
4 y= 1
2
€ Šx
3 y= 1
3 −2

1
x
−1 1 2
−1

−2

−3

−4

15.2. m has asymptote y = 0, and n has asymptote y = −2.

15.3. Both have domain (−∞, ∞); the range of m is (0, ∞) and the range of n is (−2, ∞).
15.4. Because b < 1 and a > 0.
16.1. Figure 2.10b on page 41 shows f (x) = 3 x − 1.
Figure 2.10d on page 41 shows f (x) = −4 x − 3.
Figure 2.10a on page 41 shows f (x) = 2 x + 1.
Figure 2.10c on page 41 shows f (x) = −5 x + 2.
16.2. Figure 2.10d on page 41, g(x) = −4 x − 3:
• g(x) → −3 as x → −∞;
• the horizontal asymptote as x → −∞ is the line y = −3;
• the range of g is range: (−∞, −3).
Figure 2.10a on page 41, h(x) = 2 x + 1:
• h(x) → 1 as x → −∞;
• the horizontal asymptote as x → −∞ is the line y = 1;
• the range of h is (1, ∞).
168 Solutions to Section 3.1

Figure 2.10c on page 41, j(x) = −5 x + 2:

• j(x) → 2 as x → −∞;
• the horizontal asymptote as x → −∞ is the line y = 2;
• the range of j is (−∞, 2).
16.3. −4 x − 3 → −∞ as x → ∞.
2 x + 1 → ∞ as x → ∞−.
−5 x + 2 → −∞ as x → ∞.
16.4. lim (−4 x − 3) = 3; lim (−4 x − 3) = −∞.
x→−∞ x→∞
lim (2 x + 1) = 1; lim (2 x + 1) = ∞.
x→−∞ x→∞
lim (−5 x + 2) = 2; lim (−5 x + 2) = −∞.
x→−∞ x→∞
 ‹x
1
17.1. Figure 2.11b on page 41 shows F (x) = − 1.
3 ‹
1 x
Figure 2.11d on page 41 shows G(x) = − − 3.
 4 ‹x
1
Figure 2.11c on page 41 shows H(x) = − + 2.
 ‹5x
1
Figure 2.11a on page 41 shows J(x) = + 1.
2

x
x
17.2. 13 − 1 → −1 as x → ∞; 13 − 1 → ∞ as x → −∞.

x
x
− 51 + 2 → 2 as x → ∞; − 15 + 2 → −∞ as x → −∞.
x
x
− 41 − 3 → −3 as x → ∞; − 41 − 3 → −∞ as x → −∞ .

 ‹ x  ‹ x
1 1
‹ ‹
17.3. lim − 1 = −1; lim − 1 = ∞.
x→∞ 3 ‹ x→−∞
 3 ‹ x
x
1 1
 ‹ ‹
lim − + 2 = 2 ; lim − + 2 = −∞.
x→∞
  5 ‹x x→−∞ 5 ‹
1 1 x
‹   ‹
lim − − 3 = −3 ; lim − − 3 = −∞.
x→∞ 4 x→−∞ 4
18.1. f (x) = 2 x . There are infinitely many other choices available.

x
18.2. f (x) = − 13 . There are infinitely many other choices available.

x
18.3. f (x) = 41 . There are infinitely many other choices available.
18.4. f (x) = −5 x . There are infinitely many other choices available.
f (x + 1) a b x+1 b x+1
19.1. = = =b
f (x) abx bx
19.2. The function graphed in Figure 2.12 is exponential, n(x) = 2 x . The function graphed
1 x


in Figure 2.13 is exponential, and r(x) = 3 . The function graphed in Figure 2.14 is
not exponential.
19.3. The function tabulated in Table 2.11 is exponential,
p and
p g(x) = 3 x . The function tabu-
3
lated in Table 2.12 is exponential, and h(x) = 25 · ( 5) x . The function tabulated in
3

Table 2.13 is not exponential.

20.1. False. Consider f (x) = −2 x .
1x


20.2. False. Consider f (x) = − 9 .
20.3. True.
20.4. True.
20.5. False. Consider f (x) = −8 x .

x
20.6. False. Consider f (x) = − 81 .
20.7. True.
Solutions to Section 3.2 169

20.8. False. Consider f (x) = 8 x .

20.9. True.

20.10. True.

20.11. True.

20.12. False. Consider any exponential function. There are no vertical asymptotes.

Solutions for problems in Section 3.2

1.1. 4

1.2. −8

1.3. −16

1.4. 9
4
1.5. 9
4
1.6. 81

1.7. − 25
6
49
1.8. − 100
49
1.9. 100

1.10. 1

1.11. −1

1.12. −3

2. f (t) = 2 t+1 · 23t

= 2 t · 2 · 23t
= 2 · 24t
= 2 · 16 t
3. x = 2 (The solution is 2.)

4. x = 0, 2 (The solutions are 0, and 2)

5. x ≈ 3.32 (The solution is approximately 3.32.)

212
6.1. 12 ≈ 341.33; our elevation is approximately 341 ft above the ground when we are 1 ft
from our front door.
224
6.2. 63360 ≈ 264.79; our elevation is approximately 264.79 mi above the ground when we
are 2 ft from our front door.

6.3. We need to solve the equation 2 x = 1.595×1010 . Using a graphing calculator, we obtain
x ≈ 33.89; we conclude that when we reach the Moon, our horizontal distance from
our front door is approximately 34 in.

7.1. f (t) = 4 t+1 · 23t

t+1 3t
= 22 ·2
= 22t · 22 · 23t
= 4 · 25t
= 4 · 32 t
170 Solutions to Section 3.3

t+1
7.2. f (t) = 4 2 · 32t
1
=4 2 (t+1) · 32t
1
= (4 2 ) t+1 · (32 ) t
= 2 t+1 · 9 t
= 21 · 2 t · 9 t
= 2 · (2 · 9) t
= 2 · 18 t
8.1. x = 3 (The solution is 3.)

8.2. x = 3 (The solution is 3.)

8.3. x = 2 (The solution is 2.)

8.4. x = ±2 (The solutions are ±2.)

8.5. x = 2, 3 (The solutions are 2 and 3.)

8.6. x = 2, 0 (The solutions are 2 and 0.)

9.1. x ≈ 2.18 (The solution is approximately 2.18.)

9.2. x ≈ 2.43 (The solution is approximately 2.43.)

9.3. x ≈ 2.55 (The solution is approximately 2.55.)

9.4. No solution.

9.5. x ≈ 1.92 (The solution is approximately 1.92.)

9.6. x ≈ 0.53 (The solution is approximately 0.53.)

9.7. x ≈ 2.32 (The solution is approximately 2.32.)

9.8. x ≈ 2.01 (The solution is approximately 2.01.)

10.1. x = 0 (The solution is 0.) Note that there are no solutions to 4 x + 3 = 0.

10.2. x = 1 (The solution is 1.) Note that there are no solutions to 5 x = −1.

10.3. x = 0, 2 (The solutions are 0 and 2.) Note that there are no solutions to 5 x = 0.
2
11. • Figure 2.16a represents 3 x = 3
2 1
• Figure 2.16b represents 4−x = 4

• Figure 2.16c represents 5 x = 5

x
• Figure 2.16d represents − 13 = −3

12. • f has 2 zeros

• g has 1 zero

• h has 1 zero

• k has 2 zeros

13.1. True.

13.2. False; consider 2 x = −3.

13.3. False; there are no values of x that satisfy 2 x = 0.

14.1. By counting the number of points of intersection, there are 10 solutions on the interval
[0, 9].

14.2. The function h has 10 zeros on the interval [0, 9].

Solutions to Section 3.3 171

Solutions for problems in Section 3.3

1.1. b3

1.2. b6
1
1.3. or b−6
b6
1
1.4. or b−8
b8
2.1. 2
1
2.2. 4

2.3. 32

2.4. 81

3.1. x = 3 or x = −3

3.2. x = −2

3.3. There are no real solutions for x.

p p
3.4. x = 19 = 19 /4 ≈ 2.0878 or x = − 19 = −19 /4 ≈ −2.0878
4 1 4 1

4. f (t) = 2 · 4 t ; the growth factor is 4.

23 x/9
11/9
5. f (x) = 10


23 2/9 10 ≈ 8.31(1.096963) x

309

t/110
6.1. p(t) = 76.2 76.2 ≈ 76.2(1.012808) t

6.2. p(100) ≈ 272.072992; the population of the U.S.A. in the year 2000 was approximately
272 million people, according to the model.

