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School of Computing - CSE

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
10211CS130
SUBJECT CORE
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Unit 1 Introduction and Physical Layer

L-9 Hours

ISO/OSI - TCP/IP Protocol suite, Data Communication-

system components – Topology -Transmission Impairment
Transmission Media: Guided Media - Unguided Media -
Wireless -Wired LANs: Ethernet - Token ring - Connecting
Devices – Switching techniques – Bandwidth Metrics.
What is Data Communications? 6
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 Exchange of data between two devices via some forms of transmission medium(such as wire
cable) is Data Communications.

 For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made of a combination of hardware and software.

 The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on four fundamental characteristics:-

delivery, accuracy, timeliness and jitter.
The five components of data communication are
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1.Sender
2.Receiver
3.Message
4.Tramsmission Medium
5. Protocol
1.Message - It is the information to be communicated. Popular
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forms of information include text, pictures, audio, video etc.

2. Sender - It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset etc.

3. Receiver - It is the device which receives the data messages. It can be a

computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.

4. Transmission Medium - It is the physical path by which a message travels

from sender to receiver. Some examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
radio waves etc.

5. Protocol - It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It

represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.
Network Models School of Computing - CSE
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A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends data from one
location to another

Hardware : The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals
from one point of the network to another.

Software : The software consists of instruction sets that make possible the
services that we expect from a network.
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Network Layer Basic Classification

 Layered Tasks

 OSI Model

 TCP / IP Model

 Addressing
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Layered Tasks School of Computing - CSE

We use the concept of layers in our daily life

Example :

Consider two friends who communicate through postal mail

 SENDE RECEIV 13
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Letter is written, put Letter is picked up,

in an envelope and HIGHER LAYER removed from the
dropped in a mailbox envelope, and read

Letter is carried from The letter is carried

MIDDLE LAYER
the mailbox to a from the post office
postoffice to the mailbox

LOWER LAYER The letter is

The letter is delivered from the
delivered to a carrier The parcel carried from the source to the destination carrier to the post
by the post office office
OSI MODEL 14
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What is ISO ?

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational

body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.

What is OSI ?

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open

Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Layered Architecture
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APPLICATION LAYER

PRESENTATION LAYER

SESSION LAYER

TRANSPORT LAYER

NETWORK LAYER

DATA LINK LAYER

PHYSICAL LAYER
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PHYSICAL LAYER School of Computing - CSE
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 This layer includes the physical equipment involved in the data transfer, such as the
cables and switches.
 This is also the layer where the data gets converted into a bit stream, which is a string
of 1s and 0s.
 The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal convention so that the
1s can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.
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The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next
Data link layer 19
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 The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data link
layer facilitates data transfer between two devices on the SAME network.
 The data link layer takes packets from the network layer and breaks them
into smaller pieces called frames.
 Like the network layer, the data link layer is also responsible for flow
control and error control in intra-network communication (The transport
layer only does flow control and error control for inter-network
communications).
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The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next
Hop-to-hop delivery 21
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Network layer 22
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 The network layer is responsible for facilitating data transfer between two different
networks.
 If the two devices communicating are on the same network, then the network layer
is unnecessary.
 The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into smaller units,
called packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling these packets on the
receiving device.
 The network layer also finds the best physical path for the data to reach its
destination; this is known as routing.
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The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host
Source-to-destination delivery 24
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Transport layer 25
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 Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end communication between the two devices. This
includes taking data from the session layer and breaking it up into chunks called
segments before sending it to layer 3.
 The transport layer on the receiving device is responsible for reassembling the
segments into data - the session layer can consume.
 The transport layer is also responsible for flow control and error control.
 Flow control determines an optimal speed of transmission to ensure that a sender
with a fast connection doesn’t overwhelm a receiver with a slow connection.
 The transport layer performs error control on the receiving end by ensuring that the
data received is complete, and requesting a retransmission if it isn’t.
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The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another process.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
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Session layer 28
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 This is the layer responsible for opening and closing communication between the two
devices.
 The time between when the communication is opened and closed is known as the
session.
 The session layer ensures that the session stays open long enough to transfer all the
data being exchanged, and then promptly closes the session in order to avoid wasting
resources.
 The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with checkpoints.
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The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization

