2021

Methods
Exam
Notes
LOGS AND EXPONENTIALS

y = ax ⇔ logay = x
Euler’s Number, e
1 𝑛𝑛
𝑒𝑒 = lim �1 + �
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛

It is equal to:

e = 2.718281828459045 …

The expression loge(x) or ln(x) is called the natural logarithm.

Log Laws
Law 5:
Law 1: loga1 = 0
loga(m) + loga(n) = loga(mn)
Law 6:
Law 2: logaa = 1
m
loga(m) – loga(n) = loga( ) Law 7:
n
loga0 = undefined
Law 3:
loga(m)p = ploga(m) Law 8:
loga(x) is defined for x > 0
Law 4: a ∈R+\{1}
1
loga( ) = loga(m)-1 = -loga(m)
m Law 9:
𝑎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚
loga(0 < x < 1) will be negative.

The Change of Base Rule

If y = am ⇔ logay = m, then

𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑏𝑏 (𝑚𝑚)
loga(m) =
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑏𝑏 (𝑎𝑎)
Index Laws

Law 1 Law 6
am  an = am + n a0 = 1

Law 2 Law 7
am ÷ an = am – n 1
a-m = ;a≠0
am
Law 3 Law 8
(am)n = amn 1
𝑚𝑚
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 = √𝑎𝑎
Law 4 Law 9
𝑛𝑛
(ab)m = ambm 𝑛𝑛
𝑚𝑚
1
𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 = √𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 or �𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 �
Law 5
𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 Also remember ax > 0 for all x
�𝑏𝑏� = ;b≠0
𝑏𝑏 𝑚𝑚

Logarithmic Graphs

The Graph of y = loga(x)

f: R+  R, f(x) = loga(x), a > 1
- Domain is x ∈ (0, ∞)
- The range is R
- The graph is an increasing function
- x = 0 is an asymptote
- As a increases, the graph rises more
steeply for x ∈ (0, 1) and is flatter for
x ∈ (1, ∞)

Transformations
f(x) = nloga(mx ± h) ± k, where loga(x) is…
- dilated by a factor of n from the x-axis
o if n < 0, it is reflected in the x-axis.
𝟏𝟏
- dilated by a factor of 𝐦𝐦
from the y-axis
o if m < 0, it is reflected in the y-axis. The domain is (-∞, 0).
- translated vertically by k units
o if k > 0, graph moves up.
o if k < 0, graph moves down.
- Translated horizontally by h units
o if h > 0, graph moves left.
o if h < 0, graph moves right.
o The domain becomes (h, ∞) and the asymptote becomes x = h.
Exponential Graphs

The Graph of y = ax
f: R  R, f(x) = ax, a ∈ R+\{1}

The Graph of y = ex
f: R  R, f(x) = ex
- y = 0 is an asymptote
- Domain is x ∈ R
- The range is y ∈ (0, ∞)
- The function has a one-to-one
correspondence
- As x  ∞, y  ∞ and as x  -∞, y  0+
- f(x) = 2x < f(x) = ex < f(x) = 3x

Transformations
f(x) = aen(x ± h) ± k, where ex is…
- dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis
o if a < 0, it is reflected in the x-axis. Range is (-∞,k)
𝟏𝟏
- dilated by a factor of 𝐧𝐧
from the y-axis
o if n < 0, it is reflected in the y-axis
- translated vertically k units
o if k > 0, graph moves up
o if k < 0, graph moves down
o Asymptote is y = k.
- translated horizontally h units
o if h > 0, graph moves left
o if h < 0, graph moves right

Inverse Functions
Rule y = ex y = ln(x)
Type of One-to- One-to-
mapping one one
Domain x∈R x ∈ (0, ∞)
Range y ∈ (0, ∞) y∈R

The graph of the exponential

function can be thought of as
the inverse of the graph of the
logarithmic function.
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
Linear Functions

Set Notation Coordinate Geometry

Symbol Meaning Name Formula

∈ Element of a set Midpoint
between two 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2
𝑀𝑀 = ( , )
points 2 2
{} Contain elements Distance
of a set between two 𝑑𝑑 = �(𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2 − (𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2
points
∩ Intersection Gradient 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1
𝑚𝑚 =
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1
𝑚𝑚 = tan 𝜃𝜃
Parallel: 𝑚𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑚2
Perpendicular: −1 = 𝑚𝑚1 ×
𝑚𝑚2
∅ Null, empty set Straight 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐
lines 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
0 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐
∉ Not an element of
∪ Union
N Natural numbers
J or Z Integers
Q Rational numbers
R Real numbers
Q’ Irrational
numbers
< Less than
> Greater than
≤ Less than or equal
to
≥ Greater than or
equal to
() Endpoints are not
included o
[] Endpoints are
included •
Solving Systems of Equations

Two Variables
- If the two lines intersect, there is one unique solution.
o 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐
o 𝑚𝑚1 ≠ 𝑚𝑚2
- If the two lines are parallel, there are no solutions.
o 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐
o 𝑚𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑚2
o 𝑐𝑐1 ≠ 𝑐𝑐2
- If the two lines have the same equation, there are an infinite
number of solutions.
o 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐
o 𝑚𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑚2
o 𝑐𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑐2

Solutions Geometry
CASE 1 Unique solution Two lines intersect at a point

CASE 2 No solutions Distinct parallel lines

CASE 3 Infinitely many Two copies of the same line.

solutions (The lines coincide)

More than Two Variables

Involving Parameters
When there are infinitely many solutions to a system of
equations, such as when planes intersect along a line,
we can describe the set of solutions using a parameter.
Conventionally, the parameter chosen is, λ.

Quadratic Functions

Factorisation

Perfect Squares 𝑎𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)2

𝑎𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 = (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)2
Difference of Two Squares 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑏𝑏 2 = (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)
Quadratic Equation −𝑏𝑏 ± √𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑎𝑎
Discriminant ∆= 𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
If ∆ > 0, there are two real solutions
If ∆ = 0, there is one real solution
If ∆ < 0, there are no real solutions.
Axis of Symmetry −𝑏𝑏
𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑎𝑎

Graphing

The Graph of y=x2

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
- Range is either 𝑦𝑦 ∈ (−∞, 𝑘𝑘] or 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [𝑘𝑘, ∞)
- Turning point
- x and y-intercepts (if they exist)
- The function has a many-to-one
correspondence

The Graph of y=ax2 + bx + c

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- Turning point found by substituting axis of
symmetry into equation
o if 𝒂𝒂 > 𝟎𝟎, it has a minimum turning point.
o if 𝒂𝒂 < 𝟎𝟎, it has a maximum turning point.
- 0, 1 or 2 x-intercepts, determined by ∆
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
Graphing

The Graph of y=a(x ± h)2 ± k

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉)2 ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis
o if 𝒂𝒂 > 𝟎𝟎, it has a minimum turning point at (h,k)
o if 𝒂𝒂 < 𝟎𝟎, it has a maximum turning point at (h,k)
- translated vertically k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
 Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ (−∞, 𝑘𝑘]
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
 Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [𝑘𝑘, ∞)
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅

The Graph of y=a(x ± x1)(x ± x2)

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑥𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑥𝑥2 ), where 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- x-intercepts at (𝑥𝑥1 ,0) and (𝑥𝑥2 ,0)
- Turning point found by substituting axis of symmetry into equation
o if 𝒂𝒂 > 𝟎𝟎, it has a minimum turning point.
o if 𝒂𝒂 < 𝟎𝟎, it has a maximum turning point.
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
Cubic Functions

Factorisation
Perfect Cubes 𝑎𝑎3 + 3𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑏𝑏 3 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)3
𝑎𝑎3 − 3𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 2 − 𝑏𝑏 3 = (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)3
Sum and Difference of 𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑏𝑏 3 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 )
Two Cubes 𝑎𝑎3 − 𝑏𝑏 3 = (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏)(𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 2 )
Remainder Theorem If P(x) is divided by (x + a), the remainder will be
P(-a)
Factor Theorem If P(a) = 0, then (x - a) is a factor of P(x)