6.3. The model underestimated the actual population by about 10 million people.

t/10
6.4. P(t) = 282 309
282 ≈ 282(1.009185) t

6.5. P(−50) ≈ 178.526320 and p(50) ≈ 143.985979. P(−50) was an overestimate by about
27.5 million people, or 18.2 %. p(50) was an underestimate by about 7 million people,
or 4.6 %. So the prediction based off of the model that used the years 1900 and 2000
is better. Generally, it is better to interpolate than to extrapolate.
16.3 t/21


7.1. c(t) = 18.1 18.1 ≈ 18.1(0.995024) t

7.2. c(−10) ≈ 19.025713. Each US citizen was responsible for approximately 19.03 tons of
CO2 in 2000.

t/10
t/21
7.3. C(t) = P(t)c(t) = 282 309
282 18.1 16.3
18.1 ≈ 5104.2(1.00416412) t

8.1. t F (t)
0 2
1 3
2 4
3 6
4 9
5 14
6 21
7 31
8 47
172 Solutions to Section 3.3

8.2. y 47
48
44
40
36
32
31
28
24 21
20
16 14
12 9
6
2 3 4
8
4
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

8.3. Choosing (0, 2) and (8, 47),

 ‹1/8  t
47
A(t) = 2
2
≈ 2(1.483828) t

8.4. t F (t) A(t)

0 2 2.000 000
1 3 2.967 655
2 4 4.403 489
3 6 6.503 420
4 9 9.695 360
5 14 14.386 240
6 21 21.346 710
7 31 31.674 840
8 47 47.000 000

9.1. 12 x+ y
9.2. a6x+3
9.3. 9x 6 y 4
9.4. 10b10 c 7
7
9.5. x 3
6
2
9.6. x 10
9
64 18
9.7. x
27
9.8. 2 x
9.9. 10 x
9.10. 27 x b4x
9.11. 64 t
9.12. 81t 4
10.1. x = 4 or x = −4
10.2. y = 3/2
10.3. x = 5 or x = −5
10.4. x = 0
p p
10.5. x = 3 or x = − 3
p p
10.6. x = 7 or x = − 5
3 3

11.1. f (t) = −3 · 5 t ; the growth factor is 5.

Solutions to Section 3.4 173

11.2. f (t) = 6 t ; the growth factor is 6.

t
11.3. f (t) = 2 13 ; the growth factor is 1/3.

t
11.4. f (t) = 17 52 ; the growth factor is 2/5.

11.5. f (t) = 186 (2/3) t ; the growth factor is 2/3.

11.6. f (t) = 100 (4/5) t ; the growth factor is 4/5.

3/8 2
x/8
12.1. f (x) = 4 52 5 ≈ 5.64(0.891780) x
2 x/4
12.2. f (x) = 49


2 7 ≈ 24.5(0.731110) x
13
6 /10 29

x/10
12.3. f (x) = 293/10 6 ≈ 3.74(1.170644) x

10

5/12 10

x/12
12.4. f (x) = 6 3 ≈ 9.91(1.105537) x
3

x 1 x
13. f (x) = 2 · 3 x , g(x) = 2 21 , h(x) = −5 x , k(x) = −4


3

14. The graphs of f and g are concave up; the graphs of h and k are concave down.
1 x


15. Table 2.16: f (x) = 10 x ; Table 2.17: f (x) = −9 · 7 x ; Table 2.18: f (x) = −6 3 ;

x
Table 2.19: f (x) = 3 51 .
16.1. False; consider g and h in Figure 2.22.
16.2. False; consider f and k in Figure 2.22.
16.3. True.
16.4. False; consider Tables 2.16–2.19.
16.5. True.
16.6. False; consider Tables 2.16–2.19.
17.1. (0, 877), (7, 8325).

t/7
17.2. S(t) = 877 8325877 ≈ 877(1.38) t

1/7
1/7
17.3. The growth factor is 8325 877 ≈ 1.379. The growth rate is 8325
877 −1 ≈ 0.379, or about
37.9 % per year.
17.4. Yes; we found b ≈ 1.379, which means the annual growth rate is approximately 37.9 %.
17.5. S(10) ≈ 21 840.54 MW. This is much larger than 13 729 MW, which indicates that the
growth rate did not continue at 37.9 % after 2007.

Solutions for problems in Section 3.4

1.1. 0.1 · 100 = 10

1.2. 0.2 · 10 = 2
1.3. 0.13 · 28 = 3.64
1.4. 0.81 · 3 = 2.43
1.5. 17 · 1.28 = 21.76
1.6. 42 · (1.67 = 70.14
1.7. 107 · 0.9 = 96.3
1.8. 243 · 0.24 = 58.32
2. P(t) = P0 (0.92) t
174 Solutions to Section 3.4

3. Let P(t) be the population of Oregon (in millions of people) at time t in years since
2000. Since the initial population is 3.83 million people and r = 0.120,

P(t) = 3.83(1.12) t

4.1. In 1963 the atmospheric concentration of C-14 in Austria was 95 % greater than the
pre-nuclear age concentration.
4.2. Let f (t) represent the percent of C-14 in the atmosphere compared to normal t years
after 1963. Using the points (0, 95) and (20, 22), f (t) ≈ 95(0.93) t .
40 t/6
13/6
4.3. Using (7, 52) and (13, 40) we obtain f (t) = 52


407/6 52
≈ 70.62(0.96) t .
4.4. Based on visual inspection, the model in Problem 4.2 most closely fits each of the data
points.
5. We will use our answer from Problem 4.2: f (t) ≈ 95(0.936) t where t is years since
1963.
120
y
100 95

80
70
60 52
40
40
30
22
20

t
1,955 1,965 1,975 1,985 1,995

So this person was probably 6 or 7 years old in about 1974. The person was probably
born in 1967 or 1968.
6.1. t (years) Q (barrels)
0 1000.00
1 800.00
2 640.00
3 512.00
4 409.60
5 327.68

6.2. Q(t) = 1000(0.8) t

6.3. We need to solve the equation 1000(0.8) t = 100. Using a graph, we find that t ≈ 10.31.
We conclude that the first year that the amount of oil drilled will be less than 100 barrels
is 2015.
6.4. Never. Q(t) never crosses the horizontal axis if the model holds. However the amount
that can be drilled eventually becomes small.
‹100/110 ‹−10/21 
309 /110 16.3 /21
‹t  ‹t
309 16.3
 
7.1. T (t) = 76.2 18.1
76.2 18.1 76.2 18.1
≈ 5176.382674(1.007769) t
7.2. The total amount of CO2 produced in the US each year is increasing by approximately
0.7769 %.
7.3. T (15) ≈ 5813. The approximation is only about 134 million metric tons of CO2 off,
which may seem large but is really only about 2 % off of the actual estimate.
8.1. P(t) = 500(1.06) t
8.2. P(t) = 1500(1.12) t
8.3. P(t) = 2700(1.23) t
Solutions to Section 3.4 175

8.4. P(t) = 3600(1.52) t

8.5. P(t) = 700(0.94) t

8.6. P(t) = 2405(0.88) t

8.7. P(t) = 4302(0.77) t

8.8. P(t) = 7300(0.48) t

9.1. P0 = 1000, r = 10 %; the population is initially 1000 people, and increases at 10 % per
year.

9.2. P0 = 1800, r = 7 %; the population is initially 1800 people, and increases at 7 % per
year.

9.3. P0 = 200, r = −13 %; the population is initially 200 people, and decreases at 13 % per
year.

9.4. P0 = 907, r = −24 %; the population is initially 907 people, and decreases at 24 % per
year.

10.1. P(t) = 281(1.007) t

10.2. P(10) ≈ 301; in 2010 there were approximately 301 million people. P(35) ≈ 359; in
2035 there will be approximately 359 million people.

10.3. 1000
y
900
800
700

600
500
400
300
200
100
t
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

10.4. Answers will vary. Possible strengths: % increases are realistic in some sense – a family
reproduces, then their children reproduce, and so on.

Possible weaknesses: doesn’t allow for immigration or emigration. Does it account for
death?

11.1. P(t) = 1.3(0.995) t .

11.2. In 2025: P(16) ≈ 1.20; the population of China in 2025 will be approximately 1.20
billion people. In 2050: P(41) ≈ 1.06; the population of China in 2050 will be approx-
imately 1.06 billion people.

11.3. 1.3 y
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
t
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

11.4. Using a graph or table of values, the population will be 700 million people in approxi-
mately the year 2132.

11.5. Answers will vary.

176 Solutions to Section 3.5

11.6. Answers will vary. Possible strengths: % decreases are realistic in some sense – a family
has fewer children, then the next generation has fewer people who also have fewer
children, and so on.
Possible weaknesses: doesn’t allow for immigration or emigration. Does it account for
death?

1 t
12.1. N (t) = 142 21 5730 .
12.2. N (3000) ≈ 98.8; about 98.8 billion atoms remain radioactive after 3000 years.

t
12.3. We need to solve the equation 93 = 142 12 5730 . Using a graphing calculator, we obtain
t ≈ 3499. We conclude that the clothing is approximately 3500 years old.
13.1. A(3) = 1000(1 + 0.04)3 ≈ 1124.86
13.2. A(4) = 2500(1 + 0.07)4 ≈ 3276.99
2500
13.3. P = (1+0.07)4 ≈ 1907.24
3600
13.4. P = (1+0.10)6 ≈ 2032.11

3600 1/6


13.5. r = 1200 − 1 ≈ 0.20
1/20
13.6. r = 5000


600 − 1 ≈ 0.11
14.1. A(t) = 15000(1.05) t
14.2. In 2020: A(10) ≈ 24433.42; In 2030: A(20) ≈ 39799.47; In 2040: A(30) ≈ 64829.14
14.3. Using a graph or table of values, approximately 6 years.

4·1
15.1. 8000 1 + 0.05
1 ≈ 9724.05. There is $9724.05 in the account.

4·52
15.2. 8000 1 + 0.05
52 ≈ 9770.28. There is $9770.28 in the account.
4·365
15.3. 8000 1 + 0.05


365 ≈ 9771.09. There is $9771.09 in the account.

365t
15.4. A table of values says that the function 8000 1 + 0.05365 reaches 16000 when t is
between 13 and 14 years. The function reaches 24000 between 21 and 22 years.
15.5. Trial and error gives r = 9 %.

1
16.1. 1 + 0.06
1 − 1 = 0.06000000. The effective rate is 6 %.
4
16.2. 1 + 0.06


4 − 1 ≈ 0.06136355. The effective rate is approximately 6.136 355 %.

