Basic Electrical Engineering-

203106101
Prof. Ravi Kumar Paliwal, Assistant Professor
Electrical Engineering, PIT
CHAPTER-1
DC Circuit
Electrical circuit elements
Resistance : “The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current
is called resistance .”
When the potential difference is applied to
a conductor , the current start to flow or
the free electrons start moving.
While moving , the free electrons collide
with the atoms and molecules of the Symbolic representation
conductors . of resistor
Because of collision the rate of flow of
electrons or current is restricted .
Resistance measured in ohm (Ω) and Image source : Google

denoted with ( R, r)
Factors affecting to Resistor
1) Length of conductor : when length of conductor is increase resistance
increase . In other word we can say that resistance is directly proportional to
length of the conductor.

2) Area of conductor : When area of conductor is change weather increase or

decrease resistance of conductor can change with decrease and increase. In
simple world we can say that resistance is inversely proportional to the area .

3) Temperature : Resistance can increase if temperature is increase and can

decrease as the temperature decrease

Mathematically, R = ρ l/a Ω
Inductance
Inductance is the one kind of property of material which can
store the energy in the form of magnetic energy . In circuit when
the current is change with time at that time only inductor can
exhibited.
Inductance is the nature of the coil by which it opposes any small
change of direction of the current when it flows through the coil.
When the current is passing in to the coil it creates magnetic field
around it and if the any change in the current magnitude,
magnetic field also change according that induced emf also
change .
So we can understand that inductance of the coil depends upon
the rate of change of current.
Image source : Google

Image source : Google

Inductance Conti...

Mathematically,
V = L(dI/dt) volt
Where V is the voltage, L is the inductance, I is the current and t is
the time period.
Inductance, ‘L’, is measured in Henrys, named after Joseph Henry,
the American scientist who discovered electromagnetic
induction.
Capacitance

Capacitance is a two-terminal element that has the capability of

charge storage and so we can say that it can stored energy in the
form of voltage.

Mathematically, the capacitance of a conductor is defined by

C= Q/V (farad)

Where Q charges and V is the potential difference.

The current through the capacitor is proportional to the
derivative of voltage across capacitor and is given by expression
I = C dv/dt amp
Image source : Google
 Electrical Sources

Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or

a current source can be classed as being
either independent (ideal) or dependent,
(controlled) that is whose value depends upon
a voltage or current elsewhere within the
circuit, which itself can be either constant or
time-varying.

Image source : Google

Ideal voltage source
⮚An ideal voltage source is defined as a two
terminal active element that is capable of
supplying and maintaining the same voltage,
(v) across its terminals regardless of the
current, (i) flowing through it.
⮚In other words, an ideal voltage source
will supply a constant voltage at all times
regardless of the value of the current being
supplied producing an I-V characteristic
represented by a straight line.
⮚An ideal voltage source is also known as
an Independent Voltage Source as its
voltage does not depend on either the value
of the current flowing through the source or Image source : Google

its direction
Ideal and practical voltage source

⮚Ideal voltage source having series

resistance value is very low near to
zero.

⮚Practical voltage source having some

series resistance value

⮚if the series source resistance is low,

the voltage source is ideal. When the
source resistance is infinite, the
voltage source is open-circuited.
Image source : Google
Dependent Voltage Source
⮚Unlike an ideal voltage source ,
a controlled or dependent voltage
source changes its terminal
voltage depending upon the
voltage across, or the current
through.
⮚Dependent voltage source that
depends on a voltage input is
generally referred to as a Voltage
Controlled Voltage Source or VCVS.
A voltage source that depends on a
current input is referred too as
a Current Controlled Voltage Image source : Google

Source or CCVS.
Ideal Current source
⮚A Current Source is an active
circuit element that is capable of
supplying a constant current flow
to a circuit regardless of the
voltage developed across its
terminals
⮚An ideal current source is
called a “constant current
source” as it provides a constant
steady state current
independent of the load
connected to it producing an I-V
characteristic represented by a Image source : Google

straight line
Practical current source

⮚In ideal current source provide

constant current as its internal
resistance is infinite.

