Chapter 1

Introduction to
Computer Networks

Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali

 Outline of the Chapter
▪ Communication Model
▪ Goals of Computer Communication Networks
▪ Types of Computer Communication Networks
▪ Network Topology
▪ Layered Architecture of Data Network
▪ OSI Reference Model
▪ TCP/IP Reference Model
▪ Internetworking and Network Devices

© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali 2

 Communication Model
▪ The purpose of a communication system is to transfer an information signal from a
source to a user destination via a communication channel.

Communication
Source Transmitter Receiver Destination
link

Typical Communication Model

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 Communication Model

❑ Source
▪ It is the device that generates the data to be transmitted to the user destination.
▪ This source can be analog or digital.
▪ If the source is analog, the information source is first converted into discrete form for
digital communication.
❑ Transmitter
▪ The data generated by the source is not transmitted directly in the form in which it is
generated.
▪ Different modulation techniques are used for providing efficient transmission of the
signal over the channel.

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 Communication Model

❑ Communication Link
▪ The transmission of the signal can be done either in guided or unguided form
depending on the requirements of the system.
❑ Receiver
▪ The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it in the
suitable form, which can be handled by the user destination.
❑ Destination
▪ The user destination takes the data from the receiver and performs the task for which it
is send from the source.

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 Goals of Computer Communication Networks
▪ To provide sharing of resources information on processors. Resource sharing is a common
objective for providing networks within the constraint of cost and reliability of network.
▪ To provide inter-process communication among users and processors.
▪ To provide distribution of processing functions; for example, a transaction is translated in
one node, processed in another and the response formatted in the third node.
▪ To provide centralized control for geographically distributed system; for example, defense
network may provide central control facilities for graphically distributed monitoring
stations.
▪ To provide centralized management and allocation of network resources.
▪ To provide compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software.
▪ To provide network users with maximum performance at lowest cost.
▪ To provide an efficient means of transport large volumes of data among remote locations.
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 Types of Computer Communication Networks
▪ Computer networks are classified on the basis of the computing model used, the
geographical area that the network covers and the topology or the media used.
▪ Computer networks used are often classified by size, distance covered, and the
transmission media used.
▪ In that aspect we have the following types:
• LAN (Local Area Networks)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)
• WAN (Wide Area Networks)

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 Types of Computer Communication Networks

❑ LAN (Local Area Networks)

▪ LANs are typically used to interconnect computers and PCs within relatively small areas,
such as within a building, office or campus.
▪ A LAN typically operates at speeds ranging from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, connecting
several hundred devices over a distance of up to 5 km to 10 km. Fiber based LANS can
offer speed up to 1 Gbps.
▪ LANs becomes popular because they allow many users to share resources, such as
mainframes, file servers, high-speed printers and other expensive devices.
▪ They are interconnected by means of cable media.

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 Types of Computer Communication Networks

❑ MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)

▪ MAN covers a larger area than LAN such as small towns, cities, etc.
▪ MAN connects two or more computers that reside within the same or completely
different cities.
▪ MAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.

❑ WAN (Wide Area Networks)

▪ WAN covers a large area than LAN as well as a MAN such as country/continent etc.
▪ WAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.
▪ PSTN or satellite medium is used for wide area networks.

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 Types of Computer Communication Networks

