1.

Define Euler's equation

Euler's equation refers to different mathematical equations depending on the context,

but one of the most well-known and fundamental Euler's equations is related to complex
numbers in mathematics. Euler's equation in this context is:
e
iθ
=cos(θ)+isin(θ)

Here,
�
e is the base of the natural logarithm,
sin(θ) are the cosine and sine functions, respectively. This equation establishes a deep
connection between complex exponential functions and trigonometric functions.
Euler's equation is widely used in various branches of mathematics, physics, and
engineering, providing an elegant way to represent complex numbers and simplify
complex mathematical expressions.

2. Define bernoulli's equation

Bernoulli's equation is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics that describes the
behavior of fluid flow along a streamline. The equation is named after the Swiss
mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli, who derived it in the 18th century.
Bernoulli's equation is a statement of the conservation of energy for flowing fluids and
can be expressed as:

where:

P is the pressure of the fluid,

ρ is the density of the fluid,
v is the velocity of the fluid,

g is the acceleration due to gravity, and

ℎ
h is the height above a reference point.
The equation essentially states that the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy, and
potential energy per unit volume of fluid remains constant along a streamline in a steady,
non-viscous, and incompressible flow. It's important to note that this form of Bernoulli's
equation is derived under certain assumptions, such as the absence of viscous forces and
heat transfer.

Bernoulli's equation is valuable in understanding the behavior of fluids in various

situations, such as in the study of airflow around wings, pipes, or in the analysis of blood
flow in arteries.
3.Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet:
Surface tension is a property of liquids that arises due to the cohesive forces between
molecules at the surface of the liquid. When considering a liquid droplet, surface tension
tends to minimize the surface area of the droplet, causing it to take on a spherical shape.
This phenomenon is due to the balance between the cohesive forces among liquid
molecules and the adhesive forces between the liquid and its surroundings. The surface
tension of a liquid is often denoted by the symbol

4. Capillarity:
Capillarity refers to the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces against the force of
gravity. This phenomenon is often observed in small-diameter tubes or capillaries.
Capillarity is the result of the combination of adhesive forces (attraction between the
liquid and the solid surface of the tube) and cohesive forces (attraction between liquid
molecules). In capillary action, the liquid may either rise or fall in the capillary tube,
depending on the balance between these forces.

5.Manometer:
A manometer is a device used for measuring the pressure of a fluid, usually a gas or a
liquid. It typically consists of a U-shaped tube filled with a liquid (e.g., mercury or water).
The height difference of the liquid columns in the two arms of the U-tube is proportional
to the pressure difference between the two points being measured. Manometers are
widely used in various applications, including measuring gas pressures in laboratories.

6.Pascal's Law:
Pascal's law, also known as Pascal's principle, states that a change in pressure applied to
an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls
of its container. This principle is fundamental in understanding the behavior of fluids in
confined spaces and is the basis for hydraulic systems. It was named after the French
mathematician and physicist Blaise Pascal.

7.Hydrostatic Law:
Hydrostatic law, also known as Archimedes' principle, states that a fluid at rest (in
equilibrium) exerts pressure equally in all directions. This principle is fundamental to
understanding the behavior of fluids, especially in the context of hydrostatics (fluids at
rest). It was formulated by the ancient Greek mathematician and scientist Archimedes.
8. What do you mean by equipotential line of a constant system
functions?

It seems there may be a slight mix-up in the terminology you've used.

"Equipotential lines" and "constant system functions" are distinct
concepts in physics.

1. **Equipotential Lines:**
Equipotential lines are imaginary lines in a field (such as an electric
or gravitational field) along which the potential remains constant. In
the context of electric fields, for example, if you place a charge on an
equipotential line, no work is done in moving it along that line
because the potential (voltage) is constant. Equipotential lines are
always perpendicular to the field lines.

2. **Constant System Functions:**

Constant system functions generally refer to physical or
mathematical quantities within a system that remain constant. This
could include constants like mass, charge, energy, or any other
property that does not change within the system.

If you are asking about the relationship between equipotential lines

and constant system functions, it might be helpful to provide more
specific context or clarify the terms you're using. In standard physics
discussions, these terms are not directly interchangeable, so
additional details would assist in providing a more accurate
explanation.
9. Explain the classification of fluid based on Newton's law of
viscosity give the example also.

