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O Level
Computer Science
CS 2210 – Notes

Chapter No. 2
Data Transmission

 Types and methods of data transmission

Methods of error detec on
 Symmetric and asymmetric encryp on
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Data Packets
What are packets?

 Packets are small 'chunks' of data that make up a larger piece of data that has
been broken down by the TCP protocol so that it can be transmitted over the
internet
 TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and is used for organising data
transmission over networks
 Small 'chunks' of data are easier and quicker to route over the internet than big
'chunks' of data
o Routing involves finding the most optimal path over a network
 Data can include anything from text, images, audio, video, animations, etc, or any
combination of these

What do packets contain?

 A packet consists of:

Header Payload Trailer

Additional security information
Source IP address Actual data being transported
(less common)
Destination IP address End of packet notification
Packet number

(1 of 5 etc.)
 To transmit the message “This is a message :)”over the internet, TCP might break the
message down into 4 packets

 Each packet contains a:

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o source IP address
o destination IP address
o payload (the data)
o a packet number
 Error checks make sure that when a packet is received there is minimal or no
corruption of the data
 Corruption is where packet data is changed or lost in some way, or data is gained
that originally was not in the packet
 Read error detection methods for more detail on how data packets can be
checked to ensure corruption is avoided/minimised

Packet Switching
What is packet switching?

 Packet switching is a method of sending and receiving data (packets) across a

network
 Packet switching can be broken down into five stages:

Stage Overview Detail

Data is broken down into
1 Insert link here
packets
2 Packets are assigned a header Insert link here
 Like normal car traffic, data traffic builds up on the internet
Each packet makes its way to  Routers can see this and decide to send a packet down a
3
the destination different route that avoids traffic

 Routers know which nearby router is closer to the destination

Routers controls the routes
4 device
taken for each packet
 If a packet does not reach its destination the receiver can
Packets arrive and are
5 send a resend request to the sender to resend the packet
reordered correctly
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What are the advantages of packet switching?

 Interference and corruption are minimal as individual packets can be resent if they
are lost or damaged
 The whole file doesn’t need to be resent if a corruption occurs, this saves
time and internet bandwidth
 Packet switching is quicker than sending a large packet as each packet finds the
quickest way around the network
 It's harder to hack an individual's data as each packet contains minimal data, and
travels through the network separately

Worked Example

A local market shop wishes to arrange a delivery of goods from a supplier. Anna, the shop
owner, decides to send an email to request the delivery of the goods at a certain date and
time.

Describe how packet switching is used to send this email and how it can be protected from
corruption.

[8]

Answer

 The business email is first broken down into packets which are given a source
address (where it's come from) and a destination address (where it's going
to) [1]
 Each packet receives a packet number so that the email can be reassembled
when it reaches its destination [1]
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 Each packet also receives an error check such as a parity bit. A parity bit
checks whether any bits have been flipped due to corruption [1]
 Each packet is sent over the internet via routers. Routers contain routing tables
that determine the next closest router to the destination [1]
 Packets may take different routes depending on internet traffic and arrive at
their destination in any order [1]
 Packets are checked for errors using the error checks and missing packets can
be requested to be resent [1]
 Once all packets have been received then they can be put together in order
using the packet numbers [1]
 Once assembled the original email can be read by the other business [1]

Examiner Tips and Tricks

For high marks make sure your answer is coherent, that is it follows logically from one point
to the next.

Some marks depend on previous points you have made.

Explaining parity bits without mentioning error checking first may not gain you additional
marks

What is data transmission?

 Data transmission is the process of transferring data from one device to
another using a wired or wireless connection
 Wired data transmission can be completed in two ways:
o Serial
o Parallel

Serial & Parallel Transmission

What is serial & parallel transmission?