⮚Practical current source having

some value of internal resistance.

Image source : Google

Dependent current source
⮚A controlled or dependent
current source changes its
current depending upon the
voltage across, or the current
through, some other element
connected to the circuit.
⮚A current source that depends
on a voltage input is generally
referred to as a Voltage
Controlled Current
Source or VCCS. A current source
that depends on a current input is
generally referred too as
Image source : Google
a Current Controlled Current
Source or CCCS.
Ohm’s Law
Georg Ohm found that, “at a constant temperature, the electrical
current flowing through a fixed linear resistance is directly
proportional to the voltage applied across it, and also inversely
proportional to the resistance”.
Ohm’s Law Pie Chart
By knowing any two values of
the Voltage, Current or
Resistance quantities we can
use Ohms Law to find the third
missing value. Ohms Law is used
extensively in electronics
formulas and calculations so it is
“very important to understand
and accurately remember these
formulas”.

Image source : Google

Series circuit
⮚When the resistors are connected end to end, so that they form only one
path for the flow of current, then resistors are said to be connected in series
and such circuits are known as series circuits
Now according to ohm’s law
Voltage drop across resistors R1,
R2,R3 are V1= IR1, V2= IR2, V3=IR3.
Total voltage V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
= I (R1 + R2 +R3)
V/R = R1 + R2 +R3
According to ohm’s law V/I gives
the whole circuit resistance, R ohm.
So Total resistance of the circuit ,
R = R1 + R2 +R3 Image source : Google
Voltage Divider Equation
⮚Suppose we want to find voltage V1, V2, and V3 in terms of
voltage in above figure with out knowing the value of current we
can apply voltage divider equation.

⮚Total current in the circuit , I = V/ R1+R2+R3 or I = V/Req A

⮚By ohm’s law V1 = IR1 volt or V1= (R1/ Req) V

Like V2 = (R2/ Req) V and V3 = (R3/ Req) V
Parallel Circuit
When two or more electrical components are connected in a way that one
end of each component is connected to a common point and the other end is
connected to another common point, then the electrical components are said
to be connected in parallel, and such an electrical DC circuit is referred as a
parallel DC circuit

In this circuit every component will have

the same voltage drop across them, and
it will be exactly equal to the voltage
which occurs between the two common
points where the components are
connected.
Image source : Google
Parallel Circuit Conti..

Suppose three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel across a

voltage source of V (volt) as shown in the figure. Let I (Ampere) be the
total circuit current which is divided into current I1, I2 and I3 flowing
through R1, R2 and R3 respectively. Now according to Ohm’s law:
Voltage drop across resistor R1, V = I1.R1
Voltage drop across resistor R2, V = I2.R2
Voltage drop across resistor R3, V = I3.R3
Voltage drop across whole parallel DC circuit,
V = Voltage drop across resistor R1 = voltage drop across resistor R2 =
voltage drop across resistor R3
⇒ V = I1.R1 = I2.R2 = I3.R3
Parallel Circuit Conti..
Current divider Equation

Here this basic current divider circuit consists

of two resistors: R1, and R2 in parallel which
splits the supply or source current IS between
them into two separate currents IR1 and
IR2 before joining together again and returning
back to the source.

Image source : Google

Current divider Equation
Without knowing the value of applied voltage we can find the
every branch current by applying current divider equation
Current divider Equation

Solving for IR1 gives Solving for IR2 gives

Kirchhoff”s current law

Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that

the “total current or charge entering a
junction or node is exactly equal to the
charge leaving the node as it has no
other place to go except to leave, as no
charge is lost within the node“. In other
words the algebraic sum of ALL the
currents entering and leaving a node
must be equal to zero,
I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0

Image source : Google

 Kirchhoff”s Voltage law

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that

“in any closed loop network, the total
voltage around the loop is equal to the
sum of all the voltage drops within the
same loop” which is also equal to zero. In
other words the algebraic sum of all
voltages within the loop must be equal to
zero.