Newton's law of viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stress
(\(\tau\)) and the shear rate (\(\dot{\gamma}\)) of a fluid. According to
Newton's law, the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear rate. The
proportionality constant is the dynamic viscosity (\(\eta\)), and the
relationship is expressed by the equation:

Based on how fluids behave under the influence of shear stress, fluids can be
classified into two main types: Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids.
1. **Newtonian Fluids:**
In Newtonian fluids, the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear
rate, and the proportionality constant (dynamic viscosity) is constant. The
viscosity does not change with the applied stress or shear rate. Water and most
common liquids, like mineral oil, are examples of Newtonian fluids.
2. **Non-Newtonian Fluids:**
Non-Newtonian fluids do not follow the simple linear relationship described
by Newton's law of viscosity. The viscosity of these fluids can vary with the
applied stress or shear rate. There are different types of non-Newtonian
behavior, including shear-thinning, shear-thickening, and viscoelastic
behavior.
*Shear-Thinning Fluids:** The viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases.
Examples include certain types of food products like ketchup or yogurt.
- **Shear-Thickening Fluids:** The viscosity increases as the shear rate
increases. Cornstarch mixed with water is an example.
- **Viscoelastic Fluids:** These fluids exhibit both viscous and elastic
properties. They can flow like a liquid under certain conditions and deform
elastically under others. Examples include polymer solutions and some
biological fluids.

Understanding the behavior of fluids under different conditions is crucial in

various fields, including engineering, physics, and biology.
10. Define pressure. obtain and expression for the pressure intensity at a point
in a fluid?
**Pressure:**
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area applied perpendicular to the
surface of an object. In the context of fluids, pressure is the result of the force
exerted by the fluid molecules on the walls of the container or any object
immersed in the fluid. Mathematically, pressure (\(P\)) is given by the
formula:
\[ P = \frac{F}{A} \]
where:
- \(P\) is the pressure,
- \(F\) is the force applied,
- \(A\) is the area over which the force is applied.

**Pressure Intensity in a Fluid:**

To obtain an expression for the pressure intensity at a point in a fluid, we
consider a small element of fluid at that point. The pressure intensity (\(P\)) at
a point in a fluid can be described by the equation derived from Pascal's law:
\[ P = \frac{F}{A} \]
However, in the context of fluids, we often express this relationship in terms
of the height of the fluid column above the point. For a fluid in a gravitational
field, the pressure at a depth (\(h\)) below the surface is given by:
\[ P = P_0 + \rho gh \]

where:
- \(P\) is the pressure at depth,
- \(P_0\) is the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the fluid,
- \(\rho\) is the density of the fluid,
- \(g\) is the acceleration due to gravity, and
- \(h\) is the depth below the surface.

This expression accounts for the increase in pressure with depth in a fluid due
to the weight of the fluid column above the point.

It's important to note that this expression assumes a uniform gravitational

field and neglects factors such as variations in density with temperature. In
more complex situations or non-uniform fields, the pressure expression may
involve additional considerations.
11.Write down the bernoulli's question and explain different terms
It seems like there might be a small misunderstanding in your request, as
Bernoulli's equation is not typically formulated as a question. Instead, it is
expressed as an equation that describes the conservation of energy along a
streamline in fluid flow. The equation is:

\[ P + \frac{1}{2}\rho v^2 + \rho gh = \text{constant} \]

Let's go through the different terms in Bernoulli's equation:

1. **\(P\): Pressure Term**

- Represents the fluid pressure at a specific point along the streamline.
- The pressure energy is related to the mechanical energy per unit volume
associated with fluid pressure.

2. **\(\frac{1}{2}\rho v^2\): Kinetic Energy Term**

- Involves the kinetic energy per unit volume associated with the fluid's
velocity.
- \(\rho\) is the density of the fluid.
- \(v\) is the velocity of the fluid.
- Indicates that as the fluid's velocity increases, its kinetic energy per unit
volume also increases.

3. **\(\rho gh\): Gravitational Potential Energy Term**

- Represents the gravitational potential energy per unit volume associated
with the height of the fluid above a reference point.
- \(\rho\) is the density of the fluid.
- \(g\) is the acceleration due to gravity.
- \(h\) is the height of the fluid above a reference point.
- Indicates that changes in height can affect the fluid's gravitational
potential energy per unit volume.

The sum of these three terms is constant along a streamline, assuming ideal
conditions like inviscid (non-viscous), incompressible flow, and neglecting
other external forces. Bernoulli's equation is fundamental in fluid dynamics,
helping explain the relationship between pressure, velocity, and elevation in a
fluid flow. If you have a specific question related to Bernoulli's equation,
please provide more details, and I'll do my best to assist you.

12. Explain the Rayleigh's methods of dimensional analysis

I believe there might be a slight confusion in your question. Rayleigh did make
significant contributions to fluid dynamics and dimensional analysis, but the
formal method of dimensional analysis is more commonly associated with
Lord Rayleigh's contemporary, Buckingham, rather than Rayleigh himself.

**Buckingham's Pi Theorem** is a method of dimensional analysis developed

by British mathematician and physicist Edgar Buckingham in the early 20th
century. This theorem is essential for understanding the relationships between
the physical quantities involved in a given problem and simplifying
experimental data.