 Serial and parallel are methods of transmitting data (bits) from a sender to a
receiver
 Each method determines how many bits can be transmitted at once

Serial transmission

 A stream of bits is sent in sequence, one after the other

 USB is an example of a wired serial connection

Parallel transmission
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 A stream of bits is sent in sequence, one after the other across multiple wires at
the same time
 Transmission is asynchronous, data does not always arrive at the same time
 A skew can be caused by data arriving out of order in asynchronous transmission
 A traditional printer cable is an example of a wired parallel connection

Advantages and disadvantages of serial & parallel transmission

Transmission Advantages Disadvantages

 Reliable over longer distance
 Cheaper to setup  Slow transmission speed
Serial
 Low interference

 Only used on short distances

 Very fast transmission speed
Parallel  Prone to high interference

Simplex, Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex Transmission

What is simplex, half-duplex & full-duplex transmission?

 Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex control the direction in which data is

transmitted between a sender and receiver

Simplex transmission

 Data travels in only one direction

 Sending data from a computer to a monitor is an example of simplex transmission

Half-duplex transmission

 Data can travel in both directions, but not simultaneously (bi-directional)

 A printer cable which waits for the data to be received before sending back a ‘low
ink’ message is an example of half-duplex transmission

Full-duplex transmission

 Data can travel in both directions at the same time (bi-directional)

 Network cables can send and receive data at the same time and are examples of
full-duplex data transmission
 Full-duplex is used in local and wide area networks

Advantages and disadvantages of simplex, half-duplex & full-duplex

transmission
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Transmission Advantages Disadvantages

 Slow
 Cheap as only one wire is used
Simplex  Expensive for bi-directional
transmission (multiple wires)

 Cheaper than simplex for bidirectional

 Slow
Half-duplex transmission (fewer wires)

 Fast as data can travel in both directions

 Expensive
Full-duplex simultaneously

 Wires can be combinations of serial, parallel, simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex

Simplex Half-duplex Full-duplex

Serial Serial-Simplex Serial-Half-duplex Serial-Full-duplex
Parallel Parallel-Simplex Parallel-Half-duplex Parallel-Full-duplex
 Serial-Simplex
o Data is transmitted one bit at a time in a single direction on one wire
 Serial-Half-duplex
o Data can be transmitted in both directions on a single wire but only one bit at a
time can be transmitted in one direction at a time
 Serial-Full-duplex
o Data can be transmitted in both directions at the same time on a single wire
one bit at a time
 Parallel-Simplex
o Multiple wires transmit one bit at a time in one direction
 Parallel-Half-duplex
o Multiple wires send multiple bits of data in both directions but only one
direction at a time
 Parallel-Full-duplex
o Multiple wires send multiple bits of data in both directions at the same time

Worked Example

A company has a website that is stored on a web server

The company uses parallel half-duplex data transmission to transmit the data for the new
videos to the web server.

Explain why parallel half-duplex data transmission is the most appropriate method.

[6]

Answer

 Parallel would allow for the fastest transmission [1]

 as large amounts of data [1]
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 can be uploaded and downloaded [1]

 but this does not have to be at the same time [1]
 Data is not required to travel a long distance [1]
 Therefore, skewing is not a problem [1]

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Any four of these points qualifies as a full answer, however make sure your answer is
cohesive.

Saying “Parallel would allow for the fastest transmission but this does not have to be at the
same time” would qualify as one mark as only the first part makes sense and follows
logically

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

What is USB?
 The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an asynchronous and serial method of transmi ng data
between devices and has become an industry standard
 Many devices use USB such as keyboards, mice, video cameras, printers, portable media
players, mobile phones, disk drives, network adapters, etc
 Different USB connectors exist for different devices:
o USB-A (flash drives, mice, keyboards, external HDD, etc)
o USB-B (printers, scanners, op cal drives, floppy drives, etc)
o USB-C (new standard of USB due to its small size and speed)
 When a device is connected to a USB port the computer:
o Automa cally detects that the device has been connected
o Automa cally recognises and the appropriate device driver is loaded so that
the device can communicate with the computer
o If the device is new, the computer will look for a matching device driver
o If one cannot be found then the user must download and install an appropriate
driver manually
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Advantages and disadvantages of USB