365
16.3. 1 + 0.06
365 − 1 ≈ 0.06183131. The effective rate is approximately 6.183 131 %.
16.4. There are 365 · 24 · 60 · 60 = 31536000 seconds in a year.
‹31536000
0.06

1+ − 1 ≈ 0.06183696
31536000

The effective rate is approximately 6.183 696 %.

16.5. No practical difference.

12
17. 1 + 0.24
12 − 1 ≈ 0.26824179; the effective annual interest rate is about 26.82 %.
75
18.1. The interest charged on the $375 loan was $75. As 375 = 0.2, the 2-week percentage
rate is 20 %.
18.2. 1.226 − 1 ≈ 113.475; the effective annual rate is approximately 11 347.5 %.
19.1. We need to solve (1.45)P0 = P0 (1 + r)10 . This gives r ≈ 3.7855 %.
r 120


19.2. We need to solve (1.45)P0 = P0 1 + 12 . This gives r ≈ 3.7214 %.
Solutions to Section 3.5 177

Solutions for problems in Section 3.5

1. (a) Using Definition 14,

Q(t) = 4000 e0.02t

(b) We evaluate the function Q when t = 4

Q(4) = 4000 e0.02(4)

≈ 4333.15

The amount in the account after four years is $4333.15.

(c) Not relevant to this problem.

(d) We calculate the effective annual rate of interest using Definition 14

e0.02 − 1 ≈ 0.0202

The effective annual rate of interest is approximately 2.02 %.

2. Growth rates:

365·1
• Daily: 1 + 0.08
365 − 1 ≈ 0.083277572; the effective annual rate is approxi-
mately 8.327 757 2 %.

• Continuous : e0.08 − 1 ≈ 0.08328707; the effective annual rate is approximately

8.328 707 %.

Growth factors:

365·1
• Daily: 1 + 0.08
365 ≈ 8.3277572; the annual growth factor is approximately
8.3277572%.

• Continuous: e0.08 ≈ 1.08328707; the growth factor is approximately 1.08328707.

Balance after 10 years:

• Annually: 15000(1.08)10 ≈ 32, 383.87; the balance will be $32, 383.87.

10·365
• Daily: 15000 1 + 0.08
365 ≈ 33380.19; the balance will be $33380.19.

• Continuously: 15000e0.08·10 ≈ 33383.11; the balance will be $33383.11.

3.1. f (10) ≈ 2.59374, f (100) ≈ 2.70481, f (1000) ≈ 2.71692, f (10000) ≈ 2.71814,

f (100000) ≈ 2.71827

3.2. e ≈ 2.71828; note that f (100000) is closest to this.

3.3. Because ∞ is not a number – it is a concept that we use to represent that a variable is
growing without bound.

4.1. Q(1) = 100e0.05 ≈ 105.13. After 1 year there is approximately $105.13 in the account.

4.2. The effective annual growth rate is e0.05 − 1 ≈ 0.05127 or approximately 5.1271 %.

4.3. We know that e0.05 ≈ 1.05127, so we are not surprised to see that Q and P are ap-
proximately the same function. The function Q is plotted below as a solid line, and the
function P is plotted as dots.

y
160

140
178 Solutions to Section 3.5

5.1. P(t) = 600(1.07) t

5.2. P(t) = 1500e0.07t
5.3. P(t) = 2300(1.27) t
5.4. P(t) = 3600e0.52t
5.5. P(t) = 450(0.94) t
5.6. P(t) = 2405e−0.12t
5.7. P(t) = 4402(0.81) t
5.8. P(t) = 7203e−0.31t
6.1. P0 = 1000, r = 10 %; the population is initially 1000 people, and increases at 10 % per
year.
6.2. P0 = 1000, r = e0.11 % ≈ 1.116 278 07 %; the population is initially 1800 people, and
increases at approximately 11.627 807 % per year.
6.3. P0 = 300, r = −17 %; the population is initially 200 people, and decreases at 17 % per
year.
6.4. P0 = 907, r = e−0.08 % ≈ 0.923 116 346 %; the population is initially 907 people, and
decreases at approximately 7.69 % per year.
7. In ascending order: 1/e2 < 1/4 < 1/3 < 1/e < 2 < e < 3 < e2 < 9
8.1. A(t) = 2000(1.0375) t ; the effective annual rate is 3.75 %.

12t
12
8.2. A(t) = 2000 1 + 0.0375
12 ; the effective annual rate is calculated using 1 + 0.0375
12 ≈
1.03815129. The effective annual rate is approximately 1.038 151 29 %.

365t
365
8.3. A(t) = 2000 1 + 0.0375
365 ; the effective annual rate is calculated using 1 + 0.0375
365 ≈
1.0382100. The effective annual rate is approximately 1.038 210 0 %.
8.4. A(t) = 2000e0.0375t ; the effective annual rate is calculated using e0.0375 ≈ 1.0382120.
The effective annual rate is approximately 1.038 212 0 %.
9. We have to solve the equation 9000 = 7000e0.08t for t. This can be simplified to 9/7 =
e0.08t . We can solve this using our graphing calculator as shown below – this gives that
t ≈ 3.14. So it would take just over 3 years for our account to reach $9, 000.
y

1.5

0.5

t
1 2 3

10.1. A(t) = 2500(1.1) t .

10.2. We need to solve the equation e r = 1.1; using a table of values, we find r ≈ 0.09531,
and the continuous growth rate is approximately 9.531 %.
11.1. T (0) = 90.
11.2. T (t) → 0 as t → ∞.
11.3. T (t) = 90e−0.07t
11.4. T (10) = 90e−0.07·10 ≈ 45; the temperature of the coffee is approximately 45 ◦C.
Solutions to Section 3.5 179

11.5. We need to solve the equation 5 = 90e−0.07t for t. Using a graphing calculator, we find
t ≈ 41.29. The coffee will be 5 ◦C approximately 41 min after it was bought.
11.6. No – the model is limited in this way.
t
12.1. V (t) = 10e− 0.1 = 10e−10t
12.2. t V (t)
(s) (V)
0.0 10.000
0.1 3.369
0.2 1.353
0.3 0.498
0.4 0.183
0.5 0.067

12.3. Concave up, since the slopes between successive entries are increasing by becoming less
negative.
12.4. y = V (t) is shown below.

10
y

t
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

12.5. After 0.1 s, the voltage on the capacitor has decreased by about 63 %. After 0.2 s, the
voltage on the capacitor has decreased by about 86 %.
13.1. V (t) = 10(1 − e−0.1t )
13.2. t V (t)
(s) (V)
0.0 0.000
0.1 6.321
0.2 8.647
0.3 9.502
0.4 9.817
0.5 9.933

13.3. The graph will be concave down since the slopes between successive entries are decreas-
ing by becoming less positive.
13.4. y = V (t) is shown below.

10
y

t
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

13.5. After 0.1 s, the capacitor has charged up to about 63 % of the battery voltage. After
0.2 s, the capacitor has charged up to about 86 % of the battery voltage.
180 Solutions to Section 3.6

13.6. The value of the function can increase even though the exponential term is decaying
because it is being subtracted from 1. As the exponential term decreases, the difference
between its value and 1 increases, creating an increasing function.
14.1. The half-life is approximately 6931.47 years.
14.2. The half-life is approximately 13.86 years.
14.3. The half-life does not depend upon Q 0 . It does depend upon k.
15.1. e t ≈ 2.7182818 t , so f has continuous growth rate 1 and growth rate about 1.7182818.
15.2. e0.2t ≈ 1.2214028 t , so f has continuous growth rate 20 % and growth rate about
22.140 28 %.
15.3. e−0.1t ≈ 0.9048374 t , so f has continuous decay rate 10 % and decay rate about 9.516 26 %.
16.1. x f (x)
−3 0.049 79
−2 0.135 34
−1 0.367 88
0 1.000 00
1 2.718 28
2 7.389 06
3 20.0855

16.2. f has domain (−∞, ∞), and range (0, ∞); f is concave up.
16.3. • g has domain (−∞, ∞) and range (4, ∞)
• h has domain (−∞, ∞) and range (−∞, 0)
16.4. y = 2x
y
y = ex 40
y = 3x

30

20

10

x
−4 −2 2 4

16.5. y € Šx
y= 1 2
40 y = e−x
€ Šx
y= 1
3
30

20

10

x
−4 −2 2 4

17.1. Verify graphically using Figure 2.28 on page 70.

17.2. The slope is about 2.20. Verify graphically using Figure 2.29 on page 70.
18. Exact value Decimal value (to 5 d.p)
1/0! + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! + 1/5! 2.71667
1/0! + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! + 1/5! + 1/6! 2.71806
1/0! + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! + 1/5! + 1/6! + 1/7! 2.71825
1/0! + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! + 1/5! + 1/6! + 1/7! + 1/8! 2.71828

We observe that as we add more terms, the decimal value appears to approach e.
Solutions to Section 3.6 181

Solutions for problems in Section 3.6

1.1. Exponential.
1.2. Linear.
1.3. Linear.
1.4. Exponential.
2.1. The graph of y = 21 x + 10 is shown below.
y
18

16

14

12

10

2
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2.2. The graph of y = 15 − 0.8x is shown below.

y
18

16

14

12

10

2
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2.3. The graph of y = 31 (x − 7) + 4 is shown below.

