EE 251-08: Electric Circuits Laboratory – Lab Report 5

DC Transient Response - RC Circuit & DC Steady-State - RLC Circuit

Anirudh Sriramachandran1, Sam Leahy2
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407

Abstract
This report documents an experimental investigation into the dynamic behavior of RC circuits during transient states
and the steady-state characteristics of RLC circuits under direct current (DC) conditions. The primary objective was
to empirically validate fundamental circuit theories and demonstrate the practical implications of these theories through
precise measurements and comparative analysis.

In the RC transient response experiment, a series RC circuit was constructed, and a square wave voltage source was
applied to simulate repeated charging and discharging cycles. The time constants for charging and discharging were
determined by analyzing the voltage waveforms captured using a digital oscilloscope. The experimental values were
then compared with theoretical time constants calculated using the formula τ = RC, where R is the resistance and C is
the capacitance. The results showed a high degree of correlation, with percentage errors between measured and
calculated values consistently below 5%, thereby validating the theoretical model. Furthermore, the experiment
explored the effects of varying the resistance and voltage amplitude on the charging and discharging curves.
Increasing the resistance resulted in a proportional increase in the time constant, leading to elongated charging and
discharging times. Conversely, varying the voltage amplitude affected the peak voltage reached during charging and
discharging but did not alter the time constant, as predicted by theory.

The DC steady-state experiment focused on analyzing an RLC circuit's behavior under constant voltage conditions.
The equivalent resistance of the circuit was measured using an ohmmeter, confirming the theoretical prediction that
inductors behave as short circuits and capacitors as open circuits in a DC steady state. Subsequently, a DC voltage
source was connected to the circuit, and the voltage drops across each resistor were measured. These measured
voltages were compared with calculated values obtained using Kirchhoff's voltage law and assuming ideal behavior
for the inductor and capacitor. While the equivalent resistance measurements closely matched theoretical predictions,
significant discrepancies were observed between measured and calculated voltage drops. This deviation was
attributed to the non-ideal behavior of the inductor, which possesses inherent resistance, leading to a substantial
voltage drop across it. The experiment highlighted the importance of accounting for non-ideal component
characteristics in practical circuit analysis, especially in low-resistance circuits where even small deviations from
ideality can significantly affect circuit behavior.

The findings of this report provide a comprehensive understanding of the transient and steady-state behaviors of RC
and RLC circuits, respectively. The experiments validated fundamental circuit theories while also demonstrating the
limitations of ideal models in accurately predicting the behavior of real-world circuits. The observed discrepancies
underscore the importance of considering component tolerances and non-ideal characteristics in practical circuit
design and analysis.

Table of Contents

Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………………. 2

Introduction 3
………………………………………………………………………………………….....................

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Equipment …………………………………………………………………………………………. 4

Methods ………………………………………………………………………………….................. 4-6

Procedure 1……………………………………………………………………………….......... 4-5

Procedure 2……………………………………………………………………………….......... 5-6

Results ………………………………………………………………………………….……….…... 6

Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………….……….….. 7-8

Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………….………. 8-9

Attribution ………………………………………………………………………………….………. 9

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….………. 9-10

Appendix 10-12
………………………………………………………………………………….……….…................

Introduction

The study of electrical circuits encompasses a wide range of behaviors, from the transient responses of simple RC
circuits to the steady-state characteristics of more complex RLC networks. This report details experimental
investigations into these fundamental circuit behaviors, focusing on the transient response of a resistor-capacitor
(RC) circuit and the direct current (DC) steady-state behavior of a resistor-inductor-capacitor (RLC) circuit. The
primary objectives are to validate theoretical models and gain practical insights into the underlying principles
governing these circuits.

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RC circuits, composed of a resistor and a capacitor, exhibit transient behavior when subjected to a sudden change
in voltage, such as a square wave input. The capacitor charges and discharges through the resistor, resulting in
exponential voltage and current waveforms. The time constant (τ), defined as the product of resistance (R) and
capacitance (C), determines the rate of charging and discharging. Understanding the transient response of RC
circuits is crucial in various applications, including timing circuits, filters, and signal processing.