Advantages Disadvantages

The maximum cable length is roughly 5

Devices are automa cally detected and drivers are
metres meaning it cannot be used over
automa cally loaded for communica on
long distances, limi ng its use

Cable connectors fit in only one way. Older versions of USB have limited
This prevents incorrect connec ons and ensures transmission rates for example USB
compa ble data transmission 2.0 has 480Mbps

Very old USB standards may not be

As USB usage is standardised, there is a lot of support
supported in the near future (USB 1.1, USB
available online and from retailers
2.0, etc)
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Several different data transmission rates are supported. The

newest transmission rate as of 2022 is USB4 2.0 with 80
Gbps (81,920 Mbps, 170x faster than USB 2.0)

Newer USB standards are backwards compa ble with older

USB standards

Worked Example
Julia uses a USB connec on to transfer data onto her USB flash memory drive.
One benefit of using a USB connec on is that it is a universal connec on.
(i) State two other benefits of using a USB connec on.
[2]
(ii) Iden fy the type of data transmission used in a USB connec on.
[1]
Answers
(i) Any two of:
 It cannot be inserted incorrectly [1]
 Supports different transmission speeds [1]
 High speed transmission [1]
 Automa cally detected [1]
 Powers the device for data transfer [1]
(ii)
 Serial [1]
Why Errors Occur
Why do errors occur?
 Errors can occur using wired or wireless technology due to interference
 Examples of interference include wire degrada on or electrical fields changing the signal
 Results of interference include:
o Data loss - data is lost in transmission
o Data gain - addi onal data is received
o Data change - some bits have been changed or flipped
 Wireless technology uses radio signals or other electromagne c signals to transmit data
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o These signals can be blocked by physical barriers such as buildings, walls, cars or
other objects
o Interference can be caused by bad weather such as rain or clouds, or by
other wireless signals or electromagne c radia on
 Wired technology carries more chance of causing an error as physical components can
be damaged, degrade or receive interference from outside signals
o Data loss can also occur from interrup ons to data transmission such as a blocked
signal or if the transmission is intermi ent
Why check for errors?
 Computers expect data in certain formats
o A format is a way of arranging the data so that it can be easily understood by people
and by computers
o People agree to certain formats so that systems work more efficiently and there is
li le chance of misunderstanding each other
 An example of a format is date and me
 Date and me can have mul ple formats such as:
o 13/04/14 (DD/MM/YY)
o 12/31/2020 (MM/DD/YYYY)
o Jul-04-16 (MMM/DD/YY)
 If data is not as expected, things can go wrong
 For example, if a receiver expected to receive a date in format DD/MM/YY as 03/04/17 but
received 04/03/17, did the sender mean 3rd April 2017 or 4th March 2017?
 An error or corrup on occurs when data received is not as expected and therefore is difficult
or impossible to process
Worked Example
Alex receives an email over a wireless connec on from a work colleague containing an important
document.
Iden fy what interference Alex could experience when sending this email and iden fy the outcomes
of interference.
Further explain why Alex should check to make sure the document contains no errors.
[4]
Answer
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 Weather condi ons or physical barriers such as building can affect signals, for example bits
could be flipped in the document making it hard to understand the original meaning [1]
 Alex should be aware that interference can cause wirelessly received data to contain errors
or corrup on [1]
 Data could be lost, addi onal data could be gained or data could be changed [1]
 As Alex received an important work document they need to check for errors so that their
work is unaffected and they do not receive incorrect informa on [1]
Parity Check
What is a parity check?
 A parity check determines whether bits in a transmission have been corrupted
 Every byte transmi ed has one of its bits allocated as a parity bit
 The sender and receiver must agree before transmission whether they are using odd or even
parity
 If odd parity is used then there must be an odd number of 1’s in the byte, including the
parity bit
 If even parity is used then there must be an even number of 1’s in the byte, including the
parity bit
 The value of the parity bit is determined by coun ng the number of 1’s in the byte,
including the parity bit
 If the number of 1’s does not match the agreed parity then an error has occurred
 Parity checks only check that an error has occurred, they do not reveal where the error(s)
occurred
Even parity
 Below is an arbitrary binary string