Image source : Google

Star-Delta transformation

The value of the resistor on any one side of the delta, Δ network is the sum of all
the two-product combinations of resistors in the star network divide by the star
resistor located “directly opposite” the delta resistor being found. For example,
resistor A is given as:
Star-Delta transformation
Star-Delta transformation
Star – Delta Example

Convert the following Star Resistive Network into an equivalent Delta

Network.
Delta-Star transformation

To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network we need to derive

a transformation formula for equating the various resistors to each other
between the various terminals. Consider the circuit below.
Delta-Star transformation
Delta-Star transformation
Delta-Star transformation

When converting a delta network into a star network the denominators of

all of the transformation formulas are the same: A + B + C, and which is
the sum of ALL the delta resistances. Then to convert any delta connected
network to an equivalent star network we can summarized the above
transformation equations as:
Delta-Star transformation
Delta-Star Example
Superposition Theorem
Statement
▪ Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network with
more than one source, the response across any component is the sum of the
responses obtained from each source considered separately and their internal
resistance is replaced by all other sources.

▪ Limitation of Superposition theorem

The theorem of superposition is used to resolve the network where two or more
sources exist and are connected.
Steps for solving Theorem
Step 1 – Take only one independent
source of voltage or current and
deactivate the other sources.
Step 2 – In the circuit diagram B
shown above, consider the source
E1 and replace the other source
E2 by its internal resistance. If its
internal resistance is not given, then
it is taken as zero and the source is
short-circuited.
Step 3 – If there is a voltage source
than short circuit it and if there is a
current source then just open circuit
it.
Steps for solving Theorem
Step 4 – Thus, by activating one
source and deactivating the other
source find the current in each
branch of the network. Taking the
above example find the current I1 ’,
I2’and I3’.
Step 5 – Now consider the other
source E2 and replace the source
E1 by its internal resistance r1 as
shown in the circuit diagram C.
Step 6 – Determine the current in
various sections, I1’’, I2’’ and I3’’.
Steps for solving Theorem

Step 7 – Now to determine the net branch current utilizing

the superposition theorem, add the currents obtained from
each individual source for each branch.
Step 8 – If the current obtained by each branch is in the
same direction then add them and if it is in the opposite
direction, subtract them to obtain the net current in each
branch.
Examples of Superposition Theorem
• Find the current flowing through
20 Ω resistor of the following
circuit using superposition
theorem.
Examples of Superposition Theorem

Let us find the current flowing

through 20 Ω resistor by
considering only 20 V voltage
source. In this case, we can
eliminate the 4 A current source by
making open circuit of it.
Examples of Superposition Theorem

Let us find the current flowing

through 20 Ω resistor by considering
only 4 A current source. In this case,
we can eliminate the 20 V voltage
source by making short-circuit of it.
Examples of Superposition Theorem
Let us find the current flowing
through 20 Ω resistor by considering
only 4 A current source. In this case,
we can eliminate the 20 V voltage
source by making short-circuit of it.
There are three resistors to the left
of terminals A & B. We can replace
these resistors with a
single equivalent resistor. Here, 5 Ω
& 10 Ω resistors are connected in RAB=⟮(5×10)/(5+10)⟯+10
parallel and the entire combination =10/3+10=40/3Ω
is in series with 10 Ω resistor.
Examples of Superposition Theorem

We can find the current flowing

through 20 Ω resistor, by
using current division principle
the current flowing through 20 Ω
resistor is 1.6 A, when only 4 A current
source is considered.
 Thevenin’s theorem:

Statement :

Thevenin’s Theorem is that any linear active

network consisting of independent or
elements candependent voltage
be replaces and
by voltage currentwith resistance.
source in series source and
the network
Where the voltage source being the open-circuited voltage across the open-
circuited load terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of
the source.
 Thevenin’s theorem:

In other words, the current flowing through a resistor connected across

any two terminals of a network by an equivalent circuit having a voltage
source Eth in series with a resistor Rth.
Where ;

Eth is the open-circuit voltage between the required two terminals called
the Thevenin voltage

And

Rth is the equivalent resistance of the network as seen from the

two-terminal with all other sources replaced by their internal
resistances called Thevenin resistance.
Thevenin’s theorem :
Let us consider a simple DC circuit as shown in the figure above, where we have
to find the load current IL by the Thevenin’s theorem.
Steps for solving Thevenin’s circuit
for finding IL:

Step 1 – First of all remove the load resistance rL of the given

circuit.

