Advanced Diploma in

Quality

Quality Techniques A

STA7AQT

Lecturer : P Nyelisani
[email protected] 1
 Classes

• Tuesday 18:00 till 21:20

• Friday 18:00 till 21:20

2
 Text book

• Miller and Freund’s Probability and

Statistics for engineers
• 9th edition
• Author: Richard A Johnson

3
 Calculator
• Any double variable Advanced DAL
scientific calculator e.g.

• SHARP EL-531WH
• CASIO fx-82za

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Introduction

Statistics is the scientific discipline that

provides methods to help us make sense of
data by
 collecting data in a methodical way;
 organizing and summarizing data using
tables, numbers and graphs;
 analysing data to enable you to draw
conclusions, make predictions or to answer
questions.
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Breakdown of the subject of
statistics

Statistical Fields

Descriptive Inferential
statistics statistics

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Statistical Methods and Calculagion Skills 7
The field of statistics
The field of statistics can be subdivided into descriptive statistics
and inferential statistics.
 Descriptive statistics includes the collection and summarizing
of data to give an overview of the information collected.

 Inferential statistics is the process of making an estimate,

prediction or decision about a population based on sample data.
Because a population is almost always very large, a sample is
drawn from the population of interest and summarized using
descriptive techniques. These results are then used to make
decisions about the population.

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Statistical Methods and Calculagion Skills 9
The Language of Statistics

 A population is a complete collection of elements

you wish to study. If the population contains a
countable number of items, it is said to be finite,
and when the number of items is unlimited, it is said
to be infinite.
 A study of the entire population is known as a
census.
 A parameter is a numerical measure that describes
the population. It is calculated using all the data of
the population, such as an average. It is usually
indicated by a letter from the Greek alphabet (e.g. µ,
σ, π).

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The Language of Statistics

 A sample is a portion of data drawn from the

population. The sample must be
representative of the population.
 A statistic is a numerical measure that
describes a sample. It is usually indicated by
a letter from the Roman alphabet (e.g. , s,
n, p).

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The Language of Statistics

 A variable is a characteristic of a population or

sample. That is the topic about which data are
collected, such as the age of the first year students
at the university or the weight of each first year
student. Not all students have the same age or
weigh the same; this will vary from student to
student. That means there is a variation in the
weights or ages. If there were no variability in the
weights or ages, statistical inference would not be
necessary. The observed values of the variable are
the data we will use in a statistical investigation.

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The Language of Statistics

Variables can be classified as quantitative or

qualitative.
 Quantitative variables provide numerical
measurements of the elements of the study.
Arithmetic operations such as addition and
subtraction can be performed on the values of the
variable.
 Qualitative or categorical variables provide
information that is non-numerical, like marital status,
type of job, gender, etc. Qualitative information can
sometimes be coded to make it appear quantitative
but will have no meaning on a number line.

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Statistical Methods and Calculagion Skills 14
The Language of Statistics

Classify quantitative variables as discrete or

continuous.
 Discrete variables are countable and can assume
a countable number of values, such as the number
of potatoes on the plant. Fractional values can also
occur, but must have distance between them, for
example- interest rates and stock prices.
 If you measure to get the value of the variable, it is
continuous. It has an infinite number of possible
values that are not countable. For example weight,
length, time taken to complete a task, age, etc. can
be measured to any desired accuracy or number of
decimal places within a given range.

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Statistical Methods and Calculagion Skills 16
Example: Distinguish between qualitative and
quantitative variables.
1) Gender:
Qualitative variable because it allows a
researcher to categorize the individual as
male or female. No arithmetic operations
can be performed with this data.

2) Temperature:
Quantitative variable because it is numeric
and arithmetic operations such as addition
and subtraction provide meaningful results.

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Example: Distinguish between qualitative and
quantitative variables.
3) Postal code:
Qualitative because it indicates a location.
Although the code is in numbers, addition
and subtraction of the codes does not provide
meaningful results.

4) Number of drinks at a party for a couple of

friends:
Quantitative because it provides numbers
which can be used in arithmetic operations.

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Example: Distinguish between discrete and
continuous variables
1. Number of heads obtained after flipping a
coin five times:
Discrete because we can count the number
of heads obtained.

2. Number of cars that arrive at the KFC drive-

through between 10h00 and 12h00:
Discrete because we can count the number
of cars.