EVEN
Byte
Parity bit

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

 If an even parity bit is used then all bits in the byte, including the parity bit, must add up to
an even number
o There are four 1’s in the byte
o This means the parity bit must be 0 otherwise the whole byte, including the parity bit,
would add up to five which is an odd number
Odd parity
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 Below is an arbitrary binary string

ODD
Byte
Parity bit

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

 If an odd parity bit is used then all bits in the byte, including the parity bit, must add up to
an odd number
o There are four 1’s in the byte. This means the parity bit must be a 1 otherwise the
whole byte, including the parity bit, would add up to four which is an even number
 The table below shows a number of examples of the agreed parity between a sender and
receiver and the parity bit used for each byte

Example # Agreed parity Parity bit Main bit string Total number of 1’s

#1 ODD 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 5

#2 EVEN 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2

#3 EVEN 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 6

#4 ODD 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 5

#5 ODD 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 5

#6 EVEN 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 4

 Example #1: The agreed parity is odd. All of the 1’s in the main bit string are added (5). As
this number is odd already the parity bit is set to 0 so the whole byte stays odd
 Example #2: The agreed parity is even. All of the 1’s in the main bit string are added (1). As
this number is odd the parity bit is set to 1 to make the total number of 1’s even (2)
 Example #6: The agreed parity is even. All of the 1’s in the main bit string are added (4). As
this number is even already the parity bit is set to 0 so the whole byte stays even
How do errors occur?
 When using parity bits, an error occurs when the number of total bits does not match the
agreed parity
 Bits can be flipped or changed due to interference on a wire or wirelessly due
to weather or other signals

Example # Agreed parity Parity bit Main bit string Total number of 1’s Error

#1 ODD 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 6 Error

#2 EVEN 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 No error
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#3 EVEN 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 Error

#4 ODD 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 5 No error

#5 ODD 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 6 Error

#6 EVEN 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 Error

 Parity checks are quick and easy to implement but fail to detect bit swaps that cause the
parity to remain the same
Parity Byte & Block Check
What are parity byte & block checks?
 Parity blocks and parity bytes can be used to check an error has occurred and where the
error is located
 Parity checks on their own do not pinpoint where errors in data exist, only that an error has
occurred
 A parity block consists of a block of data with the number of 1’s
totalled horizontally and ver cally
 A parity byte is also sent with the data which contains the parity bits from the ver cal parity
calcula on
 Below is a parity block with a parity byte at the bo om and a parity bit column in the second
column

ODD Parity bit Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 Bit 8

Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

Byte 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Byte 3 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1

Byte 4 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

Byte 5 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Byte 6 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Byte 7 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0