Presentation layer
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 This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be used by the
application layer; in other words, layer 6 makes the data presentable for
applications to consume.
 The presentation layer is responsible for translation, encryption, and compression
of data.
 Two communicating devices communicating may be using different encoding
methods, so layer 6 is responsible for translating incoming data into a syntax that
the application layer of the receiving device can understand.
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 If the devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, layer 6 is

responsible for adding the encryption on the sender’s end as well as decoding the
encryption on the receiver's end so that it can present the application layer with
unencrypted, readable data.
 Finally the presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data it receives
from the application layer before delivering it to layer 5.
 This helps improve the speed and efficiency of communication by minimizing the
amount of data that will be transferred.
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The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,

and encryption
Application layer School of Computing - CSE
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 This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user. Software
applications like web browsers and email clients rely on the application layer to
initiate communications.
 But it should be made clear that client software applications are not part of the
application layer; rather the application layer is responsible for the protocols and
data manipulation that the software relies on to present meaningful data to the user.
 Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol is one of the protocols that enables email communications).
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The application layer is responsible for providing services

to the user
Summary of layers School of Computing - CSE
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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE School of Computing - CSE
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The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers : host-to-
network, network(internet), transport and application
 The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI 37

model.
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 However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol
suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application
ADDRESSING 38
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Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical, logical, port, and specific
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP (Internet Model)
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Physical Address 40
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 The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of the node as

defined by its LAN or WAN.

 It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.

 It is the lowest-level address.

Example 41
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In Figure below a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical
address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with
physical address 87 is the receiver.
Logical Address 42
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 A logical address in the Internet is currently 32-bit address that can uniquely define
a host connected to the Internet.

 No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP
address.

Example
Figure in the next slide shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three
LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical)
for each connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and
therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each router has three pairs of
addresses, one for each connection.
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Port Address 44
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 In TCP / IP model, the label assigned to a process is called a port address.

 A port in TCP / IP is 16-bits in length

Example
Figure in the next slide shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The
sending computer is running three processes at this time with port addresses a, b,
and c. The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate with
process j in the receiving computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.
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 TOPOLOGY School of Computing - CSE
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Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each
other.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_computer_network/computer_network_topologies.htm
Transmission Media School of Computing - CSE
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https://www.javatpoint.com/transmission-media
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
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 Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.

 The imperfection causes signal impairment.

 This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the

signal at the end of the medium.

 What is sent is not what is received.

 Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

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Attenuation

- loss of signal strength over distance

Amplitude Distortion

- different losses at different frequencies

Delay Distortion

-different speeds for different frequencies occurs only in guided media

Noise

- distortions of signal caused by interference

Attenuation School of Computing - CSE
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Distortion School of Computing - CSE
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Noise School of Computing - CSE
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Network Types
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Based on Size(Strength –
Volume):
PAN
LAN
MAN
WAN
Based on Connectivity:

Wired
Wireless
Infrastructure Based
Infrastructure-less
(Adhoc)
WIRED LAN School of Computing - CSE
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What Is Ethernet?
If two or more connected devices on a shared network attempt to transmit data
packets at the same time, a packet collision occurs. Ethernet technology provides
rules that allow network-connected devices to talk to one another without packet
collisions.
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Ethernet was designed to solve the problem of packet collision. ItSchoolprovides network
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devices
with a set of rules that essentially says: "Make sure no one else is talking before you talk. If you
hear someone talking while you're talking, stop, listen, and wait for the talking to end before you
talk again.“

Ethernet is commonly associated with connected devices in a wired LAN or WAN. Using a
wired Ethernet cable, devices are connected to an Ethernet switch. Ethernet has the ability to
use both wired and fiber cables

More formally, Ethernet is a common name for the IEEE 802.3 standard based on the
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol. CSMA/CD
defines when to transmit and what is to happen if a collision is detected, as well as
endpoint addressing, transmission speeds, and media.

Ethernet has evolved dramatically since its first application. Today it's the de facto
protocol for IP-based networks
A token-ring network is a local area network (LAN) topology that sends data in one direction60
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throughout a specified number of locations by using a token.
The token is the symbol of authority for control of the transmission line. This token allows any
sending station in the network (ring) to send data when the token arrives at that location.

Stations in a token-ring network are physically connected, typically in a star-wired ring topology,
to a wiring concentrator such as the IBM® 8228 Multistation Access Unit. The concentrator
serves as a logical ring around which data is transmitted at 4 million, 16 million, or 100 million
bits per second (Mbps). Each station is connected to the concentrator typically by shielded
twisted pair (STP) cabling.
 Connecting Devices 61
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A router is a device that connects two or more
packet-switched networks or subnetworks. It
serves two primary functions: managing traffic
between these networks by forwarding data
packets to their intended IP addresses, and
allowing multiple devices to use the same Internet
connection.

