Chap- 7

Data Analysis & Interpretation

Chapter objectives

After successful completion of this chapter the student will be able to:

define Data Analysis

Sorting and tabulation of data

Graphic and Diagrammatic presentation of data

Statistical techniques

Data Interpretation

Meaning and technique of interpretation

Basic Consideration

6.1. Data Processing and Analysis

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down for the
purpose at the time of developing the research plan.

This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated
comparisons and analysis.

Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that
they are amenable to analysis.

The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences
supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance
to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions”.

6.1.1. PROCESSING OPERATIONS

With this brief introduction concerning the concepts of processing and analysis, we can now proceed with the
explanation of all the processing operations.
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 1. Editing:

Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to
detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful
scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules.

Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as
completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.

With regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can talk of field editing and central editing.
Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for completing (translating or
rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the time of recording the
respondents’ responses. This type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often
can be difficult for others to decipher.

The sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview, preferably on the very day or on the
next day. While doing field editing, the investigator must restrain himself and must not correct errors of
omission by simply guessing what the informant would have said if the question had been asked.

Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and returned to the office.
This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and
by a team of editors in case of a large inquiry. Editors must keep in view several points while performing their
work:

a. They should be familiar with instructions given to the interviewers and coders as well as with the editing
instructions supplied to them for the purpose.

b. While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they should just draw a single line on it
so that the same may remain legible.

c. They must make entries (if any) on the form in some distinctive colur and that too in a standardized
form.

d. They should initial all answers which they change or supply. (e) Editor’s initials and the date of editing
should be placed on each completed form or schedule.

2. Coding

Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the
research problem under consideration.

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But in case of hand coding some standard method may be used. One such standard method is to code in the
margin with a colored pencil. The other method can be to transcribe the data from the questionnaire to a coding
sheet. Whatever method is adopted, one should see that coding errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to the
minimum level.

3. Classification

Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced
into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data
which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.
Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a
number of groups or classes. Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature of
the phenomenon involved:

1. Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on the basis of common
characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as
weight, height, income, etc.). Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot
be measured quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data
obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their
classification is said to be classification according to attributes.

2. Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the numerical

characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured through some statistical units.
Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc. come under this category. Such data are known as
statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals. For instance, persons whose
incomes, say, are within Rs 201 to Rs 400 can form one group; those whose incomes are within Rs 401
to Rs 600 can form another group and so on

4. Tabulation

When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some
kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of
summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.

Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.

1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum.

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 2. It facilitates the process of comparison.

3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.

4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

Generally accepted principles of tabulation: Such principles of tabulation, particularly of constructing statistical
tables, can be briefly states as follows:*

1. Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the table intelligible without
reference to the text and this title should always be placed just above the body of the table.

2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.

3. The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should be clear and brief.

4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be indicated.

5. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly beneath the table, along
with the reference symbols used in the table.

6. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicated

1. just below the table.

7. Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make the table more readable and
attractive. Lines are always drawn at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions.

8. There should be thick lines to separate the data under one class from the data under another class and the
lines separating the sub-divisions of the classes should be comparatively thin lines.

6.1.2. ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS

Analysis is categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is often known as
statistical analysis).

“Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study provides us with profiles of
companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics such as size

Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in order to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions. It is also concerned
with the estimation of population values. It is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of
interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and conclusions) is performed.

6.1.3. STATISTICS IN RESEARCH

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The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research, analyzing its data and drawing
conclusions there from. Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be suitably
reduced so that the same can be read easily and can be used for further analysis. Clearly the science of statistics
cannot be ignored by any research worker, even though he may not have occasion to use statistical methods in
all their details and ramifications.

If fact, there are two major areas of statistics :

descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain indices
from the raw data, whereas inferential statistics concern with the process of generalization.
Descriptive statistics are provided by frequencies, measures of central tendency, and dispersion.

Frequencies: simply refers to the number of times various subcategories of a certain phenomenon occurs, from
which the percentage and the cumulative percentage of their occurrence can be easily calculated.
Example:
 A marketing manager wants to know many units of each brand of coffee are sold in a particular region
during a given period
 A tax consultant desires to keep count of the number of times different sizes of firms-small, medium and
large are audited.
In all the foregoing cases, it may be noted that we desire to obtain the frequencies on a nominally scaled
variable.

Inferential statistics are also known as sampling statistics and are mainly concerned with two major type of
problems:

(i) the estimation of population parameters, and

(ii) The testing of statistical hypotheses.

The important statistical measures* that are used to summarize the survey/research data are:

(1) measures of central tendency or statistical averages;

(2) measures of dispersion;

(3) measures of asymmetry (skewness)

(4) measures of relationship; and

(5) Other measures.

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Amongst the measures of central tendency, the three most important ones are the arithmetic average or mean,
median and mode. Geometric mean and harmonic mean are also sometimes used.

From among the measures of dispersion, variance, and its square root the standard deviation are the most often
used measures. Other measures such as mean deviation, range, etc. are also used. For comparison purpose, we
use mostly the coefficient of standard deviation or the coefficient of variation

6.2. Interpretation

Meaning of interpretation

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical
and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. The task of
interpretation has two major aspects:

(i) the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of
another, and

(ii) The establishment of some explanatory concepts.

In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping
analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other research, theory
and hypotheses. Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been
observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical
conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION

The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the part of
researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience.

The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation.

The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:

(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must interpret
the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of
uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the
technique of how generalization should be done and concepts be formulated.

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(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting the final
results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under
consideration.

(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight into the
study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical
argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility
of research results.

(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors
affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for
quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.

7.3. Writing Research Report

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains incomplete
till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly
well designed and conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and findings are of little
value unless they are effectively communicated to others.

The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others. Research results must
invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing research report.

DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

The usual steps involved in writing report are:

1. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject

logically: The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections a associations between the one
thing and another by means of analysis.

Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for
doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.

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2. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the framework
upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material
and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

3. Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the
final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done
in the context of his research study.

4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all
formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision
makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing.

5. Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final
bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in
some way pertinent to the research which has been done.

For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:

1. Name of author, last name first.

2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.

3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.

4. Number of volumes.

For magazines and newspapers or research paper the order may be as under:

1. Name of the author, last name first.

2. Title of article, in quotation marks.

3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.

4. The volume or volume and number

5. The date of the issue.

6. The pagination.

6. Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and
objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and
the like ones.

7.3.2. Layout of the research Report writing

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 A. Preliminary Pages

In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of
‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so
that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in
the report.

B. Main Text

The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of the research
study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages
numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on a
new page.

The main text of the report should have the following sections:

(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should
contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e.

 Enough background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered
worth investigating.

 A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be
seen in that context.

 The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in the study
should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report.

 The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader
would like to know in detail about such thing:

 The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated.

 the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various
limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.

(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must contain a
statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood
by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the
summarized form.

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(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables
and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the report.
This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The result section
of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All
the results should be resented in logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections.

(iv) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the results
of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the human
behaviour.

(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary, resting
in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn
from the research results.

C. End Matter

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as questionnaires,
sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also
be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a
book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report.
The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.

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