Equality of Polynomials
Two polynomials P(x) and Q(x) are such that

P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + … + a2x2 + a1x + a0

and

Q(x) = bnxn + bn-1xn-1 + bn-2xn-2 + … + b2x2 + b1x + b0

P(x) is identically equal to Q(x) for all values of x (that is P(x) ≡ Q(x)) if and
only if:

an = bn, an-1 = bn-1, an-2 = bn-2 … a2 = b2, a1 = b1 and a0 = b0

Graphing

The Graph of y=x3

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3
- Point of inflection OR turning points
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
- x and y-intercepts (if they exist)

The Graph of y=a(x ± h)3 ± k

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉)3 ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis
o if a < 0, it is reflected from the x-axis
- translated vertically by k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- Point of inflection at (h,k)
Graphing

The Graph of y=ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑, where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- If a > 0, then as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦𝑦 → ∞ and as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦𝑦 → −∞
- If a < 0, then 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦𝑦 → ∞ and as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦𝑦 → −∞
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅

The Graph of y=(x ± m)(x ± n)(x ± p) or y=a(x ± m)2(x ± n)

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑚𝑚)(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑛𝑛)(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑝𝑝), where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛, 𝑝𝑝 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- x-intercepts at (m,0), (n,0), (p,0)
- Two asymmetrical turning points
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑚𝑚)2 (𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑛𝑛) where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- x-intercept at (n,0)
- Touches x-axis at turning point x = m
Higher Degree Polynomials

Graphing

The Graph y=a(x ± h)n ± k, where n is a positive even integer

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉)𝑛𝑛 ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis
o if a < 0, it has a maximum turning point at (h,k)
 Range will be 𝑦𝑦 ∈ (−∞, 𝑘𝑘]
o if a > 0, it has a minimum turning point at (h,k)
 Range will be 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [𝑘𝑘,∞)
- translated vertically by k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- the axis of symmetry is at x = h
- there may be 0, 1, or 2 intercepts
- parabolic shape
- domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅

The Graph y=a(x ± h)n ± k, where n is a positive odd integer and n≠1
𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉)𝑛𝑛 ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 1
- dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis
- translated vertically by k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- 1 x-intercept
- cubic shape
- domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
- range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
Hyperbola and Truncus

Graphing Hyperbolas

𝟏𝟏
The Graph of y=𝒙𝒙
- Horizontal asymptote at y=0
- Vertical asymptote at x=0
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅\{0}
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅\{0}

𝒂𝒂
The Graph of y=𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏±𝒉𝒉 ± 𝒌𝒌
𝒂𝒂
𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅\{ℎ} → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒏𝒏𝑥𝑥±𝒉𝒉
± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis and by a factor of n from the
y-axis
o if a < 0, the graph is reflected about the x-axis
o if n < 0, the graph is reflected about the y-axis
- translated vertically by k units
o Horizontal asymptote at y=k
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
- translated horizontally h units
o Vertical asymptote at x=h
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅\{ℎ}
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅\{𝑘𝑘}

Graphing Trunci

𝟏𝟏
The Graph of y=𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
- Horizontal asymptote at y=0
- Vertical asymptote at x=0
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅\{0}
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 +

𝒂𝒂
The Graph of y=(𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏±𝒉𝒉)𝟐𝟐 ± 𝒌𝒌
𝒂𝒂
𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅\{ℎ} → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏±𝒉𝒉)𝟐𝟐
± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis and by a factor of n from the
y-axis
o if a < 0, the graph is reflected about the x-axis and the range
becomes 𝑦𝑦 ∈ (−∞, 𝑘𝑘)
o if a > 0, the range becomes 𝑦𝑦 ∈ (𝑘𝑘, ∞)
Graphing Trunci

𝒂𝒂
The Graph of y=(𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏±𝒉𝒉)𝟐𝟐 ± 𝒌𝒌
𝒂𝒂
𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅\{ℎ} → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏±𝒉𝒉)𝟐𝟐
± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
o if n < 0, the graph is reflected about the y-axis
- translated vertically by k units
o Horizontal asymptote at y=k
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
- translated horizontally h units
o Vertical asymptote at x=h
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅\{ℎ}

Power/Root and Circle Functions

Graphing Square Root Functions

The Graph of y=√𝒙𝒙

- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [0, ∞)
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [0, ∞)
- Endpoint is (0,0)

The Graph of y= 𝒂𝒂√𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 ± 𝒉𝒉 ± 𝒌𝒌

𝑓𝑓: [0, ∞) → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂√𝒏𝒏𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉 ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- dilated by a factor of a from the x-axis and by a factor of n from the
y-axis
o if a > 0
 the range will be 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [𝑘𝑘, ∞)
 and n > 0, the graph will be in the 1st quadrant
• Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [ℎ, ∞)
 and n < 0, the graph will be in the 2nd quardrant
• Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−∞, ℎ]
o if a < 0
 the range will be 𝑦𝑦 ∈ (−∞, 𝑘𝑘]
 and n < 0, the graph will be in the 3rd quadrant
• Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ (−∞, ℎ]
 and n > 0, the graph will be in the 4th quadrant
• Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [ℎ, ∞)
Graphing Square Root Functions

The Graph of y= 𝒂𝒂√𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 ± 𝒉𝒉 ± 𝒌𝒌

𝑓𝑓: [0, ∞) → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂√𝒏𝒏𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉 ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- translated vertically by k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- Endpoint is (h,k)

Graphing Cube Root Functions

The Graph of y= √𝒙𝒙

𝟑𝟑

- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
- Point of inflection at (0,0)
3 3
- The graph of √𝑥𝑥 = − √−𝑥𝑥
3 3
- The graph of √−𝑥𝑥 = − √𝑥𝑥

The Graph of y=𝒂𝒂 √𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 ± 𝒉𝒉 ± 𝒌𝒌

𝟑𝟑

3
𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂 √𝒏𝒏𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉 ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0
- dilated by a factor of a from x-axis and by a factor of n from the y-axis
- translated vertically by k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- Point of inflection at (h,k)

Graphing Power Functions

𝒑𝒑
𝒒𝒒
The Graph of y=𝒙𝒙𝒒𝒒 or y= √𝒙𝒙𝒑𝒑 where 𝒑𝒑, 𝒒𝒒 ∈ 𝑵𝑵
𝑝𝑝
- If p > q, then the polynomial shape dominates because 𝑞𝑞
>1
- If p < q, then the root shape dominates because the index must be in
𝑝𝑝
the interval of 0 < 𝑞𝑞 < 1
Graphing Circle Functions

The Graph of 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 = (𝒙𝒙 ± 𝒉𝒉)𝟐𝟐 ± (𝒚𝒚 ± 𝒌𝒌)𝟐𝟐

- The centre of the circle is at (h,k)
- 𝑟𝑟 2 = radius squared (diameter)
- translated vertically by k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [ℎ − √𝑟𝑟 2 , ℎ + √𝑟𝑟 2 ]
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [𝑘𝑘 − √𝑟𝑟 2 , 𝑘𝑘 + √𝑟𝑟 2 ]

Combinations of Functions

Hybrid Functions
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 1, [𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑]
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 2, [𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑]
- if the domain has ≤, ≥ or [], the value/s is/are included and is
expressed graphically through a closed dot •
o the function is continuous at this point
- if the domain has <, > or (), the value/s is/are excluded and is
expressed graphically through an open dot o
o the function is not continuous at this point

Sum Functions and Addition of Ordinates

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 ∩ 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔
1. Sketch the individual functions on the same axes
2. Add the y-values (ordinates) for each x-value
𝒙𝒙 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓(−2) 𝑓𝑓(−1) 𝑓𝑓(0) 𝑓𝑓(1) 𝑓𝑓(2)
𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝑔𝑔(−2) 𝑔𝑔(−1) 𝑔𝑔(0) 𝑔𝑔(1) 𝑔𝑔(2)
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) + 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓(−2) + 𝑔𝑔(−2) 𝑓𝑓(−1) + 𝑔𝑔(−1) 𝑓𝑓(0) + 𝑔𝑔(0) 𝑓𝑓(1) + 𝑔𝑔(1) 𝑓𝑓(2) + 𝑔𝑔(2)
3. Plot resultant points.
Difference Functions
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 ∩ 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔
1. Sketch the individual functions on the same axes
2. Add the y-values (ordinates) for each x-value
𝒙𝒙 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓(−2) 𝑓𝑓(−1) 𝑓𝑓(0) 𝑓𝑓(1) 𝑓𝑓(2)
𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝑔𝑔(−2) 𝑔𝑔(−1) 𝑔𝑔(0) 𝑔𝑔(1) 𝑔𝑔(2)
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) − 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓(−2) − 𝑔𝑔(−2) 𝑓𝑓(−1) − 𝑔𝑔(−1) 𝑓𝑓(0) − 𝑔𝑔(0) 𝑓𝑓(1) − 𝑔𝑔(1) 𝑓𝑓(2) − 𝑔𝑔(2)
3. Plot resultant points.

