THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP AND THE BROUWER FIXED

POINT THEOREM

NATHAN GILL

Abstract. We introduce the concept of the fundamental group of a topo-

logical space and demonstrate its utility in classifying spaces by computing
several examples. We also use the techniques developed in the paper to prove
the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem for the disk. We assume a knowledge of the
basic elements of group theory and point-set topology.

Contents
1. Motivation 1
2. Paths and Homotopies 2
3. The Fundamental Group 4
4. The Fundamental Group of S 1 5
5. The Fundamental Group of S n 7
6. The Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem For The Disk 8
Acknowledgments 9
References 9

1. Motivation
One of topology’s main concerns is determining whether or not two spaces are
homeomorphic or homotopy equivalent (in this short paper we will not discuss the
latter at length, but the reader should know that the techniques developed here
are in fact more relevant to questions of homotopy equivalence than of homeo-
morphism). Often, obtaining an affirmative answer to a problem of this type is
much more difficult than obtaining a negative one. Where the former involves
constructing a homeomorphism (which can be very difficult for unfamiliar spaces),
the latter only requires that we find a homeomorphism-invariant property that the
two spaces do not share, e.g. connectedness, path connectedness, compactness, etc.
These properties are sufficient to di↵erentiate between spaces like R and R2 , but
what about a more interesting pair, like the torus, S 1 ⇥ S 1 , and the sphere, S 2 ?
Intuition tells us that these spaces ought not be homeomorphic; the torus has a
big gaping hole, while the sphere does not. Unfortunately, the familiar invariants
of point-set topology prove inadequate here. We need a new invariant that can
distinguish between two such spaces; the fundamental group, which we will develop
in this paper, is one such invariant.
1
2 NATHAN GILL

2. Paths and Homotopies

Recall from point-set topology the notion of a ”path” in a topological space.
Definition 2.1. Let X be a topological space. A path in X is a continuous map
f : I ! X. The points f (0) and f (1) are called the initial and final points,
respectively. If x0 and x1 are the initial and final points, then f is a path from x0
to x1 . If a path f has the same initial and final point x0 , then f is called a loop
based at x0 .
We also have a natural way of combining two paths.
Definition 2.2. Suppose f is a path from x0 to x1 and g is a path from x1 to x2 .
We define the product of f and g, denoted f ⇤ g, to be the path h defined by
⇢
f (2x) 0  x  12
h(x) = 1 .
g(2x 1) 2 x1

Note that in order to form the product of two paths, the starting point of the
second path must be the ending point of the first path.

To look at all possible paths in a space at once would be a daunting task. Instead,
we take a more organized approach, in which we group paths into equivalence classes
derived from the homotopy relation, whose definition follows.
Definition 2.3. Let f : X ! Y and f 0 : X ! Y be continuous maps. We say
that f and f 0 are homotopic, written f ' f 0 , if there exists a continuous map
F : X ⇥ I ! Y such that
F (x, 0) = f (x) and F (x, 1) = f 0 (x)
for all x 2 X. The map F is called a homotopy between f and f 0 .
Definition 2.4. Let f : I ! X and f 0 : I ! X be paths in X with the same initial
and final points, x0 and x1 respectively. We say that f and f 0 are path homotopic
if there exists a homotopy F : I ⇥ I ! X satisfying the additional requirement that
F (0, t) = x0 and F (1, t) = x1
for all t 2 I.
We will denote path homotopy in the same way that we denote homotopy. For
the remainder of this paper, we will be concerned exclusively with path homotopy,
so there will not be any confusion.

As mentioned above, the notion of homotopy allows us to define a useful equiv-

alence relation on the set of all paths in a particular space.
Lemma 2.5. Path homotopy is an equivalence relation.
Proof. Transitivity is the only property that is not entirely straightforward to check.
If f ' g and g ' h, then the map
⇢
F (x, 2t) 0  t  12
H(x, t) = 1 ,
G(x, 2t 1) 2 t1
where F is a path homotopy between f and g and G is a path homotopy between
g and h, is a path homotopy between f and h. ⇤
 THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP AND THE BROUWER FIXED POINT THEOREM 3