The transient response of RC circuits involves the charging and discharging behavior of a capacitor over time.
When an initially charged capacitor discharges through a resistor, the stored energy is dissipated as heat, and the
voltage across the capacitor (VC) decreases exponentially, approaching zero after approximately five-time
constants (5RC). This is described by the equation V(t) = VO e⁻ᵗ/ᴿᶜ, where τ = RC is the time constant.
Conversely, when a capacitor charges in an RC circuit with an applied voltage source (VC), the voltage across the
capacitor increases exponentially, following VC(t) = VS(1 - e⁻ᵗ/ᴿᶜ), reaching 99.3% of its final value after five-time
constants. Under DC steady-state conditions, capacitors act as open circuits (IC = 0), while inductors act as short
circuits (VL = 0). Oscilloscopes, which display voltage versus time, are used to observe transient responses,
employing various measurement tools such as cursors and automatic measurement functions. Probes, like the
commonly used 10:1 scope probe, attenuate signals to ensure accurate readings, while proper triggering ensures
stable waveform display. Understanding these principles is essential for analyzing and measuring transient
behaviors in electronic circuits.

RLC circuits, which include resistors, inductors, and capacitors, exhibit more complex behaviors, particularly
under DC steady-state conditions. In a DC steady state, capacitors behave as open circuits, preventing the flow of
direct current, while inductors act as short circuits, offering minimal resistance to DC. These ideal behaviors are
fundamental to understanding the voltage and current distributions in RLC circuits at steady state. However, real-
world components exhibit non-ideal characteristics, such as internal resistance in inductors, which can
significantly affect circuit behavior.

This report documents experiments conducted to measure the charging and discharging time constants of an RC
circuit and to analyze the voltage distribution in an RLC circuit under DC steady-state conditions. The
experimental results are compared with theoretical predictions to validate the models and to highlight the
importance of considering non-ideal component characteristics in practical circuit analysis. The theoretical
background necessary for understanding these experiments is rooted in fundamental circuit analysis principles,
including Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, the voltage-current relationships for resistors, capacitors, and
inductors, and the concept of the time constant.

Equipments:

• Function Generator, Agilent 33120A or Agilent 33220A or Rigol DG1062Z function generator
• DC Power Supply, Agilent E3640A
• Digital Multimeter, Agilent 34401A
• Digital Oscilloscope, Keysight InfiniiVision MSO-X2022A
• Resistor Box II, 10/25/40/130/269/562
• Resistor Decade Boxes,  k step
• Inductor Decade Box, 10mH step: 0 – 100mH
• Capacitor Decade Box, 0.01F step: 0 – 1.1F
• Impedance Bridge, Gen Rad 1659 or Stanford Research SR715
• Scope Probe (10:1), 2
• BNC to banana lead
• Banana to banana, 3 pairs, red/black
• Short leads, quantity 6, 1 bag

Methods:
Procedure 1: RC Transient Response
• Set impedance bridge model 1659 or (model SR715) at 100 Hz to measure capacitor value in
the Fig 5-5 circuit. Use an ohmmeter to measure the resistor; record both values in Table 5-1
• Set function generator (FG): NOTE: Use either of the Agilent models or use Rigol
model. Agilent 33120A FG:
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 Press shift-menu, right arrow to the SYS menu, down arrow to the OUTPUT
TERM menu, down arrow to ‘50 ohms,’ right arrow to select Hi Z, enter.
Agilent 33220A FG:
 Press Utility, select Output Setup,
High Z. Rigol DG1062Z FG:
 Press Utility, select Channel Set, Output Set, Imped and then press Imped again
for High Z.
• Set function generator to a square wave with a minimum value of 0V and a maximum value
of 4V (amplitude = 4Vpp with DC offset = 2V). Set square wave frequency to 100Hz at 50%
duty cycle.
 Duty cycle is the ratio of time a square wave equals its largest amplitude (4V in this
case) to its period.
• Construct the circuit of Fig. 5-5