Product Functions
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) × 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
- Domain is 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 ∩ 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔
- If both functions are postive or negative, the product function will be
above the x-axis
- If one function is positive and the other is negative, the product
function will be below the x-axis
1. Sketch the individual functions on the same axes
2. Add the y-values (ordinates) for each x-value
𝒙𝒙 -2 -1 0 1 2
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓(−2) 𝑓𝑓(−1) 𝑓𝑓(0) 𝑓𝑓(1) 𝑓𝑓(2)
𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝑔𝑔(−2) 𝑔𝑔(−1) 𝑔𝑔(0) 𝑔𝑔(1) 𝑔𝑔(2)
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) × 𝒈𝒈(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓(−2) × 𝑔𝑔(−2) 𝑓𝑓(−1) × 𝑔𝑔(−1) 𝑓𝑓(0) × 𝑔𝑔(0) 𝑓𝑓(1) × 𝑔𝑔(1) 𝑓𝑓(2) × 𝑔𝑔(2)
3. Plot resultant points.
TRIGONOMETRY
The Unit Circle

Radians and Degrees

- Angles are measured in radians or degrees
180
- To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋
- To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by 180

Sine, Cosine and Tangent

- The vertical distance of the unit circle is defined as sin 𝜃𝜃
- The horizontal distance of the unit circle is defined as cos 𝜃𝜃
- The tangent to the unit circle which intersects with the x-axis is
defined as tan 𝜃𝜃
sin 𝜃𝜃
o tan 𝜃𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝜃

Symmetry Properties
- Quadrant 1: All are positive - Quadrant 3: Tan is positive
- Quadrant 2: Sin is positive - Quadrant 4: Cos is positive
1st quadrant 2nd quadrant 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
sin 𝜃𝜃 sin(𝜋𝜋 − 𝜃𝜃) = sin 𝜃𝜃 sin(𝜋𝜋 + 𝜃𝜃) = − sin 𝜃𝜃 sin(2𝜋𝜋 − 𝜃𝜃) = −sin 𝜃𝜃
cos 𝜃𝜃 cos(𝜋𝜋 − 𝜃𝜃) = −cos 𝜃𝜃 cos(𝜋𝜋 + 𝜃𝜃) = −cos 𝜃𝜃 cos(2𝜋𝜋 − 𝜃𝜃) = cos 𝜃𝜃
tan 𝜃𝜃 tan(𝜋𝜋 − 𝜃𝜃) = −tan 𝜃𝜃 tan(𝜋𝜋 + 𝜃𝜃) = tan 𝜃𝜃 tan(2𝜋𝜋 − 𝜃𝜃) = −tan 𝜃𝜃
- cos(−𝜃𝜃) = cos(𝜃𝜃)
- sin(−𝜃𝜃) = −sin( 𝜃𝜃)
−sin 𝜃𝜃
- tan(−𝜃𝜃) = cos𝜃𝜃
= −tan(𝜃𝜃)
Complementary Relationships
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
- sin �2 − 𝜃𝜃� = cos 𝜃𝜃 - sin �2 + 𝜃𝜃� = cos 𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
- cos �2 − 𝜃𝜃� = sin 𝜃𝜃 - cos �2 + 𝜃𝜃� = −sin 𝜃𝜃

Exact Values

𝜽𝜽 (𝜽𝜽°) 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝜽𝜽

𝟎𝟎 0 1 0
𝝅𝝅 1 √3 1
(𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑°) √3
𝟔𝟔 2 =
2 √3 3
𝝅𝝅 1 1 1
(𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒°) √2 √2
𝟒𝟒 = =
√2 2 √2 2
𝝅𝝅 1
(𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔°) √3 √3
𝟑𝟑 2 2
𝝅𝝅 1 0 undefined
(𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗°)
𝟐𝟐
Identities

Pythagorean Identity sin2(𝜃𝜃) + cos2(𝜃𝜃) = 1

Addition Formulas cos(𝑢𝑢 − 𝑣𝑣) = cos 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 + sin 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑣𝑣

cos(𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣) = cos 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 − sin 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑣𝑣
sin(𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣) = sin 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 + cos 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑣𝑣
sin(𝑢𝑢 − 𝑣𝑣) = sin 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 − cos 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑣𝑣
Double Angle Formulas cos 2𝑢𝑢 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑢𝑢
= 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢 − 1
= 1 − 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑢𝑢
sin 2𝑢𝑢 = 2 sin 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢
2 tan 𝑢𝑢
tan 2u =
1−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 𝑢𝑢

Trigonometric Equations

Solving
- For 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒂𝒂
o if a > 0, then the answer lies within the 1st and 2nd quadrants.
o if a < 0, then the answer lies within the 3rd and 4th quadrants.
- For 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒂𝒂
o if a > 0, then the answer lies within the 1st and 4th quadrants.
o if a < 0, then the answer lies within the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
- For 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒂𝒂
o if a > 0, then the answer lies within the 1st and 3rd quadrants.
o if a < 0, then the answer lies within the 2nd and 4th quadrants.
- Equations of the form 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒂𝒂 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒙𝒙 can be converted to 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒂𝒂,
by dividing both sides by 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒙𝒙
- Equations of the form sin2𝒙𝒙 = 𝒂𝒂 can be convered to 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒙𝒙 = ±√𝒂𝒂,
by taking the square root of both sides of the equation
- Equations of the form sin2𝒙𝒙 + 𝒃𝒃 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒄𝒄 = 𝟎𝟎 can be converted into a
standard quadratic by substituting 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒙𝒙 for another variable.

General Solutions
- If the domain is not specified, then there are an infinite number of
solutions.
- In general:
o If 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒂𝒂, then 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬−𝟏𝟏 (𝒂𝒂) and
𝒙𝒙 = (𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏)𝝅𝝅 − 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬−𝟏𝟏 (𝒂𝒂), where 𝒂𝒂 ∈ [−𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟏] and 𝒏𝒏 ∈ 𝒁𝒁.
o If 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒂𝒂, then 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ± 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 −𝟏𝟏 (𝒂𝒂), where 𝒂𝒂 ∈ [−𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟏] and
𝒏𝒏 ∈ 𝒁𝒁
o If 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒂𝒂, then 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 + 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏 (𝒂𝒂), 𝒂𝒂 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 and 𝒏𝒏 ∈ 𝒁𝒁.
Trigonometric Functions

Graphing the Sine Function

𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂 sin 𝒏𝒏(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉) ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑛𝑛, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎, 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0
- 𝑎𝑎 affects the amplitude
o amplitude = |𝑎𝑎|
 it is always positive, but if a < 0, the graph will be
reflected in the x-axis
- 𝑛𝑛 affects the period
2𝜋𝜋
o period = |𝑛𝑛|
it is always positive, but if n < 0, the graph will be
reflected in the y-axis
- translated vertically by k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [𝑘𝑘 − 𝑎𝑎, 𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎]
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
Graphing the Cosine Function
𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂 cos 𝒏𝒏(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉) ± 𝒌𝒌 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑛𝑛, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎, 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0
- 𝑎𝑎 affects the amplitude
o amplitude = |𝑎𝑎|
 it is always positive, but if a < 0, the graph will be
reflected in the x-axis
- 𝑛𝑛 affects the period
2𝜋𝜋
o period = |𝑛𝑛|
it is always positive, but if n < 0, the graph will be
reflected in the y-axis
- translated vertically by k units
o if 𝒌𝒌 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves down
o if 𝒌𝒌 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves up
o Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [𝑘𝑘 − 𝑎𝑎, 𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎]
- translated horizontally h units
o if 𝒉𝒉 > 𝟎𝟎, graph moves left
o if 𝒉𝒉 < 𝟎𝟎, graph moves right
Graphing the Tangent Function
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝒂𝒂 tan 𝒏𝒏(𝑥𝑥 ± 𝒉𝒉) ± 𝒌𝒌, where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑛𝑛, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑎𝑎, 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0
- there is no amplitude, but a represents a dilation from the x-axis.
o if a < 0, the graph is reflected in the x-axis
- 𝑛𝑛 affects the period
𝜋𝜋
o period = 𝑛𝑛
𝜋𝜋
- vertical asymptotes at 𝑥𝑥 = (2𝑘𝑘 + 1) 2 , 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑍𝑍
- Range is 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS, INVERSE
FUNCTIONS & TRANSFORMATIONS