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Example: Distinguish between discrete and
continuous variables
3. Distances different model cars with the
same tank capacity can drive in city driving
conditions.
Continuous because we measure the
distances.

4. Temperature:
Continuous because we measure
temperature.

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Measurement
 Measurement is the process we use to assign numbers to the
observations or elements of a variable. The term number does
not necessarily mean numbers that can be added, subtracted,
multiplied or divided. Instead, it means that numbers are used as
symbols to represent certain characteristics like age, income,
height of the object, person, etc. For example, as a student your
student number may identify you.

 There are four levels of measurement, and from the weakest to

the strongest; they are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

 The analysis you carry out depends on the type of scale used to
measure the characteristics of the variable.

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1. Nominal scale

 This level, known as a categorical level, applies to data that

consist of names, labels and categories in no specific order.
Numbers or symbols are used to identify groups to which various
observations belong.

 For example in counting males and females, the male group can
be assigned the code 1 and the females the code 2. These
nominally scaled numbers serve only as a label for the group and
the measurement consist of placing the data in the correct group.

 No arithmetic operations can be performed by such numbers

other than counting the groups and the number of elements
falling into each group.

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2. Ordinal scale
 The categories into which objects are grouped are ranked in
some order using numbers or symbols. Items can be classified
not only as to whether they share some characteristic with
another item, but also whether they have more or less of this
characteristic.

 Differences between data values either cannot be determined or

are meaningless.
For example, income levels such as low, medium or high.

 The permissible analysis methods for ordinal data include

techniques generally associated with the order of the
observations.

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3. Interval scale

Data can be arranged in order. In addition,

differences between data values are
meaningful but ratios of data are not.
Temperature is an example of an interval
scale: The increase on the centigrade scales
between 10 and 20, is the same as the
increase between 30 and 40. However, heat
cannot be measured in absolute terms (0ºC
does not mean no heat) and it is not possible
to say that 40º are twice as hot as 20º.

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3. Interval scale (cont)

 Interval-level data may not have an absolute zero

starting point. This sometimes causes difficulties in
interpreting the interval-scale data. Arithmetic
operations can be performed on the difference
between numbers, not the numbers themselves.

 The following are examples of data at the interval

level of measurement:
 Calendar dates
 Time
 Shoe sizes
 Celsius-scale temperatures

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4. Ratio scale

 Data can be arranged in order. Both

differences between data values and ratios of
data values are meaningful because a true
zero exists.
 Arithmetic operations can be performed on
the numeric values themselves.
 For example; money: the zero point is
meaningful - that is, at zero you have no
money; and R10 is twice as much as R5.

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COLLECTION OF DATA

Collection of data

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Primary data sources

You can obtain primary data by:

 conducting an experiment
 observation
 conducting surveys using questions.

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Selecting a sample

 If we collect data on all the elements of the

population, we call it a census. The National
Census is conducted when each household
in South Africa receives a census form to
complete, containing information about
everybody in that household.
 A sample is taken from the population. This
complete list of people or objects is called the
frame or sampling frame.

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Advantages of sampling

 Costs are reduced

 Collection time is reduced
 Overall accuracy is improved
 For several types of populations, sampling is the
only method of data collection. For example,
infinite populations, or testing procedures that
entail the destruction of the item being tested, such
as tests determining the life of a light bulb or the
length of time a match will burn.
 By studying the behaviour of a sample, we can get
a good idea of the behaviour of the population from
which the sample was drawn.
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Sample design

Types of Samples

Non-random
Random Sample
Sample

Convenience Simple Random

Sample Sample

Judgement sample
Systematic Sample

Voluntary response Stratified Sample

Snowball Sample Cluster Sample

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Non-random sampling (non-
probability sample)
 If the sample items are selected using personal
convenience, expert judgment, or any type of
conscious researcher selection, the sample
selection is not done by chance and is called a non-
random sample.
 Samples like these often produce unrepresentative
data and are not desirable for use in inferential
statistics.
 Techniques that follow non-random selection of data
include convenience sampling, judgment sampling,
voluntary response sampling and snowball
sampling.
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Convenience sampling