Fig. 5-5 RC Transient Circuit

• Connect channel 1 scope probe to node A and ground clip to ground (Fig. 5-5).
• Connect channel 2 scope probe to node B and ground clip to ground (Fig. 5-5).
• To check probe adjust: Press channel button - channel menu appears at bottom of
scope screen. Press the Probe soft key. Probe ratio appears at bottom of screen, right-
side of Units.
• Probe adjust: Rotate knob located directly below 'time per division' control.
• Set both scope channels to DC coupling (on channel menu) and set voltage/div to 1V.
• Set time/div to 1ms.
• Trigger settings:
 Press Mode Coupling button and select auto.
 Press Trigger button and choose Source 1 and rising edge .
 Note: For unstable waveform displays: Adjust Trigger position to a voltage level
within the signal's amplitude. The waveform display should stabilize.
• Use cursors to determine Vc charging timing constant. Adjust time/div for
maximum accuracy, record in Table 5-1.
• Capture Vc scope display using Keysight BenchVue desktop icon (ask instructor
for procedure after double-clicking icon).
• Observe charge curve effects for R values 30kΩ and 50kΩ.
• Set R to 40kΩ and adjust square wave to a minimum 0 V and a maximum value of 5 V.
• Adjust square wave back to a minimum 0 V and a maximum value of 4 V.
• Change Source 1 trigger to falling edge and determine Vc discharging time constant, record
in Table 5-1.
• Observe discharge curve effects for R values 30kΩ and 50kΩ.
• Set R to 40kΩ and adjust square wave to a minimum 0 V and a maximum value of 5 V.
• Calculate percent error between theoretical (Prelab #2 & #3) and experimental charging and
discharging time constants. Record in Table 5-1.
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Procedure 2: Capacitors & Inductors at DC Steady state

• Measure all resistors (Ω) used to construct the circuit of Fig. 5-6 and record in Table 5-2a.
• Calculate and record REQ across nodes a-b using ideal DC equivalents for inductors
(short) and capacitors (open).
• Construct the circuit of Fig. 5-6, omit the voltage source (power supply).
• Measure the open circuit resistance across terminals a-b. This yields the equivalent resistance
REQ.

Fig. 5-6 Capacitors & Inductors at DC steady-state Circuit

• Calculate the voltage across each resistor using ideal DC equivalents for inductors
(short) and capacitors (open). Record calculated voltages in Table 5-2b
• Connect the 10V power supply (0.5A current limit) and measure the voltages across
each resistor. Record measured voltages in Table 5-2b.
• Calculate percent error between measured and calculated voltages and record in Table 5-2b

Results:

R(40kΩ) C(0.02µF)
Measured 40.16 kΩ 0.0196µF
Charging (µs) Discharging (µs)
Measured Time 784µs 840µs
Constant
Calculated Time 800µs 800µs
Constant
Percent Error (%) 2% 5%

Table 5-1 R & C Measured Values / RC Transient Time Constant Measurements & Calculations

Resistances R1 (25W) (W) R2 (10W) (W) R3 (130W) (W) REQ = Rab

(W)
Measured 25.06Ω 10.03Ω 130.15Ω 35.48Ω

Calculated Rab = 35Ω Percent Error Rab =1.37%

Table 5-2a DC Inductor and Capacitor Circuit: Resistance Measurements

R1 (25W) R2 (10W) R3 (130W)

Measured Voltage (V) 1.89V 0.75V 0

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Calculated Voltage (V) 7.14V 2.86V 0

Percent Error (%) 73.4% 73.7% 0

Table 5-2b DC Inductor and Capacitor Circuit: Voltage Measurements and Calculations

Analysis:

− What do the results mean?