Definition 2.6. Let f and g be two paths in a space X with f (1) = g(0), and let
[f ] and [g] denote the path homotopy classes of f and g. We define an operation ⇤
on these classes by
[f ] ⇤ [g] = [f ⇤ g].
We must of course check that
Lemma 2.7. The operation ⇤ is well-defined.
Proof. Let f , f 0 , g, and g 0 be paths in X such that f (1) = g(0) and f 0 (1) = g 0 (0),
and suppose f ' f 0 and g ' g 0 . We will show that f ⇤ g ' f 0 ⇤ g 0 . Let F and
G be homotopies between f and f 0 and g and g 0 , respectively. Define a function
H : I ⇥ I ! X by
⇢
F (2s, t) 0  s  12
H(s, t) = 1 .
G(2s 1, t) 2 s1
The map H is well-defined, since
F (1, t) = f (1) = g(0) = G(0, t),
and is continuous by the pasting lemma of point-set topology. We check that H is
the desired path homotopy. Let s 2 [0, 12 ]. Then we have
H(s, 0) = F (2s, 0) = f (2s) = (f ⇤ g)(s).
Similarly, for s 2 [ 12 , 1],
H(s, 0) = G(2s 1, 0) = g(2s 1) = (f ⇤ g)(s).
0 0
A similar argument shows that H(s, 1) = (f ⇤ g )(s) for all s 2 I. Furthermore,
H(0, t) = F (0, t) = f (0) = (f ⇤ g)(0) = (f 0 ⇤ g 0 )(0), and similarly for H(1, t). We
conclude that H is indeed a path homotopy between f ⇤ g and f 0 ⇤ g 0 . ⇤
Lemma 2.8. The operation ⇤ has the following properties:
• If h : X ! Y is a continuous map, and f and g are paths in X, then
h (f ⇤ g) = (h f ) ⇤ (h g).
• If h : X ! Y is a continuous map, and F is a path homotopy between the
paths f and g in X, then h F is a path homotopy between the paths h f
and h g in Y .
• Existence of right and left identities. In particular, if f is a path in a space
X from x0 to x1 , then the constant path at x0 is the left identity, and the
constant path at x1 is the right identity.
• Existence of inverses. In particular, if f is a path in a space X from x0
to x1 , then its inverse, or reverse, is the path f¯(s) = f (1 s). This path
satisfies
[f ] ⇤ [f¯] = [ex0 ] and [f¯] ⇤ [f ] = [ex1 ],
where ex0 and ex1 denote the constant paths at x0 and x1 .
• Associativity.
These properties make the set of all path homotopy classes in a topological
space into a groupoid, an algebraic structure with a partial function defined for
only certain pairs of elements (as opposed to a binary operation that is defined for
all pairs), but that otherwise satisfies the usual group axioms.
4 NATHAN GILL

3. The Fundamental Group

As a group is the most basic and familiar algebraic structure, we would like to
turn the groupoid associated with a topological space into a proper group. To do
this, we consider only loops. Clearly, if f and g are loops based at x0 , then f ⇤ g
is always defined and is itself a loop based at x0 . In addition, the left and right
identities mentioned above coincide, as they are both equal to the constant path at
x0 . This observation suggests the following definition.
Definition 3.1. Let X be a topological space, and let x0 2 X. Endowed with
the operation ⇤, the set of all path homotopy classes of loops based at x0 forms
a group, called the fundamental group of X relative to the base point x0 , and is
denoted ⇡1 (X, x0 ).
Notice that the fundamental group is defined using a particular (and arbitrary)
point from a space. Since we aim to use it as an invariant, our new construction
will not be of much use if it varies from point to point. We should therefore hope
that many familiar spaces do not have this undesirable property. This turns out to
be the case.
Lemma 3.2. In a path connected space, the fundamental group is independent of
base point up to isomorphism.
Proof. Let x0 and x1 be two points in a path connected space X, and let ↵ be a
path between them. Define a map ↵ˆ : ⇡1 (X, x0 ) ! ⇡1 (X, x1 ) by
↵ ↵] ⇤ [f ] ⇤ [↵].
ˆ ([f ]) = [¯
This map is well-defined since ⇤ is well-defined, as we have already shown, and the
¯ ⇤ f ⇤ ↵ is a loop based at x1 .
path ↵
First we check that ↵ ˆ is a homomorphism. Let [f ], [g] 2 ⇡1 (X, x0 ). We have
ˆ ([f ] ⇤ [g]) = [¯
↵ ↵] ⇤ ([f ] ⇤ [g]) ⇤ [↵]
↵] ⇤ [f ] ⇤ ([↵] ⇤ [¯
= [¯ ↵]) ⇤ [g] ⇤ [↵]
↵] ⇤ [f ] ⇤ [↵]) ⇤ ([¯
= ([¯ ↵] ⇤ [g] ⇤ [↵]) = ↵
ˆ ([f ]) ⇤ ↵
ˆ ([g]),
as desired. We show that ↵ ˆ is in fact an isomorphism by exhibiting an inverse
function. Consider the map ↵ ˆ¯ : ⇡1 (X, x1 ) ! ⇡1 (X, x0 ), defined by ↵
ˆ¯ ([f ]) = [↵] ⇤
[f ] ⇤ [¯
↵]. For any [f ] 2 ⇡1 (X, x0 ), we have
ˆ ↵
(↵
¯ ˆ )([f ]) = ↵ˆ¯ ([¯
↵] ⇤ [f ] ⇤ [↵])
= [↵] ⇤ ([¯
↵] ⇤ [f ] ⇤ [↵]) ⇤ [¯
↵]
= [f ].
A similar argument shows that (ˆ ¯ˆ ) is the identity map of ⇡1 (X, x1 ). We therefore
↵ ↵
conclude that ↵
ˆ is an isomorphism. ⇤
All of the spaces that we deal with in this paper are path connected, so we do
not need to worry much about this point.
 THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP AND THE BROUWER FIXED POINT THEOREM 5