Step 2 – Replace all the sources by their internal resistance.

Step 3 – If sources are ideal then short circuit the voltage source
and open circuit the current source.

Step 4 – Now find the equivalent resistance at the load terminals,

known as Thevenin’s Resistance (RTH).

Step 5 – Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting the

load resistance and after that determine the desired response.
Steps for solving Thevenin’s circuit for finding :

In order to find the equivalent voltage source, rL is removed from the circuit
as shown in the figure below and Voc or VTH is calculated .
Steps for solving Thevenin’s circuit
:

Now, to find the internal resistance of the network (Thevenin’s resistance or equivalent resistance) in series
with the open-circuit voltage VOC , also known as Thevenin’s voltage VTH, the voltage source is removed or we
can say it is deactivated by a short circuit (as the source does not have any internal resistance) as shown in the
figure below:
Steps for solving Thevenin’s circuit
:

As per Thevenin’s Statement, the load current is determined by the circuit shown
above and the equivalent Thevenin’s circuit is obtained.
The load current IL is given as:
Steps for solving Thevenin’s circuit
:

The load current IL is given as:

Where,
VTH is the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage. It is an open circuit voltage across the
terminal AB known as load terminal.
RTH is the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, as seen from the load terminals.
rL is the load resistance
Thevenin’s theorem example :
Find VTH, RTH and the load current IL flowing through and load voltage across
the load resistor in fig (1) by using Thevenin’s Theorem .
Thevenin’s theorem example :
Step 1. Open the 5kΩ load
resistor
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Step 2.
Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH)
Now we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage.

Since 3mA current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a series circuit
and current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open.

Total current is = 16k-ohm/48 v = 3 mA

Thevenin’s theorem example :

Since 3mA current flows

in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ
resistors as this is a
series circuit and
current will not flow in
the 8kΩ resistor as it is
open.
Thevenin’s theorem example :

This way, 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that
current is not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is an open circuit, but the 8kΩ
resistor is in parallel with 4k resistor.

So the same voltage 12V will appear across the 8kΩ resistor as well as 4kΩ

resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals.

VTH = 12V
Thevenin’s theorem
example :
Thevenin’s theorem example :
Step.3 Open current sources and short voltage sources as shown
below Calculate / measure the open circuit resistance. This is the
Thevenin Resistance (RTH)
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Step.4 We have removed the 48V DC source to zero as equivalent i.e. 48V
DC source has been replaced with a short in step 3.
We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ
resistor and 12k Ω resistor
Thevenin’s theorem example :
Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load
resistor. This makes Thevenin circuit with load resistor. This the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.
Thevenin’s theorem example :

step.5 Now apply the last step i.e Ohm’s law . Calculate the total load
current and load voltage as shown in fig 6.

IL = VTH / (RTH + RL)

IL = 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) → = 12/16kΩ IL = 0.75mA

And

VL = IL x RL

VL = 0.75mA x 5kΩ
 Thevenin’s theorem example :
Example.1 Find the load current and power delivered to the load, using thevenin’s theorem.
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Step 1
Open the load resistor (5Ω) and find the voltage across the load terminals.
Find the current through 8Ω resistor and then calculate the Thevenin’s voltage.
Calculation of voltage across 8Ω resistor is given below.
I=V/2+8
=24/10
=2.4 AMP.

VTH=VOC=2.4*
8 =19.2 VOLT
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Step 2
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the network which is seen from the load
terminals. Here replace the 24V voltage source by a short circuit to find the
equivalent resistance.
In the diagram, 8Ω and 2Ω resistors are
connected in parallel and this combination is in
series with 3Ω resistor.

By network reduction techniques, the equivalent

resistance is calculated as follows.

RTH=Req= 3+
(8*2)/8+2=4.6
ohm
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Step 3
Now draw the thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the given circuit.
Draw the thevenin’s voltage in series with thevenin’s resistance and add the load resistor
in series with the circuit.