Composite Functions, Functional Equations and Literal

Equations

Composite Functions
- A composite function is a function of a function.
o 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) would be a composite function, as the x value in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
would be replaced with the equation of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥).
o it can be read as f o g
- For a composite function to be defined, the range of f must be a
subset or equal to (⊆) the domain of g.
o 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑓𝑓 ⊆ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔
- The domain of the compositve function is equal to the domain of the
inside function

Functional Equations
- You might be asked to determine if a particular function satisfies a
certain rule.
- The LHS (left hand side) must be equal to the RHS (right hand side)
for the function to satisfy the rule.

Literal Equations
- Equations with several pronumerals are literal equations.
- The solution will be expressed in terms of pronumerals, also called
parameters.

Inverse Functions and Relations

Inverse Functions
- The inverse of a set of ordered pairs is obtained by
interchanging the x and y elements.
- Only one-to-one functions will have an inverse
that is also a function.
- 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑓𝑓−1
- 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑓𝑓 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓−1
Transformations

Transformations from 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) to 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑨𝑨𝑓𝑓(𝒏𝒏(𝒙𝒙 ± 𝒄𝒄)) ± 𝒃𝒃

- Follow the pattern of D R T
Dilations from 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) to 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑨𝑨𝑓𝑓(𝒏𝒏(𝒙𝒙 ± 𝒄𝒄)) ± 𝒃𝒃
- A is a dilation by a factor of A from the x-axis.
𝟏𝟏
- n is a dilation by a factor of 𝒏𝒏
from the y-axis.
Reflections from 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) to 𝒚𝒚 = −𝑨𝑨𝑓𝑓(−𝒏𝒏(𝒙𝒙)
- If A is a negative value, there is a reflection in the x-axis.
- If n is a negative value, there is a reflection in the y-axis.
Translations from 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) to 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑓𝑓((𝒙𝒙 ± 𝒄𝒄)) ± 𝒃𝒃
- b is a vertical translation from the x-axis or parallel to the y-axis.
o A positive value of b will move the graph up.
o A negative value of b will move the graph down.
- c is a horizontal translation from the y-axis or parallel to the x-axis.
o A positive value of c will move the graph left.
o A negative value of c will move the graph right.

Transformations Involving Matrices

- Follow the pattern of D R T
- Let x’ = the transformed value of x
- Let y’ = the transformed value of y
Dilations
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥′ a 0 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
- T ��𝑦𝑦�� = � � = � � �𝑦𝑦� = � 𝑦𝑦 � represents a dilation by a factor of a
𝑦𝑦′ 0 1
from the y-axis
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥′ 1 0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
- T ��𝑦𝑦�� = � � = � � �𝑦𝑦� = �𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎� represents a dilation by a factor of a
𝑦𝑦′ 0 a
from the x-axis
Reflections
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥′ −1 0 𝑥𝑥 −𝑥𝑥
- T ��𝑦𝑦�� = � � = � � �𝑦𝑦� = � 𝑦𝑦 � represents a reflection in the y-axis
𝑦𝑦′ 0 1
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥′ 1 0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
- T ��𝑦𝑦�� = � � = � � �𝑦𝑦� = �−𝑦𝑦� represents a reflection in the x-axis
𝑦𝑦′ 0 −1
Translations
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥′ 𝑥𝑥 b 𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑏
- T ��𝑦𝑦�� = � � = �𝑦𝑦� ± � � = � � represents a translation of b units and
𝑦𝑦′ c 𝑦𝑦 ± 𝑐𝑐
a translation of c units

Combining Transformations
- T: 𝑅𝑅 2 → 𝑅𝑅 2 means the transformation that maps a point (x,y) to another
point (x,y)
CALCULUS

Continuity and Limits

Continuity
- Derivatives can be found at a given
point if it is…
o Continuous, with no jumps,
breaks or asymptotes on its
graph. It does not exist where the
function is not continuous.
o Smooth, with no sharp points.
It does not exist where the
function is not smooth.

Limits
- The limit of a function is the value that the
function approaches as x approaches a
given value.
- If the function is continuous at that point
then the limit does exist.
- It is denoted as… lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→ ?
- If the function is discontinuous at the point,
then the limit will only exist if function
approaches the same value from its left and
its right.

Differentiation

Differentiation from First Principles

- The gradient function is the rule for
the instantaneous rate of change of a
given function at any point.
- The gradient at point P is
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = lim ,ℎ ≠ 0
ℎ→0 ℎ

The Derivative of Polynomials

- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘, then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 0
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛 , then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1
The Derivative of 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 , then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑐𝑐 , then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑐𝑐
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) , then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔′ (𝑥𝑥) × 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

The Derivative of 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝒆𝒆 (𝒙𝒙)

1
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥
1
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥
𝑎𝑎
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎og 𝑒𝑒 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥
1 𝑎𝑎
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ± 𝑐𝑐), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘 ÷ 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ± 𝑐𝑐
𝑔𝑔′(𝑥𝑥)
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

The Derivative of 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽

- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = sin(𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = cos(𝑥𝑥)
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = sin(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎cos(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = sin(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔′ (𝑥𝑥) × cos(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥))

The Derivative of 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜽𝜽

- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = cos(𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = − sin(𝑥𝑥)
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = cos(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = −𝑎𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = cos(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔′(𝑥𝑥) × − sin(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥))

The Derivative of 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝜽𝜽

1
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = tan(𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = cos2(𝑥𝑥) = sec 2 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑎𝑎
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = tan(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = cos2(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) = 𝑎𝑎sec 2(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)

The Chain Rule

- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑚𝑚�𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥)�, then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑚𝑚′ �𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥)� × 𝑛𝑛′(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
- Alternatively, = × , where 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑢𝑢) and u is a function of x
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The Product Rule

- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥) × 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥), then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = �𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥) × 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑥𝑥)� + �𝑢𝑢′(𝑥𝑥) × 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
- If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢 × 𝑣𝑣, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= �𝑢𝑢 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� + �𝑣𝑣 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �

The Quotient Rule

𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥) �𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥)×𝑢𝑢′ (𝑥𝑥)�−�𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥)×𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑥𝑥)�
- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = , then 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) =
𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥) (𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥))2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑣𝑣× �−�𝑢𝑢× �
- If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣 , then = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
Tangents and Normals

Tangents
- A tangent to a curve is a straight
line that touches the curve at a
given point and whos gradient
represents the gradient of the
curve at that point.
- The equation of the tangent at
the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) can be found
by:
1. Finding the derivative of the function
2. Substituting 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥1 into the derivative to find the gradient of the
tangent, m
3. Substituting m and the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) into the equation of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐
to find the value of c
OR
Substituting m and the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) into the equation of
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

Normals
- A normal to a curve is a straight line passing through the point where
the tangent touches the curve and is perpendicular (at right angles) to
the tanget at that point.
- The equation of the tangent at the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) can be found by:
1. Finding the derivative of the function
2. Substituting 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥1 into the derivative to find the gradient of the
1
normal, − 𝑚𝑚
1
3. Substituting − 𝑚𝑚 and the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) into the equation of
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐 to find the value of c
OR
1
Substituting − 𝑚𝑚 and the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) into the equation of
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
Curve Sketching

Features
- The four main characteristics of a graph that should be shown when
sketching the gradient function are…
1. The basic shape (whenever possible)
2. The y-intercept
3. The x-intercept(s)
4. The stationary point(s)