Ref:
http://www.differencebetween.ne
t/technology/difference-between-
lan-wan-and-man/
© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali 10
 Types of Computer Communication Networks
Parameter LAN MAN WAN
Full Form LAN is an acronym for Local MAN is an acronym for WAN is an acronym for Wide
Area Network. Metropolitan Area Network. Area Network.
Definition and LAN is a network that usually MAN is a comparatively wider The WAN network spans to
Meaning connects a small group of network that covers large an even larger locality. It has
computers in a given regions- like towns, cities, etc.
the capacity to connect
geographical area. various countries together.
For example, the Internet is a
WAN.
Network The LAN is private. Hospitals, The MAN can be both private The WAN can also be both
Ownership homes, schools, offices, etc., or public. Many organizations private or public.
may own it. and telecom operators may
own them.
Maintenance and Very easy to design and Comparatively difficult to Very difficult to design and
Designing maintain. design and maintain. maintain.
Speed LAN offers a very high MAN offers a moderate WAN offers a low Internet
Internet speed. Internet speed. speed.
© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali Ref: https://byjus.com/gate/difference-between-lan-man-and-wan/ 11
 Types of Computer Communication Networks
Parameter LAN MAN WAN
Delay in It faces a very short It faces a moderate It faces a high propagation
Propagation propagation delay. propagation delay. delay.
Faulty Tolerance The LAN exhibits a better The MAN exhibits a lesser The WAN also exhibits a
fault tolerance than the rest fault tolerance. lesser fault tolerance.
of the networks.
Congestion The congestion in the It exhibits a higher network It exhibits a higher congestion
network is very low. congestion. in the network.
Communication LAN typically allows a single MAN allows multiple A huge group of computers
Allotment pair of devices to establish a computers to interact can easily interact with each
communication. But it may simultaneously with each other using the WAN.
also support more other.
computers.
Uses Schools, homes, colleges, It basically covers a city, a It covers an entire country, a
hospitals, offices, etc., can small town, or any given area subcontinent, or an
privately use it. with a bigger radius than the equivalent area.
LAN.
© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali Ref: https://byjus.com/gate/difference-between-lan-man-and-wan/ 12
 Network Topology
▪ The physical structure by which computers are connected represents the topology of the
network.
▪ The following parameters are to be considered in selecting a physical topology of the
network:
• Ease of installation
• Ease of reconfiguration
• Ease of troubleshooting
• The number of units attached in case a media failure
▪ Two ways of connecting relationships are possible:
a) Peer-to-peer, where devices share link equally.
b) Primary-Secondary, where one device controls the traffic and other must transmit
through it.
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 Network Topology

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 Network Topology

❑ Mesh Topology
▪ Mesh type of connectivity has a dedicated point-to-point link between devices.
▪ The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic between the two devices it
connects.
▪ A fully connected mesh therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link 'n' devices. To
accommodate these, every device on the network must have (n-1) input/output ports.
Advantages:
• Use of dedicated links eliminate the traffic problem.
• It is robust i.e. if one link becomes unusable it does not incapacitate the entire
network.
• Privacy is maintained since the message travels along the dedicated line.
• Point-to-point link makes faults identification and faulty isolation easy.
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 Network Topology

❑ Mesh Topology
Disadvantages:
• The amount of cabling required is high.
• The number of I/0 ports required is high.

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 Network Topology

❑ Bus Topology
▪ A bus topology is multipoint topology.
▪ One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the network. Nodes are
connected to the bus cable by drop line and taps.
▪ A drop line is a line running between the device and main cable. A tap is the connector
that splices into the main cable.
▪ As the signal becomes weak when it travels further in the backbone, there is a limit on
the number of taps used and the distance between the taps.

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 Network Topology

❑ Bus Topology
Advantages:
• Simple, reliable and easy to use.
• Ease of installation and cheaper when compared with other topologies.
• Less cabling as each drop line has to reach the nearest point of the backbone.
Disadvantages:
• Can be used only in relatively small network.
• All computers share the same bus. Hence, an increase in number of computers
degrades the performance of the network after a certain limits.
• Reconfiguration is difficult. Adding new nodes is difficult.
• Fault identification is difficult.
• A fault in the main cable stops the complete transmission.
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 Network Topology

❑ Ring Topology
▪ In ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration only with
two devices on either side of it.
▪ A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device until it reaches
its destination.
▪ When the device receives the signal intended for the other node, it just regenerates the
bits and passes them along.
▪ Ring network passes a token. A token is a short message with the electronic address of
the node permitted to transmit data.
▪ Each network interface card is given a unique electronic address, which is used to
identify the computer on the network.

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 Network Topology
❑ Ring Topology
Advantages:
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Adding and deleting new device is easy as only two connections have to adjusted.
• Fault isolation is simplified.
• Unlike Bus topology, there is no signal loss in ring topology, since the token is
regenerated at each node.
• No terminators required.
Disadvantages:
• A break in the ring can stop the transmission in the entire network. Using the dual ring
network or a switch capable of closing the break can be used to solve this problem.
• Difficult to troubleshoot.
• Adding and removing computers disrupts the entire network.
• V.Expensive
© Dr. Ashish Vanmali when compared to other topologies. 20
 Network Topology

❑ Star Topology
▪ Star topology network require a central point of connection between media segments.
▪ This central point is referred to as Hub.
▪ Hubs are a special repeater that overcomes the electromechanical limitation of media.
▪ In a Star Topology, cables run from every computer to centrally located hub.
▪ Each computer on a star network communicates with the central hub that resends the
message either to all the computers (in Broadcast type star network) or only to the
destination computer (in a Switched type Star Network).
▪ A hub in a Switched type Star Network is commonly known as Switch.