o The results of this lab demonstrate the effects of capacitors and inductors in RLC circuits and
validate the equation τ = RC for RC circuits. In Procedure 1, we set up a basic single-resistor,
single-capacitor circuit and used an AC square wave to simulate repeated charging and
discharging. In this procedure, we found that the time constant was roughly the same for both
charging and discharging, and that the voltage across the resistor reached its maximum at roughly
5τ. In Procedure 2, we analyzed the behavior of resistors and inductors in a steady state. In this
procedure we measured the resistance of each resistor, as well as the equivalent resistance across
AB. The equivalent resistance was roughly 35 ohms, indicating that the capacitor acts as an open
circuit at steady state, and the inductor acts as a short circuit at steady state, since the 130-ohm
resistor did not contribute to the resistance. We then measured the voltages across each resistor in
a powered circuit at steady state, and the voltages didn’t sum up to 10 volts.

− Do the measured values match the predicted values from your theoretical calculations?

o This lab saw significant increases in percentage error compared to previous experiments. In
Procedure 1, we found that our charging τ was 784 microseconds and our discharging τ was 840
microseconds. Our calculated value for both was 800 microseconds, yielding low percentage
errors of 2% and 5%. In Procedure 2, we had a calculated equivalent resistance of 35 ohms and a
measured equivalent resistance of 35.48 ohms. These values yielded a percent error of 1.37%,
which is very reasonable. However, the second half of Procedure 2 saw extremely high
percentage errors, with both voltages being off by 73%. This seems alarming and suggests poor
data collection or a calculation error, but there are several significant factors that I will discuss in
later sections to explain why this might have occurred. Overall, the percentage errors indicate
moderate accuracy, with one procedure requiring further analysis to determine if the data is
correct.

− What are the reasons for the data to look like it does?

o The data collected in the experiment highlights two key takeaways for RC and RLC circuits. In
Procedure 1, we measured very similar τ values for charging and discharging. This aligns with the
equation τ = RC which depends only on resistance and capacitance, resulting in a time constant
that is not specific to charging or discharging. When observing voltage across the capacitor using
an oscilloscope, we used the value where voltages flattened to horizontal, either full charge or full
dissipation. This value occurred at 5τ for both sequences, showing that RC circuits take a time of
5τ to charge or dissipate. In Procedure 2, we analyzed an RLC circuit to determine the effects of
each component at steady state. We first measured the equivalent resistance of the circuit, finding
that the 130-ohm resistor did not contribute to the resistance. This indicates that the capacitor acts
as an open circuit and doesn’t allow current to flow to the right mesh. Also, the equivalent
resistance is roughly equal to the sum of the 10-ohm and 25-ohm resistors in series. This suggests
that the inductor provides little to no resistance and acts like a short circuit in a steady state. In the
final part of Procedure 2, we added a 10V DC power source to charge the circuit to a steady state.
We found voltages significantly different from the expected values, indicating power storage
from the inductor, which was initially assumed to be a short circuit.

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− Why are measured values different from theoretical values?

o In this experiment, we observed moderate error percentages with significant causes. In Procedure
1, the time values measured were extremely small (milliseconds), making exact measurements
more challenging since machines have lower accuracy when measuring smaller values. We also
relied on graph estimation to determine the time values for 5τ, which does not provide exact
accuracy for when the voltage stops increasing. This estimation, after being divided by 5 to obtain
a value for τ, likely caused moderate decreases in accuracy in Procedure 1.

− In both procedures, the resistor values were not exactly the same as indicated, with slight variations for
each resistor. This small error, when distributed across multiple components, leads to inherent error in
calculations since all values are based on theoretical resistance values.

o In the second half of Procedure 2, the measured voltages were greatly off from the calculated
voltages and did not add up to 10V. This error is likely due to treating the inductor as a short
circuit with zero resistance, whereas a real inductor isn’t ideal. The inductor's resistance was
likely much higher than the other resistors, given that the other resistors had low resistances. This
would explain why the voltage drop across the inductor was approximately 7 volts, when ideally
it would be zero.