9
y
8

1
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

28−30 2
3.1. m = 5−12 = 7
15.3−18.4 −3.1 31
3.2. m = 2012−2001 = 11 = − 110
y−118
3.3. m = 17−t

4. Table 2.29: this is linear data since y values increase by a constant 6 when x increases
by 1. Table 2.30: this data is reasonably close to linear since y values increase by almost
a constant 0.2 when x increases by 1. Table 2.31: this data is not linear.
5. Table 2.37: since successive differences are all equal to 2, a linear model would be
appropriate. Successive ratios decrease steadily, so an exponential model would not
be appropriate. Table 2.38: since successive ratios are all equal to 3, an exponential
model would be appropriate. Successive differences increase, so a linear model would
not be appropriate. Table 2.39: since successive differences are all quite close to 2.3, a
linear model might be appropriate. Successive ratios drop steadily from about 1.13 to
182 Solutions to Section 3.6

1.09, so an exponential model would not be appropriate. Table 2.40: since successive
ratios are all quite close to 0.92, an exponential model might be appropriate. Successive
differences rise steadily from −44 to −31, so a linear model would not be appropriate.
6.1. (3, 158) and (6, 233).
233 − 158
m=
6−3
75
=
3
= 25
The units in the numerator are millions and the units in the denominator are years. So
the slope of 25 has meaning as a rate of 25 million/year. This means there are 25 million
new cell phone subscriptions each year since 2000.
6.2. Let f (t) = mt + b, be the number of cell phone users in millions at time t in years since
2000. We have already found m; we need to find b.
158 = 25(3) + b
b = 83
Therefore, f (t) = 25t + 83.
(158)2 233 t/3


6.3. f (t) = 233 158 ≈ 107.14(1.13824) t .
6.4. The linear model predicts that there were about 283 million cell phone users in 2008.
The exponential model predicts that there were about 302 million cell phone users in
2008. The linear model does a better job of predicting the number of cell phone users
in 2008.
7.1. An exponential function seems to be more appropriate. First of all the graph of the data
has the basic shape of an exponential function. More by the numbers, we can examine
the approximate successive ratios. It’s difficult to read the chart on its left side with any
relative precision. Starting from the right and using rough approximate readings from
the chart:
195000
≈ 1.22
160000
160000
≈ 1.28
125000
125000
≈ 1.32
95000
95000
≈ 1.27
75000
75000
≈ 1.25
60000
60000
≈ 1.20
50000

The successive ratios are all fairly close to each other, so an exponential model would
be appropriate.
7.2. Using a table of values, we find that W (16) ≈ 248470, and W (17) ≈ 317980. We con-
clude that, according to the model, the world’s wind power capacity will be 250 000 MW
in early 2012.
8.1. Answers will vary. By the numbers, the successive ratios are all between 1.0231 and
1.0242. Since they are so close to each other, an exponential model is appropriate.
Alternatively, a plot of the data reveals a concave up trend.
Solutions to Section 3.6 183

8.2. Answers will vary. One solution uses the exponential curve that passes through (2001, 839.0)
and (2007, 964.7): P(t) ≈ 819.7(1.023530) t . However it is valid to use other pairs of
points and find slightly different functions.

An alternative solution would use the initial population of 819.5 and the average of the
successive ratios: 1.023600. This would give P(t) ≈ 819.5(1.023600) t

8.3. The model suggests that in 2020 the population of Africa will be about 1310 million, or
1.31 billion.

8.4. According to the model, it appears that the population of Africa will reach 1.5 billion in
the year 2026.
y

1,500

1,000

500

t
2005

8.5. Answers will vary as models vary. Using the model P(t) = 819.7(1.023530) t :

Year Actual Model

1999 800.2 800.9
2000 819.5 819.7
2001 839.0 839.0
2002 858.9 858.8
2003 879.2 879.0
2004 899.9 900.0
2005 921.1 920.8
2006 942.7 942.5
2007 964.7 964.7
2008 987.1 987.4
2009 1009.9 1010.6

The model seems quite accurate.

9.1. H(t) = 20t

9.2. T (t) = 2 t

9.3. The graphs of H and T are shown below.

1,000
y y = T (x)
900 y = H(x)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
t
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The Tortoise wins the race.

9.4. S(t) = 40t

9.5. The graphs of H, T , and S are shown below.

184 Solutions to Section 3.6

1,000
y y = T (x)
900 y = H(x)
800 y = S(x)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
t
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The Tortoise wins the race.

10.1. Exponential.
10.2. Linear.
10.3. Linear.
10.4. Exponential.
11.1. Linear.
11.2. Exponential.
11.3. Linear.
11.4. Exponential.
11.5. Linear.
1 x 3 x
12.1. f (x) = 32 x − 3, g(x) = 16



4 , h(x) = 3 2 , k(x) = 16 − 4x.
12.2. The data in Table 2.48 could be modeled with an exponential function, since all of the
ratios are fairly close to 1.1. The model could be y = f (x), where f (x) = 5(1.1) x . The
data in Table 2.49 could be modeled with a linear function, since all of the differences
are fairly close to 1.12. The model could be y = g(x), where g(x) = 1.12x + 2.03. The
data in Table 2.50 should not be modeled with either a linear function or an exponential
function, since the differences are increasing and the ratios are decreasing.
13.1. f (1) = 1 × 106 , g(1) = 2. Clearly f (1) > g(1).
13.2. f (10) = 1.01 × 106 , g(10) = 1024. Clearly f (10) > g(10).
13.3. Answers will vary.
13.4. f (20) = 1.02 × 106 , g(20) ≈ 1.05 × 106 .
14.1. f (x) = 45 x + 25
4
€q Š x
10 3
14.2. g(x) =
4
3 ≈ 7.38(1.106682) x
(3/2) /4 2

14.3. x = 8 (perhaps obviously).

15.1. False; linear functions are neither concave up nor concave down.
15.2. False; linear functions are neither concave up nor concave down.
15.3. True.
15.4. False; exponential functions do not have a constant slope.
15.5. False; exponential functions do not decrease (nor increase) at a constant rate.
16.1. Linear, with m = 3/2.
16.2. Exponential, with b = 5.
16.3. Linear.
16.4. Linear.
16.5. Exponential.
Solutions to Section 3.7 185

5
17.1. y = 9 (x − 32)

17.2. y = 100(0.9) x

17.3. y = 2πx

17.4. y = 2 x

17.5. y = 95 x + 32

17.6. y = 100 − 10x

18. t F (t) successive ratio

0 2
1 3 1.5
2 4 1.33 . . .
3 6 1.5
4 9 1.5
5 14 1.55 . . .
6 21 1.5
7 31 1.48 . . .
8 47 1.52 . . .

The successive ratios are fairly close to 1.5, although there is some variation. This
suggests that an exponential model might be appropriate with a base of 1.5.

19.1. f (x) → 0 as x → ∞ and f (x) → ∞ as x → −∞. n(x) → −∞ as x → ∞ and

n(x) → ∞ as x → −∞.

19.2. g(x) → 0 as x → ∞ and g(x) → −∞ as x → −∞. m(x) → ∞ as x → ∞ and

m(x) → −∞ as x → −∞.

20. • Figure 2.39a: y = 10 x

• Figure 2.39b: y = −πx

 ‹x
1
• Figure 2.39c: y =
2
• Figure 2.39d: y = x

• Figure 2.39e: y = 4
 ‹x
1
• Figure 2.39f: y = −
2
• Figure 2.39g: y = 10x + 2

• Figure 2.39h: y = −4 x

Solutions for problems in Section 3.7

800·100 800
1.1. P(t) = 100+(800−100)e−0.05t = 1+7e−0.05t

P(1)
1.2. P(1) ≈ 104.46. We calculate P(0) ≈ 1.0446. The relative growth over the first year is
approximately 4.46 %.

1.3. P(t) → 800 as t → ∞, as shown below.

186 Solutions to Section 3.7

y
1,000

800

600

400

200

t
20 40 60 80

1.4. P is increasing.
700000
2.1. P(t) ≈ 35+19965e−0.9t .
2.2. About 8.3 years.
400000
3.1. P(t) ≈ 8+399992e−3.5t .
3.2. About 3.1 years.
4.1. There are infinitely many choices available to us- we just need to choose P0 > 800. With
4000
P0 = 1000, we have P(t) = 5−e −0.05t .

y
1,000

800

600

400

200

t
20 40 60 80

4.2. When P0 = 800, P(t) = 800. P is neither increasing nor decreasing, it is constant!
Æ 5.1. 8
Æ 5.2. 81
Æ 5.3. 2
5.4. 3
x
5.5. 23
x
5.6. 32
6.1. f (x) = 2 x , g(x) = x 2
6.2. f (x) = −4 x , g(x) = x 3 + 2x
6.3. f (x) = 2 x + 3 x , g(x) = x 2
6.4. f (x) = e x , g(x) = −x 2 + 2
7.1. 3
7.2. 4
7.3. −2
7.4. 0
8.1. 64
8.2. 10
8.3. −10
Solutions to Section 4.1 187

8.4. −10

8.5. 30

8.6. 36

8.7. k(7) is undefined.

8.8. −65536

9.1. 1
143
9.2. 16

16
9.3. 9

9.4. 12

10.1. f (x − 2) = 7 x−2

10.2. f (x + 5) = 7 x+5

10.3. f (x) + 11 = 7 x + 11

10.4. f (x) − 1 = 7 x − 1

10.5. − f (x) = −7 x

10.6. f (−x) = 7−x

11.1. g is the function f shifted to the left by 7 units.

11.2. h is the function f shifted to the right by 13 units.

11.3. j is the function f horizontally compressed by a factor of 2, and shifted to the left by 9
units.