Stationary Points
- A stationary point is a point on a graph where the function
momentarily stops rising and falling: that is, it is a point where the
gradient is zero.
- The first derivative test can be used to determine the nature of the
four types of stationary points:
o Local minimum turning point
𝒙𝒙 a<b b c>b
′ (𝑎𝑎) ′ (𝑏𝑏) ′ (𝑐𝑐)
𝒇𝒇′(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓 < 0 𝑓𝑓 = 0 𝑓𝑓 >0

o Local maximum turning point

𝒙𝒙 a<b b c>b
′ (𝑎𝑎) ′ (𝑏𝑏) ′ (𝑐𝑐)
𝒇𝒇′(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓 > 0 𝑓𝑓 =0 𝑓𝑓 <0

o Positive stationary point of inflection

𝒙𝒙 a<b b c>b
′ (𝑎𝑎) ′ (𝑏𝑏) ′ (𝑐𝑐)
𝒇𝒇′(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓 > 0 𝑓𝑓 = 0 𝑓𝑓 >0

o Negative stationary point of inflection

𝒙𝒙 a<b b c>b
′ (𝑎𝑎) ′ (𝑏𝑏) ′ (𝑐𝑐)
𝒇𝒇′(𝒙𝒙) 𝑓𝑓 < 0 𝑓𝑓 = 0 𝑓𝑓 <0

Strictly Increasing and Decreasing Functions

- A function is strictly increasing over the interval [𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ] if 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2 and
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) < 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 ) whereas a function is strictly decreasing over the
interval [𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ] if 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2 and 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) > 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 )
Maximum and Minimum Problems
- Steps involved in solving maximum/minimum problems
1. Draw a diagram where applicable
2. Identify the quantity to be maximised or minimised
3. Express the quantity in terms of one variable only
4. Solve 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 0
5. Verify it is a maximum or minimum using first derivative test
6. Sketch a graph to confirm
7. Answer the question asked

Rates of Change

Constant Rate
- When the rate of change of one quantity with respect to another does
not change, the rate is constant. A constant rate can be represented
graphically by a straight line.

Average Rate of Change

- An average rate of change is the rate of change over a period of time. It
can be calculated by finding the gradient of a straight line joining the
two points.
𝑦𝑦2 −𝑦𝑦1
- 𝑚𝑚 =
𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1

Instantaneous Rate of Change

- An instantaneous rate of change is found by drawing a tangent to the
curve at a point or by finding f’(x) and then substituting in the
required value.

Antidifferentiation

The Process of Antidifferentiation

- The process that finds the function for a particular gradient function.
𝑑𝑑
- If 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥), then ∫ 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), where ∫ means the
antiderivative or the integral.
- To find the antiderivative, c is at the end of the equation.
- To find an antiderivative, c is equal to 0 and is not at the end of the
equation.

Properties of Antidifferentiation
- ∫[𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ± 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)] ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ± ∫ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
- ∫ 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘 ∫ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, where 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅
Integration by Recognition
- If 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), then ∫ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐

Antiderivative of 𝒙𝒙𝒓𝒓 , 𝒓𝒓 ≠ −𝟏𝟏

𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟+1
- ∫ 𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑟𝑟+1
+ 𝑐𝑐
1
- ∫(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)𝑟𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎(𝑟𝑟+1) (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)𝑟𝑟+1 + 𝑐𝑐

Antiderivative of 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝒙𝒙)
- ∫ sin(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − cos(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐
1
- ∫ sin(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) + 𝑐𝑐
1
- ∫ sin(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ± 𝑎𝑎) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ± 𝑎𝑎) + 𝑐𝑐

Antiderivative of 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝒙𝒙)
- ∫ cos(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = sin(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐
1
- ∫ cos(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘 sin 𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐
1
- ∫ cos(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ± 𝑎𝑎) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘 sin(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ± 𝑎𝑎) + 𝑐𝑐

Antiderivative of 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
- ∫ 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐
1
- ∫ 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑐𝑐
1
- ∫ 𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘±𝑎𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘±2 + 𝑐𝑐

𝟏𝟏
Antiderivative of 𝒙𝒙
1
- ∫ 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = log 𝑒𝑒 |𝑥𝑥| + 𝑐𝑐
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
- ∫ 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘±𝑎𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘 log 𝑒𝑒 |(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ± 𝑎𝑎)| + 𝑐𝑐
𝑔𝑔′(𝑥𝑥)
- ∫ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = log 𝑒𝑒 |(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥))| +𝑐𝑐

Sketching the Antiderivative

Features

Gradient Function 𝒇𝒇′(𝒙𝒙) Original Function 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐 Quadratic
Quadratic Cubic
- When the gradient function is above the x-axis, the original
function will have a positive gradient.
- Similarly, when the gradient function is below the x-axis, the
original function will have a negative gradient.
- x-intercepts on the gradient function will be seen as stationary
points on the original function.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Left and Right Rectangle Method
- The area under the graph between the curve of
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), the x-axis and the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑥𝑥2 is approximated by ‘left’ rectangles, meaning
the left corner touches the curve.
- Similarly, the area under the graph between the
curve of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), the x-axis and the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥1
and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥2 is approximated by ‘right’ rectangles,
meaning the right corner touches the curve.
- If the area of a rectangle = 𝐿𝐿 × 𝑊𝑊, then the
approximate area under the graph in square
units can be given by the width multiplied by
the sum of the area of all rectangles between
the lines 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 and 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 .
- For an increasing function:
LRM ≤ Actual Area ≤ RRM
- For a decreasing function:
RRM ≤ Actual Area ≤ LRM
𝐿𝐿 +𝑅𝑅
- Average Approximate Area = 𝐴𝐴 2 𝐴𝐴 units2

The Definite Integral

𝑏𝑏
- ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = [𝐹𝐹 (𝑥𝑥 )]𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎 = 𝐹𝐹 (𝑏𝑏) − 𝐹𝐹(𝑎𝑎), where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is smooth and
continuous over the interval of [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏].
- Properties of the definite integral include:
𝑎𝑎
o ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏
o ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∫𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, where 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑐𝑐 < 𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
o ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘 ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
o ∫𝑎𝑎 [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)]. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎
o ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − ∫𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Sigma Notation
- An alternative notation for the definite integral of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) for 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] is
the sigma notation, which looks like this:
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∑𝑛𝑛
n  ∞, 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖  0 and ∑𝑛𝑛1 𝛿𝛿𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 → ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, so ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 → 0 𝑖𝑖=1
- More simply put:
𝑏𝑏 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∑𝑛𝑛
∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 → 0 𝑖𝑖=1
Integrating Areas

Areas Under Curves

Above the x-axis

- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0 between the interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏],
𝑏𝑏
then ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 > 0

Below the x-axis

- If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) < 0 between the interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏],
𝑏𝑏
then ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 < 0. As area cannot be negative, there are three ways
to avoid calculating a negative area if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is
below the x-axis.
o Multiply by -1 at the beginning
𝑏𝑏
𝐴𝐴 = − � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎
o Apply absolute value brackets
𝑏𝑏
𝐴𝐴 = �� 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�
𝑎𝑎
o Reverse the terminals
𝑎𝑎
𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑏𝑏

Combining Regions
- 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐴𝐴2
- If 𝐴𝐴1 is below the x-axis, one of the three
ways is needed in order to avoid
calculating a negative area.
o Multiplying the integral below the
x-axis by -1
𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (− � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎
o Applying absolute value brackets
to the integral below the x-axis
𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + �� 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�
𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎
o Reversing the terminals of the
integral below the x-axis.
𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
Area Between Curves
- The area between two curves over the
interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] can be found by
subtracting the definite integral of the
bottom function from the definite
integral of the top function.
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)]. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

- If it is over a much larger interval, each of the

individual intervals must be considered.
𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒
� [𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)]. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)]. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � [𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)]. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)]. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑

The Average Value

- The average value of a function over the
interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] is given by:
1 𝑏𝑏
o Yavg = 𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎 ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Kinematics

Displacement
- 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) Distance
- 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 - 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Velocity Speed
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
- 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥′(𝑡𝑡) - 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
- 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = ∫ 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Time
Acceleration 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
- 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣′(𝑡𝑡) - 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
- 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡)
PROBABILITY