A network interface controller is a computer

hardware component that connects a computer to
a computer network.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-are-network-connecting-devices
Switching Techniques 62
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https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-network-switching-techniques
Circuit Switching 63
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 Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path

between sender and receiver.
 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then
the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
 Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone
works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes
place.
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the
data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver
sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated
path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
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Circuit Switching
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
• Circuit establishment
• Data transfer
• Circuit Disconnect
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Message Switching School of Computing - CSE

• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a

complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the
sender and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This
type of network is known as store and forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
Packet Switching 66

• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the

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message is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces,

and they are sent individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and
packets are given a unique number to identify their order at the
receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as
source address, destination address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path
as possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct
order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be
sent to resend the message.
Packet Switching School of Computing - CSE
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NETWORK PERFORMANCE explains the level of satisfaction that network users derive from using their
network. It entails the quality of service a network user receives from the web. 68
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Below, we will discuss the various metrics for ascertaining the performance quality of any network.

Metrics

1. Bandwidth

This is one of the network performance metrics that is measured in Hertz or bit per second.

Bandwidth explains the amount of data transmitted through a network in a given amount of time.

Hertz categorizes signals transmitted in analog form,

For example, let us consider the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line as 4 kHz.

while bit per second is used to classify signals transmitted in digital format.

For example, we can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network is a maximum of 100 Mbps, which means
that the network can send 100 Mbps of data.
2. Throughput
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Throughput refers to the particular amount of deliverable or service produced at the production end and
successfully delivered at the receiving end.

In-network relates to the amount of data transmitted successfully through a network bandwidth.

Throughput checks the exact number of messages delivered through a network.

**We can say that a throughput exists within a network bandwidth, so throughput cannot exceed a network
bandwidth but can be less than network bandwidth**

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12, 000 frames per minute
where each frame carries an average of 10, 000 bits. What will be the throughput for this
network?

Output: We can calculate the throughput as-

Throughput = (12, 000 x 10, 000) / 60 = 2 Mbps
The throughput is nearly equal to one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.
3. Latency 70
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Latency in-network is said to be the lag time for message delivery in a network. It explains how long it
takes for a message that leaves the sender end to arrive at the receiver end along with a network. If it takes
longer for a message to be delivered along with a network, we can say a network has more latency, the
lesser time it takes we can say the network has less latency.

Latency = Propagation Time + Transmission Time + Queuing Time + Processing Delay

Propagation Time is the time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination. Propagation time can be calculated as the ratio between
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link
length (distance) and the propagation speed over the communicating medium
Propagation time = Distance / Propagation speed

Transmission Time is a time based on how long it takes to send the signal
down the transmission line.
Transmission time = Message size / Bandwidth

Queuing time is a time based on how long the packet has to sit around in the
router. Quite frequently the wire is busy, so we are not able to transmit a packet
immediately.

Processing delay is the delay based on how long it takes the router to figure out
where to send the packet.
4. Jitter
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A jitter is a form of latency. It is experienced when a delay variation is caused by the delay of specific data
packets sent through a network.

For instance, when we send audio data, video data, and image data through a network, the video and audio
data may encounter latency along their transmission path. In this case, the receiving end would experience
jitter because the video data is time-sensitive and needs no latency or delay for the successful transmission of
data. This is the same with the audio data. But, when downloading a file, jitter is hardly a concern, as the data
here is not time-sensitive, and the receiving end can receive the data whenever its download is complete.

5. Packet loss

Packet loss is used to categorize the amount of data packets sent from the sender end that did not arrive at
the receiver end. This metric can be measured by identifying the number of data packets that left the sender
end and calculating the amount of data that arrived at the receiver end. Now, we can know the number of data
packets lost along the transmission process.
6. Bandwidth-delay product 73
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The bandwidth-delay product is a performance metric that helps to capture lost data packets during
transmission. It is a performance metric that ascertains buffering needs of a network system. This would help in
capturing the lost data packets during the transmission of data along a network path.

It indicates number of bits (or bytes) which can be transmitted before an ACK (acknowledgement) is
received from the other end. In other words, it is estimation of number of bits "in transit" through the
transmission medium.
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Examples of BDP for various systems are as follows.

➨Satellite network with data rate of 512 Kbps and RTT of 1000 ms, BDP = 512000 bits = 512 kbits = 64
KBytes
➨DSL with 2 Mbps data rate (i.e. bandwidth) and RTT of 50 ms, BDP = 100 kbits = 12.5 Kbytes
➨Ultra speed LAN with 100 Gbps and 30 µs RTT, BDP = 3 Mbits = 0.375 Mbytes
Channel capacity 75
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The channel capacity is a very important consideration in data communications that

is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel

DATA RATE LIMITS

The maximum data rate limit over a medium is decided by following factors:
1. Bandwidth of channel.
2. Signal levels
3. Channel quality (level of noise)
The channel capacity is also called as Shannon capacity. The channel capacity do not depend upon the signal
levels used to represent the data.
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Any Queries ….