11.4. k is the function f reflected across the vertical axis, and vertically stretched by a factor
of 7.

Solutions for problems in Section 4.1

f
1.1. Domain of f · g: (−∞, ∞); domain of g : (−∞, ∞).
f
1.2. Domain of f · g: [0, ∞); domain of g : (0, ∞).
f
1.3. Domain of f · g: [1, ∞); domain of g : [1, ∞)
f
1.4. Domain of f · g: (−∞, ∞); domain of g : (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 10) ∪ (10, ∞).

2.1. x ( f + g)(x)
−4 −72
−3 −21
−2 0
−1 3
0 0
1 3
2 24
3 75
4 168
188 Solutions to Section 4.1

2.2. x ( f − g)(x)
−4 −40
−3 −15
−2 0
−1 5
0 0
1 −15
2 −40
3 −75
4 −120

2.3. x (g · h)(x)
−4 −32
−3 −12
−2 0
−1 −8
0 0
1 108
2 448
3 1200
4 2592

2.4. x (h + j)(x)
−4 32
−3 25
−2 18
−1 11
0 4
1 −3
2 29
3 112
4 778

2.5. j


x h (x)
−4 15
−3 21/4

−2 2
−1 3/8

0 −3/5

1 −5/4

2 15/14

3 6
4 380/9

2.6.
€ Š
j
x f (x)
−4 −15/28

−3 −7/6

−2 X
−1 3/4

0 X
1 5/2

2 −15/8

3 X
4 95/3

3.1. The function F + G is shown below.

Solutions to Section 4.1 189

y
2

x
−2 2

−2

3.2. The function G · H is shown below.

y
2

x
−2 2

−2

H
3.3. The function J is shown below; note that this function is undefined on the interval
(0, 1).

y
2

x
−2 2

−2

3.4. The function J − F is shown below.

y
2

x
−2 2

−2

4. x −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
f (x) 2 1 3 0 2 π 12
g(x) 8 1 3 5 −1 −1 2
( f + g)(x) 10 2 6 5 1 π−1 14
( f − g)(x) −6 0 0 −5 3 π+1 10
( €f · Šg)(x) 16 1 9 0 −2 −π 24
f
g (x) 1/4 1 1 0 −2 −π 6

5.1. −2
190 Solutions to Section 5.1

5.2. 5

5.3. −2
1
5.4. 2

Solutions for problems in Section 4.2

−2 < x < −1

1,

2, −1 < x < 0

1.1. F (x) =

−1, 0< x <1
1< x <2

−2,

−2 < x < −1

−1,

−2, −1 < x < 0

1.2. G(x) =

1, 0< x <1
1< x <2

−1,

−2 < x < −1

−1,

0, −1 < x < 0

1.3. H(x) =

1, 0< x <1
1< x <2

2,

−2 < x < −1

2,

1, −1 < x < 0

1.4. J(x) =

0, 0< x <1
1< x <2

−2,

Solutions for problems in Section 5.1

1. x f (x)
−3 1/27

−2 1/9

−1 1/3

0 1
1 3
2 9
3 27

x f −1 (x)
1/27 −3
1/9 −2
1/3 −1
1 0
3 1
9 2
27 3

y y = 3x

20
Solutions to Section 5.1 191

2.1. (−7, ∞)
2.2. (2, ∞)
2.3. (0, ∞)
2.4. − 43 , ∞

2.5. (−∞, −3) ∪ (3, ∞)

p p
2.6. (− 2, 2)
2.7. (−∞, ∞)
2.8. (0, ∞)
3.1. g is the function f shifted to the left by 3 units. The domain of g is (−3, ∞).
3.2. h is the function f shifted to the right by 5 units. The domain of h is (5, ∞).
3.3. j is the function f horizontally compressed by a factor of 2, and shifted to the left by 7
units. The domain of j is (−7, ∞).
3.4. k is the function f reflected across the vertical axis, and vertically stretched by a factor
of 5. The domain of k is (−∞, 0).
4.1. f (x − 2) = log(x − 2)
4.2. f (x + 5) = log(x + 5)
4.3. f (x) + 11 = log(x) + 11
4.4. f (x) − 1 = log(x) − 1
5. • Figure 4.3a on page 101: b = 2, so y = log2 (x);
• Figure 4.3b on page 101: b = 4, so y = log4 (x + 3);
• Figure 4.3c on page 101: b = 21 , so y = log 1 (x − 4);
2

1
• Figure 4.3d on page 101: b = 3, so y = log 1 (x + 2).
3

6.1. x = ln(7) ≈ 1.95

6.2. x = ln(5) ≈ 1.61
6.3. x = ln(10) − 5 ≈ −2.70
6.4. x = 51 (ln(6) − 7) ≈ −1.04
6.5. x = 0
6.6. x = log(11) − 1 ≈ 0.04
log(4)
6.7. x = 2 ≈ 0.30
6.8. x = 4 − log(21) ≈ 2.68
6.9. x = 12 ln 59 ≈ 0.29

6.10. x = − 31 ln 18


7 ≈ −0.31

6.11. x = 5 − ln 91 ≈ 7.20

6.12. x = 13 ln 32 ≈ −0.14

7.1. x = e7 ≈ 1096.63
7.2. x = e− /2 ≈ 0.22
3

e−2
7.3. x = 2 ≈ 0.07
p p
7.4. x = e 5
≈ 9.36 and x = e− 5
≈ 0.11
7.5. x = 107
192 Solutions to Section 5.1

7.6. x = 1000
1


7.7. x = 5 10−3 − 2 ≈ −0.40
7.8. x = −995
8. • Table 4.3a on page 102: b = 2, so y = log2 (3x);
• Table 4.3b on page 102: b = 3, so y = log3 (5x);
• Table 4.3c on page 102: b = 41 , so y = log 1 (x);
4

1
• Table 4.3d on page 102: b = 3, so y = log 2 (−2x).
3

9.1. x f (x)
−3 1/64

−2 1/16

−1 1/4

0 1
1 4
2 16
3 64

9.2. x f −1 (x)
1/64 −3
1/16 −2
1/4 −1
1 0
4 1
16 2
64 3

9.3. (a) f −1 (4) = 1

(b) f −1 (16) = 2
(c) f −1 41 = −1

1


(d) f −1 16 = −2

9.4. f −1 (x) = log4 (x)

10.1. (a) domain: (−∞, ∞), range: (0, ∞).
1
(b) f −1 (x) = 5 log2 (x)
(c) domain: (0, ∞), range: (−∞, ∞).
10.2. (a) domain: (−∞, ∞), range: (0, ∞).
(b) g −1 (t) = 31 (ln(t) − 4)
(c) domain: (0, ∞), range: (−∞, ∞).
10.3. (a) domain: (−∞, ∞), range: (−∞, 5).
(b) h−1 (s) = 7 + log4 (5 − s)
(c) domain: (−∞, 5), range: (−∞, ∞).
10.4. (a) domain: (−∞, ∞), range: (0, ∞).
(b) j −1 (u) = log5 3u

(c) domain: (0, ∞), range: (−∞, ∞).

10.5. (a) domain: − 32 , ∞ , range: (−∞, ∞).

(b) k−1 (v) = 31 (e v − 2)

Solutions to Section 5.2 193

(c) domain: (−∞, ∞), range: − 32 , ∞ .

10.6. (a) domain: −∞, 27 , range: (−∞, ∞).

w

(b) l −1 (w) = 71 2 − 10 5

(c) domain: (−∞, ∞), range: −∞, 27 .

10.7. (a) domain: 21 , ∞ , range: (−∞, ∞).

(b) m−1 (α) = 1

2 (8α + 1)

(c) domain: (−∞, ∞), range: 12 , ∞ .

10.8. (a) domain: 47 , ∞ , range: (−∞, ∞).

€ 3⠊
(b) n−1 (β) = 41 3 2 + 7
7


(c) domain: (−∞, ∞), range: 4,∞ .
3


11.1. I(t) = 50 1 − e−40t

11.2. • I(0.025) ≈ 0.038; the current in the circuit after 0.025 s is approximately 0.038 A;

• I(0.05) ≈ 0.052 A; the current in the circuit after 0.05 s is approximately 0.052 A.

11.3. The maximum value the current could reach is 3/50 A = 0.06 A.

11.4. We need to solve the equation 0.95 · 0.06 = I(t); so t ≈ 0.075. The current reaches
95 % of its maximum value after about 0.075 s.

12.1. x = ln(2) ≈ 0.69 and x = ln(4) ≈ 1.39.

12.2. x = ln(3) ≈ 1.10 and x = ln(1) = 0.

12.3. x = ln(10) ≈ 2.30 (there are no solutions to the equation e x = −2).

12.4. There are no solutions to this equation.

12.5. x = log(2) ≈ 0.30 and x = log(4) ≈ 0.60.

12.6. x = log(3) ≈ 0.48 and x = log(1) = 0.

12.7. x = log(10) = 1 (there are no solutions to the equation 10 x = −2).

12.8. There are no solutions to this equation.

13.1. x = e−2 ≈ 0.14 and x = e−1 ≈ 0.37.

13.2. x = e2 ≈ 7.39 and x = e ≈ 2.72.

13.3. x = e4 ≈ 54.60 and x = e−4 ≈ 0.02.

13.4. x = 10−7 and x = 10.

13.5. x = 10−4 and x = 10−3 .

13.6. x = 10 and x = 10−1 .