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 Network Topology
❑ Star Topology
Advantages:
• Easy to modify or add new computer. This is possible by simple adding a new cable,
without disturbing the rest of the network.
• Less expensive than Mesh topology.
• Each device needs only one link and one port.
• Easy to install and configure. Easy to diagnose network faults.
• Single computer failure does not affect the entire network.
• Accommodates multiple cable types.
Disadvantages:
• Since each node must be connected to hub, more cabling is required when compared
to Tree, Ring or Bus topology.
• Failure of the central Hub brings the entire network down.
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 Network Topology

❑ Tree Topology
▪ It is similar to star topology, but the nodes are connected to the secondary hub that in
turn is connected to central hub.
▪ The central hub is the active hub. The active hub contains the repeater, which
regenerates the bits pattern that it receives, before sending them out.
▪ The secondary hub can be either active or passive.
▪ A passive hub provides a simple physical connection between the attached devices.
▪ The advantages and disadvantages of tree topology are same as that of Star network.
▪ Also, the addition of the secondary hub allows more devices to be connected to the
central hub.
▪ It also allows the network to isolate and prioritize communication from different
computers.
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 Network Topology

❑ Selection of Topology
The selection of topology is done based on the following considerations:
▪ Application software and protocols.
▪ Type of data communicating devices.
▪ Geographic scope of the network.
▪ Cost and reliability.

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 Layered Architecture of Data Network
▪ Layered architecture of a data network is a modular design of data network with
standardization of various modules.
▪ All practical data networks are designed using these reference models.

Advantages of Modular Design (Layered Architecture):

• Simplicity in design.
• Each module can be independently modified without affecting other modules.
• Understandability and Interchangeability of modules.
• Improved reliability.

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 Layered Architecture of Data Network
▪ To reduce design complexity most of the networks are organized as a series of Layers or
Levels.
▪ The number of layers, the name of each layer, the content of each layer, their function is
different for different networks.
▪ Layer n on one machine carries a conversation with layer n on another machine.
▪ The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the Layer n
protocol.

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 Layered Architecture of Data Network
Example of 3 Layer Architecture
Host A Host B
Layer 3 Protocol
Layer 3 Layer 3

Layer 2-3 Interface Layer 2-3 Interface

Layer 2 Protocol
Layer 2 Layer 2

Layer 1-2 Interface Layer 1-2 Interface

Layer 1 Protocol
Layer 1 Layer 1
Physical Medium-Layer 1 Physical Medium-Layer 1
Interface Interface

Physical Medium
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 Layered Architecture of Data Network
Common Terminology:
▪ Packets: Long strings of bits for a message are broken into shorter strings of bits are called
Packets.
▪ Datagrams: The independent packets of a connectionless organization are called
Datagram.
▪ Session: The setup procedure to establish connection between two users is called Session.

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 OSI Reference Model
▪ OSI stands for Open System Interconnection.
▪ OSI model was developed in 1979 by International Standard organization (ISO) as a first
step towards the international standardization of various protocols.
▪ It is the reference considered for development of network protocols.
▪ OSI model has 7 layers.

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 OSI Reference Model

Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation

Layer 5 Session

Layer 4 Transport

Layer 3 Network

Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

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 OSI Reference Model

Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation
• To transmit bits over a medium to provide
Layer 5 Session mechanical and electrical specifications.
• It consists of computer terminal, modems and
Layer 4 Transport
transmission channel such as twisted pair cable,
Layer 3 Network coaxial cable, fiber etc.
• It forms virtual bit pipe for higher layer.
Layer 2 Data Link Control • It forms incoming bits into appropriate signal, which
Layer 1 Physical can be transmitted on the channel at transmitting
end and at the receiving end it maps signal into
appropriate bits.
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 OSI Reference Model

• It organizes bits into frames to provide node-to-

Layer 7 Application node delivery.
• It converts unreliable bit pipe at lower level i.e.
Layer 6 Presentation
physical layer into reliable bit pipe at higher level.
Layer 5 Session • It forms virtual communication link for transmission
of data packets asynchronously but error free in
Layer 4 Transport both directions.
• Error detection and correction is provided by adding
Layer 3 Network
header and trailer with the data packet.
Layer 2 Data Link Control • Header provides parity or CRC for error detection
and correction and also indicates beginning of data
Layer 1 Physical packet.
• Trailer indicates end of the data packet.
• It also performs ARQ.
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 OSI Reference Model

Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation

Layer 5 Session • It moves packets from source to destination and

provides Internetworking.
Layer 4 Transport • It provides routing and flow control by adding its
own header.
Layer 3 Network
• At the receiving end, the network layer module i.e.
Layer 2 Data Link Control Peer Processor uses header for routing and flow
control to avoid congestion.
Layer 1 Physical • It also improves reliability of data link layer.