The following theorem demonstrates the utility of the fundamental group in

classifying spaces.
Theorem 3.3. Suppose h : (X, x0 ) ! (Y, y0 ) is a homeomorphism of the space X
with the space Y . Then ⇡1 (X, x0 ) and ⇡1 (Y, y0 ) are isomorphic.
Proof. Define a map h⇤ : ⇡1 (X, x0 ) ! ⇡1 (Y, y0 ) by
h⇤ ([f ]) = [h f ].
The map h⇤ is a homomorphism because
h⇤ ([f ] ⇤ [g]) = [h (f ⇤ g)] = [(h f ) ⇤ (h g)] = h⇤ ([f ]) ⇤ h⇤ ([g]),
1
and is an isomorphism because (h )⇤ : ⇡1 (Y, y0 ) ! ⇡1 (X, x0 ), defined in the
obvious way, is its inverse map. ⇤
This theorem tells us that two spaces with di↵erent fundamental groups cannot
be homeomorphic.

4. The Fundamental Group of S 1

Before we can compute the fundamental goup of S 1 , we must introduce some
preliminary notions.
Definition 4.1. Let p : E ! B be a continuous surjective map. The map p is
said to be a covering map, and E a covering space of B, if for each b 2 B, there
exists an open set U ⇢ B such that b 2 U and p 1 (U ) can be expressed as the
union of a collection disjoint open sets {V↵ }, called slices, each of which is mapped
homeomorphically to U by p. The open set U is said to be evenly covered by p.
The most crucial tool in this section comes in the following definition and lemma.
Definition 4.2. If p : E ! B is a map and f : X ! B is a continuous map, then
a map f¯ : X ! E is called a lifting of f if p f¯ = f .
Lemma 4.3. Let p : E ! B be a covering map with p(e0 ) = b0 . Any path f : I ! B
beginning at b0 has a unique lifting to a path f¯ in E beginning at e0 .
Proof of Existence. Since p is a covering map, each point of B has a neighbor-
hood, call it Ub that is evenly covered by p. Now the collection {p 1 (Ub )}b2B is
an open cover (since p is by definition surjective) of the compact space I. There-
fore, using the Lebesgue number lemma of point-set topology, we form a partition
{a0 , a1 , . . . , an } of I with the property that for all i, we have [ai , ai+1 ] ⇢ p 1 (Ub ) for
some b 2 B. Then p([ai , ai+1 ]) ⇢ Ub , so the image of each subdivision lies entirely
within one of the sets Ub .
Now we construct the lifting. Let f¯(0) = e0 . Now suppose that f¯ is defined
for all x 2 [0, ai ]. Let {V↵ } denote the slices of the evenly-covered set U , where U
satisfies f ([ai , ai+1 ]) ⇢ U . Since f¯(ai ) 2 p 1 (U ), we must have f¯(ai ) 2 V↵ for some
↵. Now we define, for x 2 [ai , ai+1 ],
f¯(x) = (p | V↵ ) 1 (f (x)).
Since p | V↵ is a homeomorphism, (p | V↵ ) 1 is continuous. If we continue in
this fashion along the entire partition, the resulting function is continuous by the
pasting lemma, and is a path in E beginning at e0 , with the property that p f¯ = f .
⇤
6 NATHAN GILL