Solutions for problems in Section 5.2

1. Put m = log b (x) and n = log b ( y) so that b m = x and b n = y. Therefore b m−n = xy , and
€ Š
equivalently log b xy = m − n. Also, log b (x) − log b ( y) = m − n. The result follows.
194 Solutions to Section 5.2

2.1. (a) b = 2
10
y y = log2 (x)

x
−10 −5 5 10

−5

−10

1
(b) b = 4

10
y y = log 1 (x)
4

x
−10 −5 5 10

−5

−10

(c) b = 5
10
y y = log5 (x)

x
−10 −5 5 10

−5

−10

1
(d) b = 3

10
y y = log 1 (x)
3

x
−10 −5 5 10

−5

−10

1
2.2. False; consider b = 4 or b = 13 , or any other value of b such that 0 < b < 1.
2.3. False; consider b = 2 or b = 5, or any other value of b such that b > 1.
2.4. True.
2.5. False; consider b = 2 or b = 5, or any other value of b such that b > 1.
Solutions to Section 5.2 195

2.6. True.
2.7. False; consider any value of b.
1
2.8. False; consider b = 4 or b = 13 , or any other value of b such that 0 < b < 1.
3.1. b log b (A) log b (B) log b (AB) log b BA


A B
1 2 2 0 1 1 −1
e5 p e 3
e 5 3 8 2
3
36 6 6 2 1/3 7/3 5/3
0.001 10000 10 −3 4 1 −7
4 1/16 1/4 −1 2 1 −3

3.2. False.
3.3. False.
3.4. True.
3.5. False.
3.6. True.
ln(3)
4.1. ln(2) ≈ 1.58
4.2. Undefined since the argument is negative.
ln(7)
4.3. ln(3) ≈ 1.77
ln(13)
4.4. ln( 21 )
≈ −3.70

ln(2)
4.5. ln(8) ≈ .33
4.6. Undefined since the base is negative.
ln(5)
4.7. ln(π) ≈ 1.41
4.8. Undefined since the argument is 0.
5.1. log(2) + log(x)
5.2. log3 (4) − log3 (x)
5.3. 7 log5 (x)
5.4. log9 (4) + 3 log9 (x)
1
5.5. 2 ln(x)
3
5.6. 7 ln(x) − 71 ln(x + 2)
5.7. 2 logπ (x) − logπ (4)
5.8. 3 + 3 log(x)
8
7.1. 7
3
7.2. 4
1
7.3. 81
9
7.4. 2

8.1. 3
8.2. 4
8.3. 5
8.4. 8
8.5. 8
196 Solutions to Section 6.1

8.6. 5
8.7. 3
8.8. 10
9.1. ± 78
9.2. 999
25
9.3. 81
p
−1+ 1+4e4
9.4. 2 ≈ 6.91
10.1. log(25) ≈ 1.40
10.2. ln(1) = 0
10.3. ln(2) ≈ 0.69
10.4. Undefined.
11.1. log(5) ≈ 0.70
11.2. −0.25
11.3. Undefined.
11.4. Undefined.
11.5. log ln 12 + 5 ≈ .63

11.6. ln(log(2)) ≈ −1.20

11.7. log(ln(x) + 5)
11.8. ln(log(x + 5))
12.1. f (x) = log(x), g(x) = 3x 2
12.2. f (x) = −2 ln(x), g(x) = 5 − x
p
12.3. f (x) = log3 (x), g(x) = 3 x
12.4. f (x) = log5 (x) + 7 x , g(x) = x 2
13.1. 2
13.2. 0
13.3. 1
13.4. Undefined.
13.5. log(5) + ln(5) ≈ 2.31
13.6. log(π) − ln(π) ≈ −0.65
13.7. log(e) ≈ .43
log( 21 )
13.8. ln( 12 )
≈ 0.43

Solutions for problems in Section 6.1

1.1. a = 1; the parabola opens upward.
1.2. a = −5; the parabola opens downward.
1.3. a = 4; the parabola opens upward.
1.4. m = −19; the parabola opens downward.
1.5. When a2 > 0, the parabola that represents the function opens upward.
1.6. When a2 < 0, the parabola that represents the function opens downward.
Solutions to Section 6.1 197

2.1. The functions f , g, and h have domain (−∞, ∞) and are graphed below.

y f
4
g
h

x
−1 −0.5 0.5

−2

−4

Note that

f (x) → −∞ as x → ∞
and f (x) → ∞ as x → −∞

The same is true for g and h. The range of f , g, and h is (−∞, ∞).

Each of the functions f , g, and h are odd

f (−x) = −(−x)3 g(−x) = −(−x)5 h(−x) = −(−x)7

= x3 = x5 = x7
= − f (x) = −g(x) = −h(x)

2.2. The functions F , G, and H have domain (−∞, ∞) and are graphed below.

y F
4
G
H

x
−1 −0.5 0.5

−2

−4

Note that

F (x) → −∞ as x → ∞
and F (x) → −∞ as x → −∞

The same is true for G and H. The range of F , G, and H is (−∞, 0].

Each of the functions F , G, and H are even

F (−x) = −(−x)2 G(−x) = −(−x)4 H(−x) = −(−x)6

= −x 2 = −x 4 = −x 6
= F (x) = G(x) = H(x)

3. a1 < 0:

y
198 Solutions to Section 6.1

a2 < 0
y

a3 < 0
y

a4 < 0
y

a5 < 0
y

4. Figure 5.12a on page 123:

(a) the curve turns round once;

(b) the degree could be 2;

(c) based on the zeros, the linear factors are (x + 5) and (x − 3); since the graph
opens downwards, we will assume the leading coefficient is negative: p(x) =
−k(x + 5)(x − 3);

(d) p goes through (2, 2), so we need to solve 2 = −k(7)(−1) and therefore k = 2/7,
Solutions to Section 6.1 199

so
2
p(x) = − (x + 5)(x − 3)
7

Figure 5.12b on page 123:

(a) the curve turns around twice;
(b) the degree could be 3;
(c) based on the zeros, the linear factors are (x + 2)2 , and (x − 1); based on the
behavior of p, we assume that the leading coefficient is positive, and try p(x) =
k(x + 2)2 (x − 1);
(d) p goes through (0, −2), so we need to solve −2 = k(4)(−1) and therefore k = 1/2,
so
1
p(x) = (x + 2)2 (x − 1)
2

Figure 5.12c on page 123:

(a) the curve turns around 4 times;
(b) the degree could be 5;
(c) based on the zeros, the linear factors are (x + 5)2 , (x + 1), (x − 2), (x − 3); based
on the behavior of p, we assume that the leading coefficient is positive, and try
p(x) = k(x + 5)2 (x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3);
(d) p goes through (−3, −50), so we need to solve −50 = k(64)(−2)(−5)(−6) and
therefore k = 5/384, so

5
p(x) = (x + 5)2 (x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
384

5.1. f is linear.
5.2. g is linear
5.3. h is quadratic.
5.4. k is linear.
5.5. l is quadratic
5.6. m is linear.
6.1. m = 4; α is increasing.
6.2. m = −9; β is decreasing.
6.3. m = 18; γ is increasing.
6.4. m = −1; δ is decreasing.
6.5. When m > 0, the function f is . . . increasing.
6.6. When m < 0, the function f is . . . decreasing.
7.1. p is a polynomial (you might also describe p as linear). The degree of p is 1.
7.2. p is a polynomial (you might also describe p as quadratic). The degree of p is 2.
7.3. p is not a polynomial; we require the powers of x to be integer values.
7.4. p is not a polynomial; the 2 x term is exponential.
7.5. p is a polynomial, and the degree of p is 6.
7.6. p is a polynomial, and the degree of p is 17.
7.7. p is a polynomial, and the degree of p is 6.
200 Solutions to Section 6.1

7.8. p is not a polynomial because −5 is not a positive integer.

7.9. p is a polynomial, and the degree of p is 11.
8.1. y = p(x) is shown below.
10
y

x
−4 −2 2 4

−5

−10

y = m(x) is shown below.

10
y

x
−4 −2 2 4

−5

−10

y = n(x) is shown below.

y
50

x
−4 −2 2 4

−50

The zeros of p are −2, 1, and 3; the zeros of m are −2, 1, and 3; the zeros of n are −4,
−2, −1, and 3.
8.2. • The degree of p is 3, and the curve y = p(x) turns around twice.
• The degree of q is also 3, and the curve y = q(x) turns around twice.
• The degree of n is 5, and the curve y = n(x) turns around 4 times.
9.1. (−4, 0), (−2, 0), (−1, 0), (1, 0), (3, 0)
9.2. (−2, 0), (1, 0), (3, 0)
9.3. (−2, 0), (1, 0), (3, 0)
9.4. (−2, 0), (2, 0)
10.1. • p is graphed in Figure 5.14c on page 125;
• q is graphed in Figure 5.14b on page 125;
• r is graphed in Figure 5.14a on page 125;
Solutions to Section 6.1 201

• s is graphed in Figure 5.14d on page 125.

10.2. • p has simple zeros at about −3.8, 0, and 5.

• q has simple zeros at about −5.9, −1, 1, and 4.

• r has simple zeros at about −5, −2.9, and 4.1.

• s has simple zeros at about −9, −6, 4.2, 8.1, and a zero of multiplicity 2 at 0.
10.3. • p has a local maximum of approximately 3.9 at −2, and a local minimum of ap-
proximately −6.5 at 3.

• q has a local minimum of approximately −10 at −4, and −4 at 3; q has a local

maximum of approximately 1 at 0.

• r has a local minimum of approximately −5.5 at −4, and a local maximum of

approximately 10 at 3.