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 OSI Reference Model

Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation
• To provide reliable end-to-end message delivery
Layer 5 Session and error recovery by determining network.
• It provides following three operations.
Layer 4 Transport a) Packet formation
b) Multiplexing
Layer 3 Network
c) Flow control
Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

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 OSI Reference Model

Layer 7 Application
• It makes various services available for network.
Layer 6 Presentation
• To establish, manage and terminate sessions.
Layer 5 Session • It also deals with access rights and handles
interaction between two end points in setting up
Layer 4 Transport session.
Layer 3 Network

Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

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 OSI Reference Model

• Its major functions are data encryption, data

Layer 7 Application compression and code conversion.
Layer 6 Presentation
• Data encryption provides security in network
communication.
Layer 5 Session • Data compression to reduce bit rate, which requires
less bandwidth and improves communication speed.
Layer 4 Transport • Code conversion is required for interfacing
Layer 3 Network incompatible terminals, printers, file systems and so
on.
Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

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 OSI Reference Model

• It allows access to the network resources.

• It performs specific task intended for a particular
Layer 7 Application
application.
Layer 6 Presentation • Generates messages to initiate sessions.

Layer 5 Session

Layer 4 Transport

Layer 3 Network

Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

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 OSI Reference Model

❑ Information Flow through Network

Sending Receiving
Process Data Process
Application Application
AH Data
Layer Layer
Presentation Presentation
PH Data
Layer Layer
Session Session
SH Data
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
TH Data
Layer Layer
Network Network
NH Data
Layer Layer
Data Link Data Link
DH Data DT
Control Layer Control Layer
Physical Physical
Bits
Layer Layer
© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali Actual Data Transmission Path 38
 OSI Reference Model

❑ Information Flow through Network

▪ The message from the information source passes down through the layers.
▪ Each layer adds its header information and whenever applicable trailer information to
the message bits.
▪ The protocol header contains control and address information for the corresponding
peer layer in the destination node.
▪ At each layer, the message that was received from the higher layer plus the overhead
information (Header and/or Trailer) is added. It becomes data field for the next layer
below.

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 OSI Reference Model

❑ Information Flow through Network

▪ At the receiver node, the message block that received from physical channel is passed
up to the data link layer at that node.
▪ The data link uses CRC in content of the data link header so as to determine if the bits
occurred in the transmission are error and it examines the message number contained
in the header to check that the packet arrived is in proper sequence. Then end of the
frame is marked by its trailer.
▪ If the error has occurred, a correction procedure will be used; otherwise, header and
trailer are removed from the message block and remainder is passed up to the network
layer.

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 OSI Reference Model

❑ Information Flow through Network

Application --> APDU

Virtual Presentation --> PPDU

Communication Session --> SPDU

Transport --> TPDU

Network --> Packet

Actual
Data Link Control --> Frame
Communication
Physical --> Bits

© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali (Note: PDU = Protocol Datagram Unit) 41

 OSI Reference Model

❑ Information Flow through Network

Intermediate Intermediate
Node A Node B
Node Node
Application Application
Layer Layer
Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer
Session Session
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
Layer Layer
Network Network Network Network
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link
Control Layer Control Layer Control Layer Control Layer
Physical Physical Physical Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer
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 OSI Reference Model

❑ Information Flow through Network

▪ There is a destination address in the network header, it is checked to see whether the
packet has arrived at the correct destination.
▪ If not, the network layer selects its next outgoing path (channel) from its routing table
and passes the message to the data link layer.
▪ The data link layer again adds header and trailer information and passes the message to
physical layer for transmission on link.
▪ This process will continue till the message finally arrives at the destination node.
▪ At the destination node various header and trailer are stripped off to get back the data.

© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali 43

 TCP/IP Reference Model
▪ TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
▪ OSI model was developed in 1979, although protocol layering concepts existed long before
they were formalized by OSI model.
▪ An example of successful protocol layering concept was TCP/IP protocol.
▪ Because the TCP/P's historic ties with the Department of Defense (DoD), the TCP/IP
model is also called as DoD model.