The researcher chooses elements that are readily

available, nearby or willing to participate. It is
convenient for the researcher to select the first few
sample items quickly. When both time and money
are limited, convenience samples are widely used.
For example:
 Man-in-the-street interviews
 Lunch-hour interviews
 Interviewing close friends or family
 Door-to-door interviews

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Judgement sampling

 These samples consist of items deliberately

chosen from the population on the basis of
the experience and judgement of the
researcher.
 This method usually results in making
systematic errors in one direction. These
systematic errors lead to what are called
biases.
 For example, four of the most influential
economists were asked to estimate next
year’s rate of inflation.
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Voluntary response sampling

 These samples consist of people who choose

themselves by responding to a broad appeal,
such as online polls or newspaper
questionnaires.
 People who take the trouble to respond to an
open invitation are usually not representative
of any clearly defined population, because
only people with strong opinions are most
likely to respond.

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Snowball sampling

 Sample elements are selected based on

referral from other survey respondents.
 The researcher identifies a person who fits
the profile wanted for the study. The
researcher then asks this person for the
names and locations of others who also fit
this profile.
 Through these referrals, sample elements
can be identified cheaply and efficiently,
which is particularly useful when survey
subjects are difficult to locate.
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Random sampling (Probability
sampling)
 A random sample is one in which the items chosen
are based on chance - the procedure must be such
that every element of the population has the same
chance (or probability) of being selected into the
sample.
 The four basic random sampling techniques are
 simple random sampling,
 systematic random sampling,
 stratified sampling and
 cluster sampling.

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Simple random sampling

This technique is the basis for the other

random techniques. Each unit of the
sampling frame is numbered from 1 to N
(where N is the size of the population), or
assign any ID number to each element in
the population.

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Simple random sampling (cont.)

Two of the major random techniques are:

 The ‘goldfish bowl’ technique, which is similar to
drawing names from a hat. This method works well with
a small sample. Place a numbered card for each
element in the population in a bowl, mix them thoroughly,
and select as many cards as needed in the sample. This
method is used often in lottery draws or where the
population is small.
 Table of random numbers: Random number tables
consist of rows and columns in which the numbers 0 - 9
appear. A random number generator is a computer
program that generates these numbers. Any series of
numbers read across or down the table is considered
random.

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Random number table (refer to
appendix 4)
7081 8887 2876 1705 4260 5065 5528 8241 5997
2318 0139 6986 4900 2408 2027 1676 4382 3370
2099 3526 7912 3824 5108 1033 7363 0183 8479
2293 4424 9209 5979 5022 4849 1960 1771 7961
5359 3108 7453 9978 3538 8963 9562 5437 6806
3971 9260 0760 1284 1020 0961 2666 0255 5957
4833 6395 4528 0665 5386 3539 5918 9165 2088
6492 9493 1058 9069 7725 0094 9513 2735 2915
1227 1585 3239 0593 4703 4737 5851 2551 2824
4505 9108 0031 9578 0077 9836 5817 3221 1174
9515 4576 4486 8388 1343 4507 0031 2209 1921
9889 6933 2616 3883 9008 3389 3672 6952 5839
5737 6911 3388 3682 7271 1110 7272 5674 1650

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Stratified sampling

 Identify non-overlapping groups or strata within the

population.
 Select a simple random sample from each stratum.
Make sure that each of these groups is represented
proportionally in the sample.
 For example, if a researcher needs to estimate the
average mass of a large group of people, he or she
first divides the group into two strata - male and
female - and then selects a proportional simple
random sample from each stratum.

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Systematic sampling

 Select the starting number (a value between

1 and k) at random and each successive
number systematically from an orderly list of
the population to obtain the sample.
 Every kth item is selected to produce a
sample of size n from a population of size N.
The value of k can be determined by the
following formula: k=N/n

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Cluster sampling
 Some populations have non-overlapping areas or groups, which
represent all of the views of the general population, for example
a town, university or a file of invoices. If this is the case, it will be
much more convenient and cost effective to select one or more
of these clusters at random and then select a sample from the
clusters, or carry out a census within the selected clusters.
 Sometimes the clusters are too large and a second set of
clusters is taken from the original chosen clusters. This technique
is called multi-stage sampling.
 A large geographical area is often divided into more manageable
provinces or clusters. Select a few provinces and then select a
few towns from each province. Out of each town select a few
blocks, and out of each block select individual families at
random.

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