Proof of Uniqueness. Suppose that ḡ is another lifting of the path f beginning at

e0 . We will show that ḡ = f¯. Partition I using the same partition employed
in the construction of f¯. Clearly, ḡ(0) = f¯(0) = e0 . Suppose that ḡ(x) = f¯(x)
for all x 2 [0, ai ]. Now consider [ai , ai+1 ]. Let U ⇢ B be the open set such
that f ([ai , ai+1 ]) ⇢ U from the previous paragraph. For x 2 [ai , ai+1 ], we have
ḡ(x) 2 p 1 (f (x)) ⇢ p 1 (U ). Since ḡ is continuous, the set ḡ([ai , ai+1 ]) is connected,
and ḡ([ai , ai+1 ]) ⇢ p 1 (U ). Therefore, since the collection {V↵ } (the slices of
p 1 (U )) consists of disjoint open sets, the set ḡ([ai , ai+1 ]) lies entirely within one of
the slices V↵ . But ḡ(ai ) = f¯(ai ) 2 V↵ for some particular slice V↵ , so ḡ([ai , ai+1 ])
lies entirely within V↵ . The image of x under ḡ is thus simply the point of V↵ that
maps to f (x) under p, which is precisely f¯(x). ⇤
Lemma 4.4. Let p : E ! B be a covering map with p(e0 ) = b0 . Any map f :
I ⇥ I ! B with F (0, 0) = b0 has a unique lifting to a continuous map F̄ : I ⇥ I ! E
with F̄ (0, 0) = e0 . If F is a path homotopy between two paths f and g, then F̄ is a
path homotopy between f¯ and ḡ.
Proof. The proof is similar to that of the previous theorem. We take sufficiently
small rectangles in I ⇥ I in place of subintervals in I and again construct the lifting
inductively using these pieces. ⇤
We are now in a position to compute the fundamental group of S 1 .
Theorem 4.5. The fundamental group of S 1 is isomorphic to the additive group
of integers.
Proof. Consider the map p : R ! S 1 given by
p(x) = (cos(2⇡x), sin(2⇡x)),
which is in fact a covering map. Let b0 = (1, 0). Define a map : ⇡1 (S 1 , b0 ) ! Z
by ([f ]) = f¯(1), where f¯ is the lifting of f induced by p beginning at 0. The
map is well-defined because if f ' g, then f¯ ' ḡ by the previous theorem, and
hence f¯(1) = ḡ(1). To show that is a homomorphism, let [f ], [g] 2 ⇡1 (S 1 , b0 ). We
compute ([f ] ⇤ [g]). Let ([f ]) = m and ([g]) = n. Consider the path h : I ! R
given by ⇢
f¯(2x) 0  x  12
h(x) = 1 .
m + ḡ(2x 1) 2 s1
This path is the lifting of f ⇤ g beginning at 0, since
⇢
f (2x) 0  s  12
(p h)(x) = 1 ,
g(2x 1) 2 s1
which is simply f ⇤ g. We then have
([f ] ⇤ [g]) = h(1) = m + n = ([f ]) + ([g]).
To complete the proof, we show that is a bijection. Let n 2 Z. Since R is path
connected, there is a path f in R from 0 to n. Then p f 2 ⇡1 (S 1 , b0 ), and since f
is the lifting of p f beginning at 0, we have ([p f ]) = f (1) = n. Therefore,
is surjective. Now suppose that ([f ]) = ([g]). Then f¯ and ḡ are paths in R with
the same initial and final points. Since R is simply connected, there is a homotopy
H between f¯ and ḡ. But then p H is a homotopy between p f¯ = f and p ḡ = g,
and hence [f ] = [g]. We conclude that is injective, and hence an isomorphism.
⇤
 THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP AND THE BROUWER FIXED POINT THEOREM 7

What about the torus? Since the fundamental group of S 1 is Z, we might guess
that the fundamental group of S 1 ⇥ S 1 is Z ⇥ Z. It is straightforward to show
that the product of two covering maps is a covering map of the product of the
codomains. Using this fact, the map p ⇥ p is a covering map of S 1 ⇥ S 1 , and we can
use reasoning similar to that in the previous proof to show that the fundamental
group of S 1 ⇥ S 1 is indeed Z ⇥ Z.