• s has a local maximum of approximately 5 at −8, 0 at 0, and 5 at 7; s has local

minimums of approximately −3 at −4, and −1 at 3.
10.4. • p does not have a global maximum, nor a global minimum.

• q has a global minimum of approximately −10; it does not have a global maximum.

• r does not have a global maximum, nor a global minimum.

• s has a global maximum of approximately 5; it does not have a global minimum.

10.5. • p is increasing on (−∞, −2) ∪ (3, ∞), and decreasing on (−2, 3).

• q is increasing on (−4, 0) ∪ (3, ∞), and decreasing on (−∞, −4) ∪ (0, 3).

• r is increasing on (−4, 3), and decreasing on (−∞, −4) ∪ (3, ∞).

• s is increasing on (−∞, −8)∪(−4, 0)∪(3, 5), and decreasing on (−8, −4)∪(0, 3)∪
(5, ∞).
10.6. • p is concave up on (1, ∞), and concave down on (−∞, 1).

• q is concave up on (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞), and concave down on (−1, 1).

• r is concave up on (−∞, −3) ∪ (0, 2), and concave down on (−3, 0) ∪ (2, ∞).

• s is concave up on (−6, −2) ∪ (2, 5), and concave down on (−∞, −6) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪
(5, ∞).
10.7. Figure 5.14b on page 125 shows that q has 3 real zeros since the curve of q cuts the
horizontal axis 3 times. Since q has degree 5, q must have 2 complex zeros.
11. lim p(x) = −∞, lim p(x) = ∞, lim q(x) = ∞, lim q(x) = −∞, lim r(x) =
x→−∞ x→∞ x→−∞ x→∞ x→−∞
−∞, lim r(x) = ∞, lim s(x) = ∞, lim s(x) = ∞,
x→∞ x→−∞ x→∞

12.1. False. Consider p(x) = x 2 (x + 1) which has only 2 distinct zeros.

12.2. False. Consider p(x) = −x 4 .
12.3. True.
12.4. False. All odd degree polynomials will cut the horizontal axis at least once.
13.1. Possible option: p(x) = (x − 4)(x − 5). Note we could multiply p by any real number,
and still meet the requirements.
13.2. Possible option: p(x) = (x − 4)(x − 5)(x + 3). Note we could multiply p by any real
number, and still meet the requirements.
13.3. Possible option: p(x) = x(x − 4)(x − 5)(x + 3). Note we could multiply p by any real
number, and still meet the requirements.
202 Solutions to Section 6.1

13.4. Possible option: p(x) = (x − 2)(x + 5)(x + 2)2 . Note we could multiply p by any real
number, and still meet the requirements.

13.5. Possible option: p(x) = (x + 1)3 . Note we could multiply p by any real number, and
still meet the requirements.

14.1. Assuming that a3 > 0:

y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

14.2. Assuming that a3 < 0:

y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

14.3. Assuming that a4 > 0 there are 2 different options:

y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

14.4. Assuming that a4 < 0 there are 2 different options:

y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

15.1. ±i (simple).
p
15.2. ±3, ± 7 (all are simple).
p p
15.3. 0 (multiplicity 3), ± 3 (simple), ± 8 (simple).
Solutions to Section 6.1 203

15.4. ±3, ±3i (all are simple).

p
15.5. 2, −1 ± i 3 (all are simple).
15.6. 0 (multiplicity 2), 1 (simple).
15.7. −1, ±2i (all are simple).
15.8. −4 (simple), 4 (multiplicity 2), 1 (simple).
p
5 ± 41
15.9. ±5, (all are simple).
2
16.1. p(x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)
16.2. p(x) = x(x − 5)(x − 13)
16.3. p(x) = (x + 7)(x − 2)3 (x − 5)
16.4. p(x) = x(x 2 + 1)
16.5. p(x) = (x 2 + 4)(x 2 − 49)
17.1. 160
17.2. −9997
17.3. 84
17.4. 1980
18.1. −255
18.2. 4
18.3. 64
18.4. −40
18.5. 64
19.1. 14
19.2. 7
19.3. 0
3
19.4. 4

19.5. (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 0) ∪ (0, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

20.1. p(x − 5) = 4(x − 5)(x − 2)(x 2 − 10x + 24)
20.2. p(x + 6) = 4(x + 6)(x + 9)(x 2 + 12x + 35)
20.3. p(x) + 12 = 4x(x 2 − 1)(x + 3) + 12
20.4. p(x) − 2 = 4x(x 2 − 1)(x + 3) − 2
20.5. −p(x) = −4x(x 2 − 1)(x + 3)
20.6. p(−x) = −4x(x 2 − 1)(3 − x)
21.1. p has 3 zeros.
21.2. p is degree 3.
21.3. p(x) = x(x + 2)(x − 3)
21.4. q has 2 zeros.
21.5. p changes sign at −2, and q does not change sign at −2.
21.6. q(x) = x(x + 2)2
21.7. r(x) = (x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 1)(x − 3)
204 Solutions to Section 6.2

21.8. s(x) = (x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 1)2

Solutions for problems in Section 6.2

1.1. The functions k, m, and n have domain (−∞, 0)∪(0, ∞), and range (−∞, 0)∪(0, ∞);
the functions are graphed below.
y k
4
m
n

x
−2 −1 1 2

−2

−4

Note that

k(x) → 0 as x → ∞
and k(x) → 0 as x → −∞

and also

k(x) → ∞ as x → 0−
and k(x) → −∞ as x → 0+

The same are true for m and n. Note that each function is odd:
1 1 1
k(−x) = − m(−x) = − n(−x) = −
(−x)3 (−x)5 (−x)7
1 1 1
=− =− =−
−x 3 −x 5 −x 7
1 1 1
= 3 = 5 = 7
x x x
= −k(x) = −m(x) = −n(x)

1.2. The functions K, M , and N have domain (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞); the range of each function
is (−∞, 0). The functions are are graphed below.
y K
4
M
N

x
−2 −1 1 2

−2

−4

Note that

K(x) → 0 as x → ∞
and K(x) → 0 as x → −∞

and also

K(x) → −∞ as x → 0−
and K(x) → −∞ as x → 0+
Solutions to Section 6.2 205

The same are true for M and N . Note that each function is even:

1 1 1
K(−x) = − M (−x) = − N (−x) = −
(−x)2 (−x)4 (−x)6
1 1 1
=− 2 =− 4 =− 6
x x x
= K(x) = M (x) = N (x)

2.1. x y
1 100
2 50
3 33.33
4 25
5 20
6 16.67
7 14.29
8 12.50
9 11.11
10 10

2.2. It seems that the number of mg that it takes to break the spaghetti decreases as x
increases.

2.3. x y
0.0001 1 000 000
0.001 100 000
0.01 10 000
0.1 1000
0.5 200
1 100

2.4. The number of mg required to break the spaghetti increases as x → 0. We can not allow
x to be 0, as we can not divide by 0, and we can not be 0 inches from the edge of the
table.
100
2.5. The graph of y = x is shown below.

y
180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20
x
2 4 6 8 10

2.6. As x increases, y → 0. If we could
construct a piece of spaghetti 101 in long, it would

100
only take 1 mg to break it 100 = 1 . Of course, the weight of spaghetti would probably
cause it to break without the weight.

3.1. Paying off the debt in 2 years, we use

2000 · 0.015
M=
1 − (1 + 0.015)−24
≈ 99.85

The monthly payments are $99.85.

206 Solutions to Section 6.2

Paying off the debt in 1 year, we use

2000 · 0.015
M=
1 − (1 + 0.015)−12
≈ 183.36

The monthly payments are $183.36

In the 2-year model we would pay a total of $99.85·12 = $2396.40. In the 1-year model
we would pay a total of $183.36 · 12 = $2200.32. We would therefore save $196.08 if
we went with the 1-year model instead of the 2-year model.
3.2. For the 20-year loan we use
0.052
300000 · 12
M=
0.052 −12·20


1− 1+ 12
≈ 2013.16

The monthly payments are $2013.16.

For the 30-year loan we use
0.052
300000 · 12
M=
0.052 −12·30


1− 1+ 12
≈ 1647.33

The monthly payments are $1647.33.

The total amount paid during the 20-year loan is $2013.16·12·20 = $483, 158.40. The
total amount paid during the 30-year loan is $1647.33 · 12 · 30 = $593, 038.80.
Recommendation: if you can afford the payments, choose the 20-year loan.
3.3. We are given M = 100, P = 3000, i = 0.01, and we need to find n in the equation

3000 · 0.01
100 =
1 − (1 + 0.01)−n

Using logarithms, we find that n ≈ 36. It will take Ellen about 3 years to pay off the
debt.
3.4. Option 1: 4 % annual interest for 5 years on $14,000. This means that the monthly
payments will be calculated using
0.04
14000 · 12
M=
0.04 −12·5


1− 1+ 12
≈ 257.83

The monthly payments will be $257.83. The total amount paid will be $257.83 ·
5 · 12 = $15, 469.80, of which $1469.80 is interest.
Option 2: 8 % annual interest for 5 years on $12,000. This means that the monthly
payments will be calculated using
0.08
12000 · 12
M=
0.08 −12·5


1− 1+ 12
≈ 243.32

The monthly payments will be $243.32. The total amount paid will be $243.32 ·
5 · 12 = $14, 599.20, of which $2599.2 is interest.
Jake should choose option 1 to minimize the amount of interest he has to pay.
Solutions to Section 6.2 207

4.1. r is rational; the domain of r is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

4.2. s is not rational (s is linear).

