Lithosphere(Geosphere)

The solid outer layer of Earth is called the lithosphere. The outermost layers of Earth’s structure, the crust and the
brittle upper part of the mantle, are parts of the lithosphere. It is surrounded by the asthenosphere, another
component of the upper mantle, below and the atmosphere above. Calcium, sodium, potassium, iron, silicon,
oxygen, and magnesium make up its composition..

Lithosphere Composition

There are several layers of rocks that make up the earth’s crust, with
sedimentary rocks at the top, granitic and metamorphic rocks in the
middle, and basaltic rocks at the bottom. Additionally, the earth’s crust
is made up of numerous sizable, dynamic tectonic plates. With an
average movement of about 10 cm, these tectonic plates move steadily
but slowly. 180 million years ago, North America and Europe were
one continent, and the Atlantic Ocean did not exist. Because of the
drifting away from the North American and Eurasian plates, the
Atlantic Ocean formed.

Crust and Lithosphere

Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The crust is very thin, relative to the
radius of the planet.

There are two very different types of crust, each with its own distinctive physical and chemical properties.
1. Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts
on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or cools
deeper down to create the intrusive igneous rock
gabbro. Sediments, primarily muds and the shells
of tiny sea creatures, coat the seafloor. Sediment
is thickest near the shore where it comes off the
continents in rivers and on wind currents.
2. Continental crust is made up of many different
types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks. The average composition is granite, which
is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic crust. Because it is thick and has relatively
low density, continental crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to
form basins. When filled with water, these basins form the planet’s oceans.
The lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The lithosphere is about
100 kilometres thick. The definition of the lithosphere is based on how earth materials behave, so it includes the
crust and the uppermost mantle, which are both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses act on the
lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an earthquake.

Mantle

The two most important things about the mantle are:

1. it is made of solid rock

2. it is hot.

Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on evidence from seismic waves, heat flow, and meteorites.
The properties fit the ultramafic rock peridotite, which is made of the iron- and magnesium-rich silicate minerals.
Peridotite is rarely found at Earth’s surface. Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot because of the heat
flowing outward from it and because of its physical properties.

Heat flows in two different ways within the Earth:

1. Conduction is defined as the heat transfer that occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only
happen if the material is solid. Heat flows from warmer to cooler places until all are the same temperature.
The mantle is hot mostly because of heat conducted from the core. Convection is the process of a material
that can move and flow may develop convection currents.
2. Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on a stove. Convection currents within
Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up. As the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material,
particles move more rapidly, decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The rising material begins the
convection current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it spreads horizontally. The material cools
because it is no longer near the core. It eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink back down into
the mantle. At the bottom of the mantle, the material travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches
the location where warm mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell is complete.

Core

At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is metal for a few reasons. The density
of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the overall density of the planet, as calculated from the planet’s rotation.
If the surface layers are less dense than average, then the interior must be denser than average. Calculations indicate
that the core is about 85 percent iron metal with nickel metal making up much of the remaining 15 percent. Also,
metallic meteorites are thought to be representative of the core. If Earth’s core were not metal, the planet would not
have a magnetic field. Metals such as iron are magnetic, but rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not.
Scientists know that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid because S-waves stop at the inner core. The
strong magnetic field is caused by convection in the liquid outer core. Convection currents in the outer core are due
to heat from the even hotter inner core. The heat that keeps the outer core from solidifying is produced by the
breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner core.

Plate Tectonics

The most well-known feature associated with Earth’s

lithosphere is tectonic activity. Tectonic activity
describes the interaction of the huge slabs of lithosphere
called tectonic plates. The lithosphere is divided into
tectonic plates including the North American,
Caribbean, South American, Scotia, Antarctic, Eurasian,
Arabian, African, Indian, Philippine, Australian, Pacific,
Juan de Fuca, Cocos, and Nazca. Most tectonic activity
takes place at the boundaries of these plates, where they
may collide, tear apart, or slide against each other. The
movement of tectonic plates is made possible by thermal
energy (heat) from the mantle part of the lithosphere. Thermal energy makes the rocks of the lithosphere more
elastic. Tectonic activity is responsible for some of Earth’s most dramatic geologic events: earthquakes, volcanoes,
orogeny (mountain-building), and deep ocean trenches can all be formed by tectonic activity in the lithosphere.
Tectonic activity can shape the lithosphere itself: Both oceanic and continental lithospheres are thinnest at rift
valleys and ocean ridges, where tectonic plates are shifting apart from one anothe
How the Lithosphere Interacts with Other Spheres

The cool, fragile lithosphere is merely one of five

major “spheres” that influence Earth’s environment.
The additional spheres include the biosphere (the
living organisms on Earth); the cryosphere (Earth’s icy
areas, encompassing ice and frozen ground); the
hydrosphere (Earth’s water in liquid form); and the
atmosphere (the air enveloping our planet). These
spheres engage to affect various factors including
ocean salinity, biodiversity, and landscapes. For
example, the pedosphere forms a component of the
lithosphere comprised of soil and earth. The
pedosphere results from the interaction among the
lithosphere, atmosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Massive, solid stones of the lithosphere can be
crushed into dust by the strong motion of a glacier (cryosphere). Weathering and erosion from wind (atmosphere)
or rain (hydrosphere) can also break down rocks in the lithosphere. The organic matter from the biosphere, such as
the remains of plants and animals, combines with eroded rocks to form fertile soil known as the pedosphere. The
lithosphere interacts with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and cryosphere, affecting temperature variations on Earth.
High mountains, for instance, frequently experience significantly cooler temperatures than valleys or lowlands. The
lithosphere’s mountain range is engaging with the atmosphere’s low air pressure and the hydrosphere’s snowy
precipitation, resulting in a chilly or potentially icy climate region. A climate zone of a region, in turn, affects the
adaptations required for the organisms within that region’s biosphere.