Review

General Probability Rules

Simple Events 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

Pr (A) =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Complementary Events Pr(A) = 1 − Pr (A′ )
Addition Rule Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr (A ∩ B)
Mutually Exclusive Pr(A ∩ B) = 0
Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr (B)
Conditional Probability Pr (A ∩ B)
Pr(A|B) =
Pr (B)
Multiplication Rule Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr (A|B) × Pr (B)
Independent Events Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr (A) × Pr (B)

Probability Diagrams
- Tree diagrams - Lattice diagrams

- Venn diagrams - Probability tables

Discrete Random Variables

Random Variables
- A random variable is a variable where its value cannot be predicted
but is determined by the outcome of an event.
- Random variables are expressed as captial letters, and the value they
take on is expressed as lowercase letters.
- Discrete random variables can have their outcomes counted, and
normally deal with size or number.
Discrete Probability Distribution

𝒙𝒙
𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏(𝐗𝐗 = 𝒙𝒙)
- All discrete probability distributions must satisfy
o 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑁𝑁
o 0 ≤ Pr(X = 𝑥𝑥) ≤ 1
o ∑ Pr ( X = 𝑥𝑥) = 1

Measures of Spread and Centre

Expected value/mean 𝜇𝜇 or 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋) = ∑ 𝑥𝑥Pr(X = 𝑥𝑥), for all x

𝐸𝐸(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) = 𝑎𝑎 × 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋), where X is a random variable and a
is a constant
𝐸𝐸(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎 × 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋) + 𝑏𝑏, where X is a random variable
and a and b is a constant
𝐸𝐸(𝑏𝑏) = 𝑏𝑏, where b is a constant
𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) = 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋) + 𝐸𝐸(𝑌𝑌), where X and Y are random
variables
Median It is the value such that 50% of the distribution lies
to the left and 50% of the distribution lies to the right
Mode Most commonly occuring value, the value with the
highest probability.
Variance 𝜎𝜎 2 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑋𝑋) = 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋 2 ) − [𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋)]2
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑋𝑋)
Standard deviation 𝜎𝜎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑋𝑋) = �𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑋𝑋)
95% of the Spread Pr (𝜇𝜇 − 2𝜎𝜎 ≤ 𝑋𝑋 ≤ 𝜇𝜇 + 2𝜎𝜎) ≈ 0.95

The Binomial Distribution

Bernoulli Trials
- Bernoulli Trials are a sequence of trials that possess the following
qualities;
o Results in one of two outcomes, normally a success, S, or a
failure, F.
o The probability of success on a single trial, p, is constant for all
trials.
o The probability of failure on a single trial, q (or 1-p), is constant
for all trials.
o The trials are independent, so that the outcome of any trial does
not affect the outcomes of further trials.
- For a discrete probability distribution that has a Bernoulli random
variable, X:
𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 1
o Pr(X = 𝑥𝑥) = �
1 − 𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 0
o 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋) = 𝜇𝜇 = 𝑝𝑝
o 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑋𝑋) = 𝜎𝜎 2 = 𝑝𝑝(1 − 𝑝𝑝)
Binomial Distribution
- 𝐗𝐗~𝐁𝐁𝐁𝐁(𝐧𝐧, 𝐩𝐩), where X represents a random variable that as a binomial
distribution, n represents the number of trials and p represents the
probability of success.
- 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏(𝐗𝐗 = 𝒙𝒙) = 𝒏𝒏 𝑪𝑪𝒙𝒙 𝒑𝒑𝒙𝒙 𝒒𝒒𝒏𝒏−𝒙𝒙
o 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋) = 𝜇𝜇 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
o 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑋𝑋) = 𝜎𝜎 2 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
o 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑋𝑋) = 𝜎𝜎 = �𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

Graphing the Binomial Distribution

- 𝑝𝑝 < 0.5

- 𝑝𝑝 = 0.5

- 𝑝𝑝 > 0.5
Continuous Random Variables

Continuous Probability Distributions

- A continuous random variable is one that can take any value in an
interval of the real number line.
- It cannot take an exact value, since it is always rounded to the limits
imposed by the method of measurement used.
o Hence, the probabilty of being exactly equal to a particular value
is zero.
- The probability density function or pdf is a scale that shows the
probability of the random variable lying between certain values.
o This is given by the area between the pdf and the horizontal axis
It is found by the equation:
𝒃𝒃

𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏(𝒂𝒂 < 𝒙𝒙 < 𝒃𝒃) = � 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) ∙ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

𝒂𝒂
- To determine if a function is a pdf, it
must satisfy the following:
o 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) > 0 for all of x
o The area under the curve must
be equal to 1.

Measures of Spread and Centre

Expected value/mean 𝑏𝑏
𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋) = 𝜇𝜇 = � 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎
𝐸𝐸(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎 × 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋) + 𝑏𝑏
𝑚𝑚
Median 1
� 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑎𝑎 2
Mode The value for X for which 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) has its maximum. If
there is a maximum, it is the x-coordinate. If there is
not, it is the endpoint of the interval that corresponds
to the maximum value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).
Variance 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑋𝑋) = 𝜎𝜎 2 = 𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋 2 ) − [𝐸𝐸(𝑋𝑋)]2
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
= � 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (� 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )2
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑋𝑋)
Standard deviation 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑋𝑋) = 𝜎𝜎 = �𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑋𝑋)
Interquartile range 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 75th percentile − 25th percentile
To find a specific 𝑘𝑘
� 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = [insert specific quartile]
quartile 𝑎𝑎
The Normal Distribution

Normal Distribution
- Characterised by a symmetrical bell shaped curve with the equation of
the curve being:
1 𝑥𝑥−𝜇𝜇 2
1
o 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜎𝜎√2𝜋𝜋 𝑒𝑒 −2� �
𝜎𝜎

- The normal distribution can be denoted as such:

o 𝐗𝐗~𝐍𝐍(𝛍𝛍, 𝝈𝝈𝟐𝟐 )

Graphs and Symmetry

- Pr (𝜇𝜇 − 𝜎𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇𝜇 − 𝜎𝜎) ≈ 0.68, this means
that approximately 68% will fall within 1
standard deviation of the mean.
- Pr (𝜇𝜇 − 2𝜎𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇𝜇 − 2𝜎𝜎) ≈ 0.95, this means
that approximately 95% will fall within 2
standard deviations of the mean.
- Pr (𝜇𝜇 − 3𝜎𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇𝜇 − 3𝜎𝜎) ≈ 0.997, this means
that approximately 99.7% will fall within 3
standard deviation of the mean.

Standard Normal Distribution

- The standard normal distribution is such
that 𝐙𝐙~𝐍𝐍(𝟎𝟎, 𝟏𝟏), where the mean is 0 and
the variance is 1.
- To change a normal distribution into a
standard distribution:
𝑋𝑋−𝜇𝜇
o If X~N(μ, 𝜎𝜎 2 ) then 𝜎𝜎 = Z~N(0,1)
- To convert a given normal variable, X, into
a standard normal variable, Z:
𝑋𝑋−𝜇𝜇
o 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜎𝜎

Inverse Normal Distribution

- Use CAS to determine the z variable that gave a particular probability.
Statistical Inference

Samples and Populations

- The set of all eligible members of a group intended to study is called a
population.
o The number of members in a population is called the
population size and has the symbol of N.
o A parameter is a characteristic of the population. It is usually
an estimate from a sample statistic.
o The population proportion with the symbol p is the proportion
of individuals in the entire population possessing a particular
attribute and is constant.
- A susbet of the population which is selected to make inferences is
called a sample.
o The number of members in a sample is called the sample size
and has the symbol of n.
o A statistic is a characteristic of the sample. It is always known
as it is being directly measured.
o The sample proportion with the symbol 𝒑𝒑 � is the proportion of
individuals in a particular sample possessing a particular
attribute and varies from each sample.
o A random sample is where every member of the population has
an equal chance of being selected.
o A systematic sample is where every kth member of the
population is sampled, where k is a positive integer.
o A stratified random sample is where subgroups of the
population are represented in a similar proportion in the sample
and within each subgroup, every member has an equal chance
of being selected.
o A self-selected sample is where participants choose to
participate in the survey or study. It is almost never
representative of the population.