Byte 8 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

Parity byte 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

 The above table uses odd parity

 Each byte row calculates the horizontal parity as a parity bit as normal
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 Each bit column calculates the ver cal parity for each row, the parity byte
 It is calculated before transmission and sent with the parity block
 Each parity bit tracks if a flip error occurred in a byte while the parity byte calculates if
an error occurred in a bit column
 By cross referencing both horizontal and ver cal parity values the error can be pinpointed
 In the above example the byte 3 / bit 5 cell is the error and should be a 0 instead
 The error could be fixed automa cally or a retransmission request could be sent to the
sender
Checksum
What is a checksum?
 A checksum is a value that can be used to determine if data has been corrupted or altered
 It indicates whether data differs from its original form but does not specify where
 Checksums are calculated using an algorithm and the value is added to the transmission
 The receiving device re-calculates the checksum and compares to the original
 If the checksums do not match, it is assumed an error has occurred
Worked Example
Describe the process a checksum algorithm uses to determine if an error has occurred
[5]
Answer
 Before data is transmi ed a checksum value is calculated [1]
 The checksum value is transmi ed with the data [1]
 The receiver calculates the checksum value using the received data [1]
 The calculated checksum is compared to the transmi ed checksum [1]
 If they are the same then there is no error otherwise an error has occurred [1]
Echo Check
What is an echo check?
 An echo checks involve transmi ng the received data back to the sender
 The sender then checks the data to see if any errors occurred during transmission
 This method isn’t reliable as an error could have occurred when the sender transmits the
data or when the receiver transmits the data
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 If an error does occur the sender will retransmit the data

Worked Example
Four 7-bit binary values are transmi ed from one computer to another.
A parity bit is added to each binary value crea ng 8-bit binary values. All the binary values are
transmi ed and received correctly.
(a) Iden fy whether each 8-bit binary value has been sent using odd or even parity by wri ng odd or
even in the type of parity column.

8-bit binary value Type of parity

01100100

10010001

00000011

10110010

[4]
(b) An error may not be detected when using a parity check.
Iden fy why an error may not be detected.
[1]
Answers
(a)

8-bit binary value Type of parity

01100100 Odd [1]

10010001 Odd [1]

00000011 Even [1]

10110010 Even [1]

(b)
Any one from:
 there is a transposi on of bits [1]
 it does not check the order of the bits (just the sum of 1s/0s) [1]
 even number of bits change [1]
 incorrect bits s ll add up to correct parity [1]
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Check Digits
What is a check digit?
 A check digit is the last digit included in a code or sequence, used to detect errors in numeric
data entry
 Examples of errors that a check digit can help to iden fy are:
o Incorrect digits entered
o Omi ed or extra digits
o Phone c errors
 Added to the end of a numerical sequence they ensure validity of the data
 Calculated using standardised algorithms to ensure widespread compa bility
 Examples of where check digits can be used include:
o ISBN book numbers
o Barcodes
ISBN book numbers
 Each book has a unique ISBN number that iden fies the book
 A standard ISBN number may be ten digits, for example, 965-448-765-9
 The check digit value is the final digit (9 in this example).
 This number is chosen specifically so that when the algorithm is completed the result is a
whole number (an integer) with no remainder parts
 A check digit algorithm is performed on the ISBN number and if the result is a whole
number, then the ISBN is valid
Barcodes
 Barcodes consist of black and white lines which can be scanned using barcode scanners
 Barcode scanners shine a laser on the black and white lines which reflect light into the
scanner
 The scanner reads the distance between these lines as numbers and can iden fy the item
 Barcodes also use a set of digits to uniquely iden fy each item
 The final digit on a barcode is usually the check digit, this can be used
to validate and authen cate an item
Worked Example
Check digit algorithms are used to determine whether an error has occurred in transmi ed data.
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State the names of two examples of a check digit algorithm.