The Geothermal Gradient of the Lithosphere

The geothermal gradient is how Earth’s temperature

increases with depth. Earth is coolest at the crust, and
warmest inside the inner core.

Thermal Energy in the Mantle

The deeper layers of the lithosphere (the upper layers of

the mantle) are subject to high temperatures, making the
rocks elastic. The rocks can melt and flow below the
Earth’s surface, driving the movement of tectonic plates.

The Pressure of the Lithosphere

The pressure of the lithosphere varies, typically increasing with depth. Why? To put it simply, the more rock above
it, the higher the pressure will be at approximately 30 miles (50 kilometres) below the Earth’s surface, the pressure
reaches 13790 bars.

Pressure Build-up in the Lithosphere

Thermal energy in the mantle drives the slow movement of the crust’s tectonic plates. The plates often slide against
each other at tectonic plate boundaries, and get stuck due to friction. This results in a build-up of pressure over time.
Eventually, this pressure is released in the form of seismic waves like earthquake and volcanic eruptions.
 Hydrosphere

What is hydrosphere?

A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet. The hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of the
planet, underground, and in the air. A planet’s hydrosphere can be liquid, solid, or gas. On Earth, liquid water exists
on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes, and rivers. It also exists below ground—as groundwater, in wells and
aquifers. Water vapor is most visible as clouds and fog. The frozen part of Earth’s hydrosphere is made of ice:
glaciers, ice caps and icebergs. The frozen part of the hydrosphere has its own name, the cryosphere.

Water Cycle

The water cycle also known as the “ Hydrologic Cycle”,

because it encompasses a number of processes that circulate
water through the Earth’s subsystems. Water evaporates from
within soils and through vegetation and from bodies of water
(such as rivers, lakes and oceans). This evaporated water
accumulates as water vapour in clouds and returns to the Earth
as rain or snow. The returning water falls directly back into the
oceans, or onto land as snow or rain. It soaks into the soil to
move into the groundwater or runs off the Earth’s surface in
streams, rivers and lakes, which drain back into the oceans. The water may be taken up by plants and returned to
the atmosphere through processes like transpiration and photosynthesis. Water may also be returned to the
atmosphere through the combustion of plants in fossil fuel.

Oceans

Most liquid water is found in the oceans, which covers about 70% of the Earth’s surface. Only a small portion of
the Earth’s water is freshwater, found in rivers, lakes, and groundwater. Earth’s ocean is really one continuous body
of water, but scientists and geographers divide it into four main areas: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic
Oceans. Some oceanographers define the area where these oceans merge into the icy waters around Antarctica as a
fifth ocean, known as the Southern Ocean. Increasingly, Earth’s oceans are threatened by pollution, climate change,
and other human activities. These threats affect the health of our oceans and the life within them.
 For example, coral reefs in areas around the globe are experiencing bleaching, disease, and death as waters
warm and become acidic due to increased CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere.

Rivers

Rivers are integral to the hydrosphere because they transport freshwater, nutrients, and sediments from higher
elevations to lakes, seas, and oceans. They play a significant role in the global water cycle, influencing both natural
ecosystems and human societies.

Fresh water Systems

Freshwater is one of the most vital resources on Earth, yet it makes up only 3% of the planet’s hydrosphere.
Despite its small proportion, freshwater is essential for the survival of humans, animals, and plants. However, more
than 99% of the Earth’s total water is not suitable for human use or for most living organisms. Only about 0.3% of
our freshwater is found in the surface water of lakes, rivers, and swamps. Of all the water on Earth, more than 99
percent of Earth’s water is unusable by humans and many other living things.
 Most of that fresh water (68.7%) is frozen in glaciers and ice Caps. Two ice sheets, the Antarctica, Ice Sheet
and the Greenland Ice, Sheet, contain more than 99% of the ice on Earth’s surface.

The Greenland and Antarctica Ice Sheet. Ice sheets cover most of Greenland and Antarctica. Greenland Lies
between the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. It is the world’s largest island and its least populated country.

The Greenland Ice sheet covers three quarters of the island, an area roughly three times the size of Texas.
Antarctica is the southernmost continent and the while over 30% found in ground water.

When rising disparity between water demand and supply emphasises the critical need for improved water
conservation and management measures. Protecting and wisely exploiting our limited freshwater resources is
crucial, not just for maintaining life, but also for ensuring. Protecting and wisely using our limited freshwater
resources is essential not only for sustaining life but also for ensuring a stable and secure future for generations to
come.