7 7
 ‹  ‹
4.3. t is rational; the domain of t is −∞, ∪ ,∞ .
8 8
4.4. u is rational; the domain of w is (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).

4.5. v is rational; the domain of v is (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).

4.6. w is rational; the domain of w is (−∞, −17) ∪ (−17, ∞).

4.7. a is not rational (a is quadratic, or a polynomial of degree 2).

4.8. b is not rational (b is exponential).

4.9. c is rational; the domain of c is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

4.10. d is not rational (d is a polynomial).

4.11. e is rational; the domain of e is (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

4.12. f is not rational ( f is constant).

(0 − 2)(0 + 3)
5.1. r(0) =
(0 + 5)(0 − 7)
−6
=
−35
6
=
35
(1 − 2)(1 + 3)
5.2. r(1) =
(1 + 5)(1 − 7)
−4
=
−36
1
=
9
(2 − 2)(2 + 3)
5.3. r(2) =
(2 + 5)(2 − 7)
0
=
−50
=0

(4 − 2)(4 + 3)
5.4. r(4) =
(4 + 5)(4 − 7)
14
=
−27
14
=−
27
(7 − 2)(7 + 3)
5.5. r(7) =
(7 + 5)(7 − 7)
50
=
0
r(7) is undefined.
(−3 − 2)(−3 + 3)
5.6. r(−3) =
(−3 + 5)(−3 − 7)
0
=
−20
=0
208 Solutions to Section 6.2

(−5 − 2)(−5 + 3)
5.7. r(−5) =
(−5 + 5)(−5 − 7)
14
=
0
r(−5) is undefined.
1

1

1 2 −2 2 +3
 ‹
5.8. r = 1
1

2 +5
2 2 −7

− 23 ·7
2
= 11 13


2 − 2

− 21
4
=
− 143
4
37
=
143
6.1. f has a vertical asymptote at 2; the domain of f is (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
6.2. g has a vertical asymptote at 2, and a hole at −1; the domain of g is (−∞, −1) ∪
(−1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
6.3. h has a vertical asymptote at 3, and a whole at −4; the domain of h is (−∞, −4) ∪
(−4, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
3 3 3
 ‹  ‹
6.4. k has a vertical asymptote at ; the domain of k is −∞, ∪ ,∞ .
2 2 2
6.5. l does not have any vertical asymptotes nor holes; the domain of w is (−∞, ∞).
p p p p
6.6. mphas vertical asymptotes at ± 13; the domain of m is (−∞, 13) ∪ (− 13, 13) ∪
( 13, ∞).
1
7. • Figure 5.27a on page 138: possible formula is r(x) =
x +5
(x + 3)
• Figure 5.27b on page 138: possible formula is r(x) =
(x − 5)
1
• Figure 5.27c on page 138: possible formula is r(x) = .
(x − 4)(x + 3)
1
8.1. Possible option: r(x) = . Note that we could multiply the numerator or denomi-
x −2
nator by any real number and still have the desired properties.
1
8.2. Possible option: r(x) = . Note that we could multiply the numerator or denomi-
x −5
nator by any real number and still have the desired properties.
x −6
8.3. Possible option: r(x) = . Note that we could multiply the numerator or denomi-
x +2
nator by any real number and still have the desired properties.
(x − 2)(x + 5)
8.4. Possible option: r(x) = . Note that we could multiply the numerator or
(x − 1)(x + 7)
denominator by any real number and still have the desired properties.
9.1. y = 0
9.2. y = 2
9.3. y = 1
9.4. y = 1
3
9.5. y =
5
9.6. y = 0
Solutions to Section 6.2 209

6
9.7. y =
11
9.8. y = 0
9.9. y = −2
7(x − 2)
10.1. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that there are other options, provided that the
x +1
degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, and that the
ratio of the leading coefficients is 7.
5 − x2
10.2. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that there are other options, provided that the
x 2 + 10
degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, and that the
ratio of the leading coefficients is 10.
53x 3
10.3. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that there are other options, provided that
x 3 + 4x 2 − 7
the degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, and that the
ratio of the leading coefficients is 53.
34(x + 2)
10.4. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that there are other options, provided that
7 − 2x
the degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, and that the
ratio of the leading coefficients is −17.
3x + 4
10.5. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that there are other options, provided that the
2(x + 1)
degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, and that the
3
ratio of the leading coefficients is .
2
4
10.6. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that there are other options, provided that the degree
x
of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.
10x
10.7. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that there are other options, provided that the
5 − 10x
degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, and that the
ratio of the leading coefficients is −1.
8x − 3
10.8. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that there are other options, provided that the
4x + 1
degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, and that the
ratio of the leading coefficients is 2.
3(x − 2)
11.1. Possible option: f (x) = . Note that the zero and asymptote of f could be
x +7
changed, and f would still have the desired properties.
−4(x − 2)
11.2. Possible option: r(x) = . Note that the zero and asymptote of r could be
x +7
changed, and r would still have the desired properties.
2x 2
11.3. Possible option: k(x) = . Note that the denominator must have the
(x + 3)(x − 5)
given factors; the numerator could be any degree 2 polynomial, provided the leading
coefficient is 2.
12.1. 0, 16

12.2. −3, 4
12.3. Interval notation: (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 4) ∪ (4, ∞). Set builder: {x|x ̸= −3, and x ̸= 4}
12.4. x = −3 and x = 4
12.5. −2, 1
12.6. (−2, 0) and (1, 0)
210 Solutions to Section 6.3

13.1. The domain of r is (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

13.2. (x 2 − 1) = (x − 1)(x + 1)
x +1
13.3. r(x) = provided that x ̸= −1.
x +3
13.4. The function r has a vertical asymptote at −3, and a hole at 1.

13.5. A graph of r is shown below.

y
8

2
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2

−4

−6

−8

197
14.1. 8

53
14.2. 6

14.3. Undefined.

14.4. − 34
x+2
15.1. r(x − 3) = 2x−9

x+9
15.2. r(x + 4) = 2x+5
x+5
15.3. r(x) + π = 2x−3 +π
x+5
15.4. r(x) − 17 = 2x−3 − 17
x+5
15.5. −r(x) = − 2x−3
x−5
15.6. r(−x) = 2x+3

x −3
16.1. A = 3 and B = −2, so r(x) = .
x +2
−4 − 3
16.2. r(−4) =
−4 + 2
7
=
2
r(−3) = . . . etc
x +2
16.3. s(x) =
(x − 3)(x + 1)
−4 + 2
16.4. s(−4) =
(−4 − 3)(−4 + 1)
2
=−
21
s(−3) = . . . etc
(x + 3)(x − 2)
16.5. t(x) =
(x + 2)(x + 1)
x2
16.6. u(x) =
(x + 3)(x − 3)
Solutions to Section 6.3 211

Solutions for problems in Section 6.3

1. Figure 5.35a on page 147

10
y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5

−10

Figure 5.35b on page 147

10
y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5

−10

Figure 5.35c on page 147

10
y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5

−10

2. Figure 5.36a on page 148

10
y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5

−10

Figure 5.36b on page 148

212 Solutions to Section 6.3

10
y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5

−10

Figure 5.36c on page 148

10
y

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−5

−10

3.1. Vertical intercept: (0, 2); vertical asymptote: x = −2, horizontal asymptote: y = 0.

y
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

3.2. Vertical intercept: 0, 19 ; horizontal intercept: 1

2,0 ; vertical asymptotes: x = −3, x =
3, horizontal asymptote: y = 0.

y
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

3.3. Vertical intercept 0, − 35 ; horizontal intercept: (−3, 0); vertical asymptote: x = 5;

horizontal asymptote: y = 1.
Solutions to Section 6.3 213

y
4

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−2

−4

3.4. Vertical intercept: (0, −3); horizontal intercept: − 32 , 0 ; vertical asymptote: x = 1

3,
horizontal asymptote: y = 32 .
y
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

3.5. Vertical intercept: 0, − 49 ; horizontal intercepts: (2, 0), (−2, 0); vertical asymptotes:

x = −3, x = 3; horizontal asymptote: y = −1.

y
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

3.6. Vertical intercept: 0, 45 ; horizontal intercepts: − 45 , 0 , 4

3,0 ; vertical asymptotes:
x = − 25 , x = 5; horizontal asymptote: y = 6.
y

10

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−10

4.1. • The domain of F is (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).

• The domain of G is (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞).

3x+1
4.2. • F −1 (x) = x−2 ; the domain of F −1 is (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
3x+1
• G −1 (x) = x+4 ; the domain of G −1 is (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, ∞).
4.3. • The range of F is the domain of F −1 , which is (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞).
214 Solutions to Section 6.4

• The range of G is the domain of G −1 , which is (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, ∞).

4.4. • The range of F −1 is the domain of F , which is (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
• The range of G −1 is the domain of G, which is (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞).
75
5.1. 16

5.2. (s ◦ r)(0) is undefined.

147
5.3. 4

5.4. 192
5.5. (s ◦ r)(4) is undefined.
4x 2 − 3
5.6.
1 + 5x 2
6.1. − 32
3
6.2. 5
7
6.3. 13

6.4. − 51
6.5. (−∞, 10) ∪ (10, ∞)

Solutions for problems in Section 6.4

0.6. (a) 0, − 14

(b) Vertical asymptote: x = 4.

(c) A graph of the function is shown below
y
20

x
−10 10

−20

0.7. (a) (0, 0), (−3, 0)

(b) Vertical asymptote: x = 5, horizontal asymptote: none.
(c) A graph of the function is shown below
y
2,000

1,500

1,000

500

x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8