5. The Fundamental Group of S n

As another example, we will compute the fundamental group of a sphere in n
dimensions. In particular, we will see that the 2-sphere and the torus are not
homeomorphic.
Theorem 5.1. Suppose X = U [ V , where U and V are open sets of X. Suppose
that U \V is path connected, and that x0 2 U \V . Let i and j be the inclusion maps
of U and V . Then the images of the induced homomorphisms i⇤ and j⇤ (defined as
in the proof of Theorem 3.3) generate ⇡1 (X, x0 ).
Proof. Let [f ] 2 ⇡1 (X, x0 ). Using the Lebesgue number lemma, form a partition
{a0 , a1 , . . . , an } of I so that the image of each segment of the partition under f lies
entirely in either U or V . Now from this partition, we remove all points ai such that
f (ai ) 2
/ U \ V . This process yields a new partition {b0 , b1 , . . . , bm }, which in fact
has the same property that the images of its segmenets lie entirely in either U or
V . To see this, let [ai 1 , ai ] and [ai , ai+1 ] be two segments of the original partition.
Assume without loss of generality that f ([ai 1 , ai ]) ⇢ U , and suppose we remove
the point ai . Since f (ai ) 2 U , we must have f (ai ) 2 / V . But then f ([ai , ai+1 ])
cannot be entirely contained in V , and thus must be entirely contained in U . We
then have f ([ai 1 , ai+1 ]) ⇢ U .
Let ↵i be a path in U \ V from x0 to f (ai ), and let Fi denote the composition
of the positive linear map of I onto [ai 1 , ai ] with f (intuitively, we can visualize
this as the portion of the path f between f (ai 1 ) and f (ai ), but the formalism is
needed so that we can perform the product operation in the next step). Then the
product
fi = ↵i ⇤ Fi ⇤ ↵¯i
is a loop based at x0 that lies entirely in either U or V . Therefore, the element
[fi ] 2 ⇡1 (X, x0 ) is in the image of either i⇤ or j⇤ . Since
[f ] = [f1 ] ⇤ · · · ⇤ [fn ],
we see that ⇡1 (X, x0 ) is indeed generated by the images of i⇤ and j⇤ . ⇤
Corollary 5.2. Suppose X = U [ V , where U and V are open sets of X, and
U \ V is nonempty and path connected. If U and V are simply connected, then X
is simply connected.
Proof. Since U and V are path connected, and U \ V is nonempty, the space X is
path connected as well, since given two points x1 , x2 2 X, we can form a path from
x1 to a point x0 2 U \ V , and then take the product with a path from x0 to x2 to
form a path from x1 to x2 .
By the preceding theorem, the images of the inclusion maps of U and V generate
⇡1 (X, x0 ). But because U and V have trivial fundamental goups, the image of the
homomorphisms induced by both inclusion maps is simply the identity loop based
8 NATHAN GILL

at x0 . So ⇡1 (X, x0 ) is trivial. Since it is also path connected, the space X is simply

connected. ⇤
Before we prove the next theorem, note that S n {p}, where p = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1),
is homeomorphic to Rn . Intuitively, in three dimensions, we can imagine poking
a hole in a sphere and stretching it out to cover the entire plane. The map f :
S n {p} ! Rn given by
1
f (x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) = (x1 , . . . , xn )
1 xn+1
provides the explicit homeomorphism.
Theorem 5.3. For n 2, the n-sphere S n is simply connected.
Proof. Consider the sets S n {p} and S n {q}, where p = (0, . . . , 0, 1) and q =
(0, . . . , 0, 1). Both sets are open, and (S n {p}) [ (S n {q}) = S n . In addition,
since they are homeomorhpic to Rn , each subspace is simply connected. Restricting
the homeomorphism defined above to (S n {p}) \ (S n {q}) = S n ({p, q}), we
see that S n {p, q} is homeomorphic to Rn 1 0, which is path connected for
n 2. The intersection (S n {p}) \ (S n {q}) is then path connected, and so S n
is simply connected by the preceding corollary. ⇤
Corollary 5.4. The sphere S 2 and the torus S 1 ⇥ S 1 are not homeomorphic.
Proof. Since it has a trivial fundamental group, the sphere S 2 cannot be homeo-
morphic to the torus by Theorem 3.3. ⇤
At this point, one might ask why it took so much e↵ort to prove that S 2 is
simply connected. A perhaps more obvious (but flawed) argument, which better
reflects our intuition, proceeds as follows. Let f be a loop in S 2 . Choose a point
x 2 S 2 such that x 2 / f (I). Let g be the homeomorphism between S 2 {x} and
R mentioned above. Then g f is a loop in R2 , and since R2 is simply connected,
2