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 TCP/IP Reference Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Application Application

Presentation Not present

in TCP/IP
Session

Transport Transport

Network Network

Data Link Control

Data Link
Physical

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 TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model

Application

Transport • Also called as Host-to-Network Layer or Network Access

Layer.
• It corresponds to two Layers in OSI model: Physical Layer and
Network Data Link Layer.
• It represents the physical connection components such as
cables, transceivers, network boards, link protocols, LAN
Data Link
access protocols (such as CSMA/CD for Ethernet and Token
access for Token Ring, Token Bus and FDDI).
• The network access layer is used by Network Layer.
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 TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model • Also called as Internetwork Layer.

• The network layer is responsible for providing a logical
address for the physical network interface.
Application
• The DoD model's implementation of the network layer is
Internet Protocol (IP).
Transport • The IP protocol layer provides a mapping between the logical
address and the physical address provided by the Network
access layer, by using Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and
Network Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP).
• Problems, diagnostic information, and unusual conditions
associated with the IP protocol are reported by a separate
Data Link protocol called Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
which also operates at the network layer.
• The network layer is also concerned with routing the packet
between the hosts and networks.
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 TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model • Also called as Host-to-Host Layer.

• The Host-to-Host protocol, as the name suggests, implements
connection between two hosts across a networks.
Application
• The DoD model implements two Host-to-Host protocols; viz.:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram
Transport Protocol (UDP).
• The TCP protocol is responsible for reliable, simultaneous, full
duplex connection. The term reliable means TCP takes care of
Network transmission errors by resending the portion of the data that
was in error.
• The application layer that uses TCP, however, do not have to
Data Link concern with reliability of data transmission because this is
handled by TCP.

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 TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model

Application

Transport
• TCP also provides simultaneous connections. Several TCP
connections can be established at a host and data can be sent
Network
simultaneously, independent of data on other connections.
• TCP provides full duplex connections, which means that data
Data Link can be send and received on a single connection.
• The UDP protocol is not as robust as TCP and can be used by
applications that do not require the reliability of the TCP at
the Host-to-Host layer.
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 TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model • Also called as Process/Application Layer.

• It provides applications that use the Host-to-Host layer
protocol (TCP and UDP).
Application
• Example of this applications are File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
Terminal Emulation (Telnet), Electronic Mail (SMTP) and
Transport Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
• The Application layer represents the user interface to the
TCP/IP protocol stack.
Network

Data Link

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 TCP/IP Reference Model

❑ Protocol and Networks in TCP/IP Model

Name Host Web File Email
Search Config HTTP Transfer SMTP
Application BOOTP FTP
DNS POP
Layer
DHCP TFTP
IMAP

Transport Layer TCP UDP Protocol

IP IP Support Routing Protocols

NAT ICMP RIP IGRP EIGRP
Network Layer
OSFP BGP EGP

ARP RARP
Other Link Layer
Data Link Layer PPP Ethernet Token Ring Protocols Network
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 TCP/IP Reference Model

❑ Dataflow through TCP/IP Network

Data

Application Message Application

Layer SH Data Layer

TCP Segment Transport

Transport
Layer TH Data Layer

IP Datagram Network
Network
Layer NH Data Layer

Frame Data Link

Data Link
Layer DH Data DT Layer

Bits
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 TCP/IP Reference Model

❑ Dataflow through TCP/IP Network

▪ The data transmitted by host is encapsulated by the header protocol of the Application
layer.
▪ The Application data is in turn encapsulated by Transport Layer Protocol, which is then
encapsulated by Network layer protocol. Finally, the data from the Network layer is
encapsulated by the header and trailer of network access layer.
▪ When the encapsulated data is received by the remote host at the Receiving end, it de-
capsulates the header (and/or trailer) at each layer and sends the data resulting to the
layer above it until the original data is recovered.