Discussion:

In Procedure 1, for all practical purposes, determine the required time (ms) to fully discharge the
capacitor. Use measured values.

a) For Procedure 1, the time required to fully discharge the capacitor will be roughly equal to 5τ.
Thus, if τ = 800 microseconds, then 5τ equals 4 ms.

2) Describe charging and discharging curve effects from R modifications in Procedure 1.

a) When R was increased, the curve expanded horizontally, taking more time to charge and
discharge. This is due to the relationship τ = RC, where in an RC circuit, the only factors
affecting the time constant are resistance and capacitance. If resistance increases, τ also increases,
meaning that charging and discharging will take longer. The same is true for decreasing
resistance, except when the curve compresses, and charging and discharging occur faster.

b) For Procedure 1, describe square wave amplitude effects (4V vs. 5V) on charging and discharging
curves.

c) Increasing the voltage affected the height and amplitude of the charging and discharging curves
but had no effect on the time required to charge or discharge. This makes sense mathematically,
as τ is not impacted by the initial voltage, but the amplitude of the voltage equation is.

3) In Procedure 1, for R = 40 kΩ and a square wave between 0V and 5V, if the frequency is increased to 200
Hz, will the capacitor charge completely to 5V? Why or why not?

a) The capacitor will charge completely to 5V, as the period of the square wave will still exceed 5τ.
The period of the wave is equal to 1/f, where f is 200 Hz. This results in a period of 5 ms, which
is 1 ms greater than our calculated 5τ from previous calculations.

4) In Procedure 2, what is the primary reason for differences between measured and calculated values of
resistor voltages? Hint: non-ideal storage element.

a) Since calculations are based on an ideal inductor with zero resistance behaving as a short circuit,
any resistance in the inductor will significantly alter the values measured within the circuit. In this
procedure, the resistances are already very low, so any deviation from the ideal inductor
resistance will be very noticeable in the measurements. This is further indicated by both voltages
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having very similar percentage errors, as both components are affected by the same change in
inductor resistance.

Attribution :
Group member 1: Wrote abstract, introduction, and procedure
Group member 2: Wrote discussion, analysis, conclusion, and appendix

Conclusions :
This lab demonstrates the relationships that occur when capacitors, inductors and resistors are combined into RC
and RLC circuits. In Procedure 1, we analyzed the time constant and what factors contribute to a change in charging
and discharging time. We found that changes in voltage didn’t have any effect on the speed of charging which is a
fascinating phenomenon since it would make sense for higher voltages to take longer. Instead, the only contributors
to charging time are resistance and capacitance, verified by the time constant equation and our low error percentage
data. We also saw how changes in frequency could impact charging by not giving the capacitor enough time to fully
charge before voltage stops being supplied. This experiment also showed the actual implications of the time constant
by visualizing the stop in voltage increase when time is 5τ. The second Procedure added an inductor into the mix
to illustrate what occurs in a circuit at steady state. We found that inductors and capacitors behave like short circuits
and open circuits respectively when in steady state through the equivalent resistance calculations and measurements
in the first part of procedure 2. Lastly, the second part of procedure two was an important warning about theoretical
versus practical applications of circuits. We saw that drastically different circuit effects can be observed in
components when you expect a component to behave like its ideal since inert resistances can play a major role. This
experiment saw our highest error percentage and made drawing conclusions about RLC circuits challenging.
Overall, this lab was an important insight into the effects of capacitors and inductors in circuits and showed the
impact of the time constant and components at steady state.

Appendix A: RC and RLC Circuit Calculations

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (A-1)

REQ(Parallel) =R1R2/(R1+R2) (A-2)

REQ(Series) =R1+R2 (A-3)

Kirchoff Current Law: ∑I in=∑I out (A-4)

Kirchoff Voltage Law: ∑V= 0 across a closed loop (A-5)

Time constant for RC Circuit: τ = RC (A-6)

𝑡 (A-7)
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑜 𝑒 −𝜏

𝑡 (A-8)
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )

𝑑𝐼(𝑡) (A-9)
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉(𝑡) (A-10)
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

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