[2]
Answer
 ISBN [1]
 Barcode [1]
Automa c Repeat reQuests(ARQ)
What is an automa c repeat request(ARQ)?
 An automa c repeat request is a protocol that no fies the sender that an error has
occurred and that the data received is incorrect
 It works as follows:
o If an error is detected the receiver sends a nega ve acknowledgement
transmission to indicate the data is corrupted
o If no error is detected the receiver sends a posi ve acknowledgement
transmission meaning the data is correct
o If the receiver does not send any acknowledgement transmission then the sender
waits for a certain me period known as a me-out before automa cally
resending the data
o This process is repeated un l all data has been received and acknowledged
Examiner Tips and Tricks
In this specifica on ARQ is referred to as Automa c Repeat Query but in past exam ques ons it has
been referred to as Automa c Repeat reQuests
Both words are interchangeable and should not cause any confusion!
Worked Example
Explain how Automa c Repeat reQuests (ARQ) are used in data transmission and storage
[2]
Answer
Any two from:
 Set of rules for controlling error checking/detec on // it’s an error detec on method //
used to detect errors
 Uses acknowledgement and meout
 Request is sent (with data) requiring acknowledgement
 If no response/acknowledgment within certain me frame data package is resent
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 When data received contains an error a request is sent (automa cally) to resend the data
 The resend request is repeatedly sent un l packet is received error free/limit is
reached/acknowledgement received
Encryp on
What is encryp on?
 Encryp on is a method of scrambling data before being transmi ed across a network
 Encryp on helps to protect the contents from unauthorised access by making data
meaningless
 While encryp on is important on both wired and wireless networks, it's even more cri cal
on wireless networks due to the data being transmi ed over radio waves, making it easy
to intercept
How is wireless data encrypted?
 Wireless networks are iden fied by a 'Service Set Iden fier' (SSID) which along with a
password is used to create a 'master key'
 When devices connect to the same wireless network using the SSID and password they are
given a copy of the master key
 The master key is used to encrypt data into 'cipher text', before being transmi ed
 The receiver uses the same master key to decrypt the cipher text back to 'plain text'
 To guarantee the security of data, the master key is never transmi ed. Without it, any
intercepted data is rendered useless
 Wireless networks use dedicated protocols like WPA2 specifically designed for Wi-Fi security
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How is wired data encrypted?

 Wired networks are encrypted in a very similar way to a wireless network, using a master key
to encrypt data and the same key to decrypt data
 Encryp on on a wired network differs slightly as it is o en le to individual applica ons to
decide how encryp on is used, for example HTTPS
Symmetric & Asymmetric Encryp on
 Encryp on relies on the use of a key
 A key is a binary string of a certain length that when applied to an encryp on algorithm
can encrypt plaintext informa on and decrypt ciphertext
o Plaintext is the name for data before it is encrypted
o Ciphertext is the name for data a er it is encrypted
 Keys can vary in size and act like passwords, enabling people to protect informa on
What is symmetric encryp on?
 Symmetric encryp on is when both the sender and receiver are given an iden cal secret
key which can be used to encrypt or decrypt informa on
 If a hacker gains access to the key, then they can decrypt intercepted informa on
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 The secret key can be shared with the receiver without sending it electronically:
o Both par es could verbally share the key in person
o Both par es may use standard postage mail to share the key
o An algorithm may be used to calculate the key by sharing secret non-key informa on
What is asymmetric encryp on?
 Asymmetric encryp on is when two keys are used, a public and private key
o Public key: a key known to everyone
o Private key: a key known only to the receiver
 Both keys are needed to encrypt and decrypt informa on
 Asymmetric encryp on works as follows:
o Person A uses a public key to encrypt their message
o Person A sends their message over the network or internet
o Person B decrypts the message using their secret private key
 Only one private key can be used to decrypt a message and it is not sent over the
internet like a symmetric key
 Keys can be large, a key using 100 bits would generate
1,267,650,600,228,229,401,496,703,205,376 different combina ons
 Large keys are near impossible for a hacker to guess
Worked Example
Complete the sentences about symmetric encryp on. Use the terms from the list. Some of the terms
in the list will not be used. You should only use a term once.

algorithm
cipher
copied
delete
key
plain
private
public
standard
stolen
understood
unreadable
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The data before encryp on is known as ______ text. To scramble the data, an encryp on ______,
which is a type of ______, is used. The data a er encryp on is known as ______ text. Encryp on
prevents the data from being ______ by a hacker.
[5]
Answer
One mark for each correct term in the correct place:
The data before encryp on is known as plain text. To scramble the data, an
encryp on algorithm/key, which is a type of key/algorithm, is used. The data a er encryp on is
known as cipher text. Encryp on prevents the data from being understood by a hacker.