there exists a path homotopy H between g f and a constant path. Then g 1 H is

a homotopy in S 2 {x}, and therefore S 2 , between f and a constant path. Where
is the flaw? The construction is beyond the scope of this paper, but there does
in fact exist a loop ⌦ : I ! I ⇥ I that is surjective. In addition, there exists a
continuous surjective map ⇥ : I ⇥ I ! S 2 (imagine stretching out the interior of
I ⇥ I and collapsing the boundary to a single point). Then ⇥ ⌦ is a surjective
loop in S 2 . In this case, we cannot pick a point x 2 S 2 that does not lie in the
image of the loop in question.

6. The Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem For The Disk

As a final application of the fundamental group, we will prove one case of the fa-
mous Brouwer Fixed Theorem. The theorem does in fact hold in higher dimensions,
but to show this requires more advanced tools. We begin with a new definition.
Definition 6.1. A retraction of a space X onto a subspace A is a continuous map
r : X ! A such that r | A = iA . The subspace A is called a retract of X.
 THE FUNDAMENTAL GROUP AND THE BROUWER FIXED POINT THEOREM 9

Theorem 6.2. There is no retraction of the disk B 2 onto S 1 .

Proof. We proceed by contradiction. Suppose that there existed a retraction r :
B 2 ! S 1 . Then r j, where j is the inclusion map of S 1 into B 2 , would be
the identity map of S 1 . The homomorphism r⇤ j⇤ would then be the identity
homomorphism of ⇡1 (S 1 , b0 ). This in turn would force j⇤ : ⇡1 (S 1 , b0 ) ! ⇡1 (B 2 , b0 )
to be injective. But this cannot be the case, since the fundamental group of B 2 is
trivial and has only one element, while that of S 1 is not trivial and has more than
one element. ⇤
Theorem 6.3 (The Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem for the Disk). If f : B 2 ! B 2
is a continuous map, then there is a point x 2 B 2 such that f (x) = x.
Proof. We proceed by contradiction. Suppose that there existed a continuous map
f : B 2 ! B 2 such that for all x 2 B 2 , we have f (x) 6= x. Define a function :
B 2 ! S 1 by sending x to the point of intersection of S 1 and the ray extending from
f (x) and passing through x. Recall from elementary geometry that two distinct
points determine a line. Since x and f (x) are always distinct, the map is well-
defined. A rigorous demonstration of the continuity of would require a substantial
amount of messy algebra, so we will omit one. Intuitively, however, the continuity
of f guarantees that by taking the points x1 and x2 to be sufficiently close, the
slopes of the rays passing through those points, and therefore (x1 ) and (x2 ), can
be made arbitrarily close.
Notice now that for x 2 S 1 , we have (x) = x. Therefore, the restriction | S 1
is simply the identity map of S 1 . The map is then a retraction of B 2 onto S 1 ,
which is a contradiction of the preceding theorem. We conclude that any continuous
map from B 2 to itself must have a fixed point. ⇤
Acknowledgments. It is a pleasure to thank my mentor, Mary He, for her guid-
ance in exploring this topic. Were it not for her helpful explanations of the material
and reading and exercise suggestions, this paper would not have been possible. I
would also like to thank Peter May and all the members of the University of Chicago
Mathematics department who gave up their time and e↵ort to put on this REU.

References
[1] James Munkres. Topology. Pearson. 2000.
[2] David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote. Abstract Algebra. Wiley. 2003.
[3] Allan Hatcher. Algebraic Topology. Cambridge University Press. 2001.