Distribution of 𝐩𝐩
�
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
- 𝑝𝑝̂ = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
o Sampling distribution is where the distribution of a statistic is
calculated from a sample.
𝑋𝑋
o It can be understood that 𝑝𝑝̂ = 𝑛𝑛 , where X is the number of
successes in the sample and n is the sample size.
- Sampling from a small population:
o When the population is small, the possible values of 𝑝𝑝̂ can be
calculated either by direct consideration of the sample outcomes
or by using our knowledge of selections.
Distribution of 𝐩𝐩
�
- Sampling from a small population:
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛!
o 𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 = , meaning the number of different ways to select x
𝑥𝑥!(𝑛𝑛−𝑥𝑥)!
objects from n objects.
o Pr�𝑃𝑃� = 𝑝𝑝̂ � can be found by:
𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶 × 𝑁𝑁−𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛−𝑑𝑑
 𝑁𝑁 𝐶𝐶
𝑛𝑛
• D is the number of objects with the desired
characteristic in the population
• d is the number of objects with the desired
charcteristic in the sample
• N is the population size
• n is the sample size.
X or d 𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋2 𝑋𝑋3
�
𝒑𝒑 𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋2 𝑋𝑋3
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
� = 𝒑𝒑
𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏�𝑷𝑷 ��
- Sampling from a large population:
o When the population is large, it is assumed that the probabilty
of observing the particular attribute remains constant with each
selection, irrespective of prior selections. Since the probability
for the attribute remains unchanged, the binomial distribution
can be used to calculate the sampling distribution.
- Mean and standard deviation of the sample proportion:
o 𝐸𝐸(𝑝𝑝�) = 𝜇𝜇𝑝𝑝� = 𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝(1−𝑝𝑝)
o 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑝𝑝�) = 𝜎𝜎2𝑝𝑝� =
𝑛𝑛
𝑝𝑝(1−𝑝𝑝)
o 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆(𝑝𝑝�) = 𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝� = �
𝑛𝑛

Confidence Intervals
- The value of the sample proportion 𝒑𝒑� can be used to estimate the
population proportion p and as this is a single-valued estimate, it is a
point estimate of p.
- Using an interval that we are reasonably sure contains the parameter
value p is a more safe estimate than a point estimate, and is called an
interval estimate for p.
- An approximate 95% confidence interval for p is given by:
𝑝𝑝�(1−𝑝𝑝�) 𝑝𝑝�(1−𝑝𝑝�)
o 0.95 ≈ (𝑝𝑝̂ − 1.96� , 𝑝𝑝̂ + 1.96� )
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
 p is the population proportion (unknown)
 � is the value of the sample proportion
𝒑𝒑
 𝒏𝒏 is the size of the sample from which 𝒑𝒑
� was calculated.
Confidence Intervals
- An approximate 90% confidence interval for p is given by:
𝑝𝑝�(1−𝑝𝑝�) 𝑝𝑝�(1−𝑝𝑝�)
o 0.90 ≈ (𝑝𝑝̂ − 1.65� , 𝑝𝑝̂ + 1.65� )
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
- An approximate 99% confidence interval for p is given by:
𝑝𝑝�(1−𝑝𝑝�) 𝑝𝑝�(1−𝑝𝑝�)
o 0.99 ≈ (𝑝𝑝̂ − 2.58� , 𝑝𝑝̂ + 2.58� )
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
- A 95% confidence interval for p will have a margin of error
approximately equal to a specified value of M when the sample size is:
1.96 2
o 𝑛𝑛 = � 𝑀𝑀
� × 𝑝𝑝∗ × (1 − 𝑝𝑝∗ )
 p* is an estimated value for the population proportion p.
CAS Skills
Solving

Defining: Method 1 Defining: Method 2

→ Math3 → equation
→ Define f(x)=equation → Math1
→ exe →⇒
→ Var
→a
→ exe
Factorise Expand
→ Highlight equation → Highlight equation
→ Interactive → Interactive
→ Transformation → Transformation
→ factor → expand
→ factor

Solve For Variable Restricted Domain

→ Math1 → Math3
→ solve(equation, desired variable) → solve(equation|domain)
→ exe → exe

Dividing Polynomials Simultaneous Equations

→ Define function → Math1
→ Find factor by 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0 → �𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 1
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 2
|x,y
→ Action → exe
→ Transformation
→ Fraction Point of Intersection: Method 1
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
→ propFrac (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 → Math1
→ exe → �𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 1
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 2
|x,y

→ exe

Inverse: Method 1 Equation of Composite

→ swap x and y manually Functions
→ Math1 → Define both functions
→ solve(equation,y) → 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) for f o g
→ exe → 𝑔𝑔(𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)) for g o f
→ exe
Literal Functions General Solutions
→ Math1 → Math3
→ solve(equation, desired variable) → Define function
→ exe → Math1
→ solve(equation,x)
→ exe
Functional Equations
→ Math3 Limits
→ Define function → Math2
→ Input rule → lim 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑥𝑥→?
→ exe

Derivative Function Derivative at a Point

→ Math2 → Math2
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
→ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(equation) → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(equation)|x=desired point
→ exe → exe

Stationary Points: Method 1

x-value y-value
→ solve( → Math1
𝑑𝑑 → solve(equation|x=x-value(s))
→ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(equation=0,x)
→ exe
→ exe

Finding the Tangent Finding the Normal

→ Interactive → Interactive
→ Calculation → Calculation
→ line → line
→ tanline → normal
→ expression: → expression:
→ variable: → variable:
→ point: → point:
→ exe → exe

Indefinite Integral Definite Integral

→ Math3 → Math3
→ Define function → Define function
→ Math2 → Math2
𝑏𝑏
→ ∫ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
→ exe → exe
BinomialPDf BinomialCDf
→ Interactive → Interactive
→ Distribution/Inv. Dist → Distribution/Inv. Dist
→ Discrete → Discrete
→ binomialPDf → binomialCDf
→ x: → lower:
→ Numtrial: → upper:
→ pos: → Numtrial:
→ exe → pos:
→ exe

Normal CDf Inverse Normal

→ Interactive → Interactive
→ Distribution/Inv. Dist → Distribution/Inv. Dist
→ Continuous → Continuous
→ normCDf → invNormCDf
→ lower: → tail setting:
→ upper: → prob:
→ σ: → σ:
→ μ: → μ:
→ exe → exe

Random Number Generator Sample Proportions of Random

→ Catalog Binomials
→R → Catalog
→ randList(a,b,c) →R
→ a: trials → randBin(d,e,f)
→ b: lower → d: sample size
→ c: upper → b: probability of success
→ exe → c: sample proportions
→ exe

Combinations Factorials
→ Advance → Advance
→ nCr(n,x) → desired number!
→ exe → exe
CAS Skills

Graphing

x-intercepts y-intercepts
→ Analysis → Analysis
→ G-Solve → G-Solve
→ Root → y-Intercept

Stationary Points: Method 2 Point of Intersection: Method 2

→ Analysis → Analysis
→ G-Solve → G-Solve
→ Max (if maximum) → Intersection
→ Min (if minimum)
→ Inflection (if point of Inverse: Method 2
inflection) → Analysis
→ Sketch
→ Inverse
Zoom
→ Zoom
→ Original
→ Auto
Useful Formulas for Problem Solving
Circle Circumference = 2 × 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟
Area = 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 2
Sphere Area/Surface Area = 4 × 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 2
4
Volume = × 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 3
3
Hemisphere Area = 3 × 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 2
Curved Surface Area = 2 × 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 2
2
Volume = × 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 3
3
Trapezoid Perimeter = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑
1
Area = × (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) × ℎ
2
Cube Perimeter = 6 × 𝑎𝑎
Area = 6 × 𝑎𝑎2
Curved Surface Area = 4 × 𝑎𝑎2
Volume = 𝑎𝑎3
Cuboid Perimeter = 4 × (𝑙𝑙 + 𝑤𝑤 + ℎ)
Area = 2 × ((𝑙𝑙 × 𝑤𝑤) + (𝑤𝑤 × ℎ) + (ℎ × 𝑙𝑙))
Curved Surface Area = (2 × ℎ) × (𝑙𝑙 + 𝑤𝑤)
Volume = 𝑙𝑙 × 𝑤𝑤 × ℎ
Cylinder Area = 2 × 𝜋𝜋 × (𝑟𝑟 + ℎ)
Curved Surface Area = 2 × 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 × ℎ
Volume = 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 2 × ℎ
Cone Area = 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 × (𝑟𝑟 + 𝑙𝑙)
Curved Surface Area = 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 × 𝑙𝑙
1
Volume = × 𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟 2 × ℎ
3
Right Pyramid 1
Volume = × 𝑎𝑎 × ℎ, 𝑎𝑎 = area of base
3
Exam Style Questions – Tech Free
Example 1
Solve the following equations for x
a. 2 log 3 5 − log 3 2 + log 3 𝑥𝑥 = 2 𝑥𝑥 1
d. sin �2� = − 2 , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [2𝜋𝜋, 4𝜋𝜋]