IL=VTH/RTH+RL
=19.2/4.6+5
=2 AMPERES

VL=IL*RL
=2*5
=10 VOLT
Thevenin’s theorem example :

EXAMPLE:2 Calculate the current through 6Ω load resistor using thevenin’s theorem.

If you look out our given circuit, it contains a current source.

If possible convert current source into its equivalent voltage source. Since we need to

find thevenin’s voltage for the given circuit, having a voltage source in our circuit is a
good choice.
Thevenin’s theorem example :
So, the simplified circuit with the voltage source is given
below.
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Step 1

To find thevenin’s voltage, remove the load resistor (6Ω) and find the voltage
across the terminal AB.
 Thevenin’s theorem example :
The voltage at terminal AB will be the
•

subtraction of voltage drop occurs at 10Ω

resistor from the 48V voltage source.
By solving mesh equations, you will get the
•

current flows in the circuit. From the current

you can calculate the voltage drop at 10Ω
resistor.
VTH=VAB=48-
=32 VOLT
(1.6*10)
•The thevenin voltage calculation by mesh
analysis is given below. 48-10I-5I-24=0
•15I=24 I=24/15
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Step 2
Remove the load resistor and find the equivalent resistance of the network seen
from the open circuited terminals.
In order to perform the calculation, short the 48V, and 24V voltage sources and
then calculate the resistance.
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Here the 10Ω and 5Ω resistors are connected in parallel. So the effective resistance
will be as given below.

RTH=10*5/10+
5
=3.33 OHM
Thevenin’s theorem example :

Step 3

Now, determine the Thevenin’s equivalent

circuit with thevenin’s voltage and thevenin’s
resistance along with the load resistor.

Draw the thevenin’s voltage in series with

thevenin’s resistance and add the load resistor
in series with the circuit as shown below.
Thevenin’s theorem example :

LOAD CURRENT; IL= VTH/RTH+RL

=32/3.33+6
= 3.43 AMPERES

LOAD VOLTAGE VL= IL* RL

=3.43*6
=20.58 VOLT.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

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NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B for
the network shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent circuit
to the load and find the current in the 1.5 Ω resistor.

Figure 10.30: Circuit for Example 10.6.

 NORTON’S THEOREM
STEP 1.
Short the 1.5Ω load resistor as shown in Fig .
 NORTON’S THEOREM
STEP 2.
Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton Current (I N).

We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, I N. The 6Ω and 3Ω are then in
parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.

So the Total Resistance of the circuit to the Source is:-

2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with).

RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)] → I T= 2Ω + 2Ω = 4Ω.

RT = 4Ω
 NORTON’S THEOREM
STEP 2.
I T = V / RT

I T = 12V / 4Ω

I T = 3A.

Now we have to find ISC = I N… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)…

I SC = I N = 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.

ISC= IN = 2A.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
STEP 3.
Open Current Sources, Short Voltage Sources and Open Load Resistor
 NORTON’S THEOREM
STEP 4.
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN)
We have Reduced the 12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short in step (3), as
shown in figure (4) We can see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω
resistor and 2Ω resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω
 NORTON’S THEOREM
STEP 5.
Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and reconnect the load resistor. This is shown in
fig i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
STEP 6.
Now apply the last step i.e. calculate the load current through and Load voltage across the load
resistor by Ohm’s Law as shown in fig .
Load Current through Load Resistor…
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]
= 2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5Ω) → = 1.5A
IL = 1. 5A
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
 NORTON’S THEOREM
For the circuit shown in fig.8.10(a), find the current through resistor 1
ohm branch using Norton’s theorem.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Solution:
Step-1: Remove the resistor through which the current is to be found and short the terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ (see
fig.8.10(b)).
NORTON’S THEOREM
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Step-3: To compute RN, all sources are replaced with their internal resistances. The equivalent resistance
between ‘a’ and ‘b’ terminals is same as the value of Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit shown in
fig.8.3(d).
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Step-4: Replace the original circuit with an equivalent Norton’s circuit as shown in
fig.8.10(d).
NORTON’S THEOREM
Find Norton’s current, resistance and load
current across 15 ohm resistor
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