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 TCP/IP Reference Model

❑ Communication through an internet

Ref: Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and

© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali Networking, 6th Edition, Mc Graw Hill education. 54
 OSI v/s TCP/IP Reference Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
OSI is a reference model i.e. model was first TCP/IP is an implementation model i.e. Model was
implemented. defined after implementation of protocol.
It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research
Organization). Project Agency Network).
It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.
OSI model is based on three concepts viz., service, TCP/IP model did not originally clearly distinguish
interface and protocol. between service, interface and protocol.
OSI model gives guarantee of reliable delivery of Transport layer (using UDP) does not always guarantee
packets. the reliable delivery of packets.
OSI does not support Internetworking. TCP/IP supports Internetworking.
OSI model is strictly layered. TCP/IP model is loosely layered.
Supports connectionless and connection-oriented Supports only connection-oriented communication in
communication in the Network layer. the Transport layer.
© Dr. Ashish V. Vanmali 55
 Internetworking and Network Devices
▪ An internet is an interconnection of individual networks.
▪ Networking and Internetworking devices are divided into four categories viz. Repeaters,
Bridges, Routers and Gateways.
Repeaters
Networking Devices
Bridges
Connecting Devices
Routers
Internetworking
Devices
Gataways

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 Internetworking and Network Devices
Network Devices and OSI Model

Application Application

Presentation Presentation
Gateway
Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Router Network

Data Link Control Bridge Data Link Control

Physical Repeater Physical

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 Internetworking and Network Devices

❑ Repeater

Ref: https://webeduclick.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/02/Repeater.png

▪ A repeater (Regenerator) is an electronic device that operates on only Physical Layer of

the OSI model.
▪ Signals that information within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation
or interface from noise; endanger the integrity of data.
▪ A repeater installed on a link receives data before it becomes too weak or corrupted,
regenerates the original bit pattern, and puts the refreshed copy back onto the link.
▪ A repeater allows us to extend only the physical length of the network.
▪ A repeater does not change the functionality of the network in any way.
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 Internetworking and Network Devices

❑ Repeater
Distorted Signal Amplitude Decision Regenerated Signal
Equalizer Making Device

Timing
Circuit
▪ Three basic functions performed by the repeaters are equalization, timing and decision
making.
▪ The equalizer shapes the received pulse so as to compensate for the effect of
amplitude and phase distortions produced by the transmission characteristics of the
channel.
▪ Using the timing circuit, the equalized pulses are integrated by T sec. (pulse duration)
and is compared with predetermined threshold voltage at the end of every Tb sec.
▪ The output of decision-making device will be the regenerated signal.
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 Internetworking and Network Devices

❑ Bridges
▪ Bride is an intermediate system used to connect two LANs that uses identical LAN
protocol.
▪ The bridge acts as an address filter, picking packets from on LAN that are intended for
destination on another LAN and passing those packets on.
▪ The bridge does not add anything to packet.
▪ The bridge operates at Data Link Layer of OSI model.

Why are bridges used instead of Large LAN?

• Reliability
• Security
• Performance
• Geography
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 Internetworking and Network Devices

❑ Bridges

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 Internetworking and Network Devices

❑ Bridges
Functions of Bridge
• Read all frames transmitted on A and accepts those addressed to station B.
• Using Medium Control Protocol for B, retransmits the frames onto B.
• Does the same for B-to-A traffic.
• A bridge can be connected for more than two LANs.

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❑ Bridges

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❑ Routers
▪ A router intermediate system used to connect two networks that may or may not be
similar.
▪ The router employs an internet protocol present in each router and each host of the
network.
▪ The router operates on Network Layer of OSI model.

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 Internetworking and Network Devices

❑ Routers

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❑ Routers
▪ Repeater or Bridge are simple hardware devices capable of executing specific tasks.
▪ Router are more sophisticated. They have access to network layer addresses and contain
software that enables them to determine which of the several possible path between
those addresses is the best for particular transmission.
▪ A bridge was interconnecting LANs having different media access control sub-layers but
same LLC (Logical Link Control) protocol. If there are differences in those protocols at the
data link and Network Layers of the two networks, routers are required to interconnect
them.
▪ It operates on the Network Layer of OSI model and accommodates all the differences of
the sub-network upto this layer to provide a uniform network service to transport layer
entities in the end system.

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❑ Routers
▪ Since the router is operating at the Network layer, its configuration is determined by:
• The type of the network services (Connectionless Network Services (CLNS) or
Connection Oriented Network Service (CONS).
• The type of underlying sub-network service.

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❑ Gateways
▪ Gateway potentially operates on all Seven Layers of OSI model.
▪ A gateway is a Protocol Converter.
▪ A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g.: TCP/IP) and converts it to
a packet formatted for another protocol (e.g.: Apple Talk/SNA) before forwarding it.

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❑ Gateways
▪ A gateway is generally a software installed within a router.
▪ A gateway understands the protocols used by each network linked into the router and is
therefore able to transfer from one to another.

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