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
b. = −2𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎 2𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥+3𝑦𝑦 e. 𝑏𝑏+𝑥𝑥
= 𝑏𝑏−𝑥𝑥

c. 2cos(2𝑥𝑥) = −√3, 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝜋𝜋 f. 2(2𝑥𝑥−1 − 3) = −4

Example 2
Simply the following equations
a. (𝑞𝑞 2 𝑝𝑝)3 × (𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞)2 × 𝑝𝑝3 c. log 7 49 + log 2 32 − log 5 125

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏 −1 log5 32

b. ÷ d. 3 log5 16
𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏 −2 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏 3
Example 3
Sketch the function 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 + 3, showing all relevant features and state the
domain and range.

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Example 4
Sketch the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = ln(3𝑥𝑥 − 4), showing all relevant features and state
the domain and range.

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Example 5
If the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 2 − 9 and the function 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 + 5, find integers 𝑐𝑐
and 𝑑𝑑, such that 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� = �(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐)(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑)

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Example 6
The following matrix equation was applied to the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = cos(𝑥𝑥). Find
the rule for the transformed function and describe the transformations that
occurred.
𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥′ 1 0 𝑥𝑥
𝑇𝑇 ��𝑦𝑦�� = � � = � � �𝑦𝑦� + � 4 �
𝑦𝑦′ 0 −1
−2

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Example 7
1
Sketch the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥−5 showing all relevant features and state the
domain and range.

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Example 8
The probability density function for the continuous random variable X is
3 − 𝑥𝑥, 2 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 4
given by 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = � . Find:
0, 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
a. Pr(𝑋𝑋 < 3.5) b. Pr(𝑋𝑋 < 2.5|𝑋𝑋 < 3.5)

Example 9
Consider the simultaneous equations where k is a real constant. Find the
value of k where there are infinitely many solutions.
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 3𝑦𝑦 = 𝑘𝑘 + 3
4𝑥𝑥 + (𝑘𝑘 + 7)𝑦𝑦 = 1

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Example 10
Find the derivatives of the following functions
a. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3log 𝑒𝑒 (2𝑥𝑥 + 3) 𝑥𝑥
c. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �cos(3)

b. 𝑦𝑦 = tan(4𝑥𝑥) + 5 d. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 5𝑥𝑥+1 𝑥𝑥 2
Example 11
Water is being poured into a vase. The volume, V mL, of water in the vase
2
after t seconds is given by V = 3 𝑡𝑡 2 (15 − 𝑡𝑡), 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 10. Find:
a. Average rate of change between 0 and 10 seconds.

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b. When the rate of flow is a maximum.

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Example 12
For the following probability functions, calculate:
i. E(X)
ii. Var(X)
iii. SD(X)
1
a. 𝑋𝑋~Bi(3, 4) 2𝑥𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1
b. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �
0, 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
i. i.

ii. ii.

iii. iii.
Example 13
Sketch the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 2cos(𝑥𝑥) + 1, 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [0,2𝜋𝜋], showing all relevant features
and state the domain and range.

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Example 14
Sketch the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 − 1)3 + 8, showing all relevant features and
state the domain and range.

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Exam Style Questions – Tech Allowed
Example 1
An epidemiologist is studying the progression of a flu epidemic decides that
3
the function 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ), 𝑘𝑘 > 0 would be a good model for the
4
proportion of the earth’s population that will contract the flu after t months.
1
a. If after 3 months, 1500 of the earth’s population has the flu, find the
value of the constant k, correct to 4 decimal places.

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b. Find the value of the constant k, correct to 4 decimal places, if 75% of
the earth’s population has the flu after 6 months.

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Example 2
Let 𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 + → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘 log 2 (𝑥𝑥), 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.
Given that 𝑓𝑓 −1 (1) = 8, the value of 𝑘𝑘 is
A. 0 D. 8

B.
1
E. 12
3

F. I don’t know
C. 3

Example 3
The population of possums in an inner city suburb is starting to increase.
Observations of the numbers present suggest a model for the number of
possums in the suburb given by 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) = 83 − 65𝑒𝑒 −0.2𝑡𝑡 , 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0, where P is the
number of possums observed and t is the time in months since observations
began. Sketch the graph of 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡), showing all relevant features.
Example 4
The function f has the property 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑦𝑦) = (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥)𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) for all non-zero
real numbers for x and y. Which one of the following is a possible rule for
the function?
A. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 D. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
1
𝑥𝑥
1
B. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 4 E. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2

C. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 log 𝑒𝑒 (𝑥𝑥) F. I don’t know

Example 5
Demzela is a badminton player. Her and her friend, Julie, are going to play.
The probability that Demzela wins a game is 0.65 and is independent of the
other games. The probability that Julie wins a game is 0.35. If Demzela and
Julie play 15 games, what is the probability that Julie wins exactly 7?
A. 0.071 D. 0.132

B. 0.091 E. 0.002

C. 0.201 F. I don’t know

Example 6
1
The volume, V cm3, of water in a container is given by 𝑉𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝜋ℎ3 where h cm
is the depth of water in the container at time t minutes. Water is draining
from the container at a constant rate of 300cm3/min. The rate of decrease of
h, in cm/min, when h = 5 is
12 60
A. 𝜋𝜋
D. 𝜋𝜋

B.
4
E. 30𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋

F. I don’t know
C. 25𝜋𝜋

Example 7
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
The function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −3 sin( 5 ) has a period of
𝜋𝜋
A. 3 D. 5

B. 5 E.
𝜋𝜋
10

C. 10
F. I don’t know
Example 8
The Lorenz birdwing is the largest butterfly in Town A. The probability
density function that describes its life span, X, in weeks, is given by
4 3 4
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �625 (5𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 ), 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 5
0, 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
a. Find the mean life span of the Lorenz birdwing butterfly.

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b. In a sample of 80 Lorenz birdwing butterflies, how many butterflies are
expected to live longer than two weeks, correct to the nearest butterfly?

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c. What is the probability that a Lorenz birdwing butterfly will live for at
least 4 weeks, given that it lives for at least 2 weeks, correct to 4 decimal
places?

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Example 9
Let 𝑓𝑓 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = 1 – 𝑥𝑥 3 . The tangent to the graph of 𝑓𝑓 at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, where
0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1, intersects the graph of 𝑓𝑓 again at P and intersects the horizontal
axis at Q. The shaded regions shown in the diagram below are bounded by
the graph of 𝑓𝑓, its tangent at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and the horizontal axis.

a. Find the equation of the tangent at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, in terms of 𝑎𝑎

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b. Find the x-coordinate of Q, in terms of 𝑎𝑎

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c. Find the x-coordinate of P, in terms of 𝑎𝑎

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Example 10
Let 𝑓𝑓 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅 ∶ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥+1 – 2. Part of the graph of 𝑓𝑓 is shown below.

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐
a. The transformation 𝑇𝑇: 𝑅𝑅 2 → 𝑅𝑅 2 , 𝑇𝑇 ��𝑦𝑦�� = �𝑦𝑦� + � � maps the graph 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑
onto the graph of 𝑓𝑓. State the values of c and d.

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b. Find the rule and domain for 𝑓𝑓 −1 , the inverse function of 𝑓𝑓

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c. Find the area bound by the graphs of 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑓𝑓 −1

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