The Pi Theorem states that if there are \(n\) variables (physical quantities) and
these variables depend on \(m\) fundamental dimensions, then the \(n\)
variables can be expressed in terms of \(n - m\) dimensionless groups. These
dimensionless groups are formed by combining the variables using a product
or quotient, and they provide a way to describe the system without
introducing specific units.
Here is a basic outline of the steps involved in Buckingham's Pi Theorem:
1. **Identify Variables:** List all the variables relevant to the problem.
2. **Identify Dimensions:** Determine the fundamental dimensions (like
length, mass, time, etc.) involved in the problem.

3. **Form Dimensionless Groups (Pi Terms):** Combine the variables to

form dimensionless groups using products or quotients. Each group will
involve a combination of variables such that the resulting expression is
dimensionless.

4. **Check for Independence:** Ensure that the dimensionless groups are

independent. The number of dimensionless groups will be \(n - m\), where \(n\)
is the number of variables and \(m\) is the number of fundamental dimensions.

Buckingham's Pi Theorem is widely used in physics and engineering to reduce

the number of variables in experimental studies and to identify dimensionless
parameters governing physical phenomena. This method is particularly
useful in fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and other areas where complex
relationships exist between various physical quantities.
13. What is monometer? How they are classified?

It seems like there might be a slight typo in your question. I assume you are
referring to a "manometer." A manometer is a device used to measure the
pressure of a fluid, often a gas. It typically consists of a U-shaped tube filled
with a liquid (such as mercury or colored water) and is used to compare the
pressure of the fluid at two different points.

Manometers can be classified into various types based on their design and
application. Here are some common classifications:
1. **Open-End Manometer:**
- One end of the U-shaped tube is open to the atmosphere, and the other
end is connected to the system where pressure is being measured. The
difference in fluid levels in the two arms of the U-tube indicates the pressure
difference.
2. **Closed-End Manometer:**
- Both ends of the U-shaped tube are connected to different points in the
system, and the tube is sealed. The pressure difference is determined by the
height of the fluid column in the tube.
3. **Inclined Manometer:**
- The U-tube is inclined at an angle, and this design is used when space is
limited. The inclined manometer allows for the measurement of pressure
differences in confined spaces.
4. **Differential Manometer:**
- Designed to measure the difference in pressure between two points in a
system. It can be open or closed depending on the specific application.
5. **Micromanometer:**
- A highly sensitive manometer used for measuring very small pressure
differences, often in laboratory settings or for precision instruments.
6. **U-Tube Manometer:**
- The traditional U-shaped tube design is one of the most common types of
manometers. It is simple and widely used for measuring pressure
differences.
7. **Well-Type Manometer:**
- Instead of a U-shaped tube, it consists of a well or reservoir connected to
a tube. This design is often used for measuring low-pressure differences..

Manometers are versatile devices and are widely used in various industries,
laboratories, and engineering applications to measure and monitor pressure
differences in fluid systems.
14.What do you understand by local acceleration and the connective
acceleration
In the context of fluid dynamics, particularly in the study of fluid motion, local
acceleration and convective acceleration refer to different aspects of the
acceleration of fluid particles.

1. **Local Acceleration:**
- Local acceleration, also known as Eulerian acceleration, refers to the rate
of change of velocity of a fluid particle at a specific point in space as time
progresses.
- It is described by the partial derivative of velocity with respect to time
(\(\frac{\partial \mathbf{v}}{\partial t}\)), considering the fixed position in
space.
- Mathematically, local acceleration (\(\frac{D\mathbf{v}}{Dt}\)) is
expressed as the material derivative of velocity with respect to time,
considering the change in velocity as observed at a fixed point.

2. **Convective Acceleration:**
- Convective acceleration, also known as Lagrangian acceleration, is
associated with the change in velocity of a fluid particle as it moves from one
point in space to another.
- It is related to the advection of velocity as the fluid moves through space.
When fluid flows, the velocity of a particle changes not only due to local effects
but also due to the movement of the particle itself.
- Mathematically, convective acceleration is expressed as the dot product of
velocity (\(\mathbf{v}\)) and the gradient of velocity (\(\nabla \mathbf{v}\)):
\(\mathbf{v} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{v}\).

In summary, local acceleration focuses on how the velocity of a fluid particle

changes at a specific point in space over time, while convective acceleration
accounts for changes in velocity as a particle moves through space. Both
components contribute to the overall acceleration of fluid particles and are
crucial in understanding fluid dynamics, especially when analyzing the
Navier-Stokes equations that govern fluid motion.

15.What do you mean by boundary layer separation? Discuss the methods of

preventing the separation of boundary layer.
**Boundary Layer Separation:**
In fluid dynamics, the boundary layer is a thin layer of fluid near a solid
surface where the flow velocity changes from zero at the surface to the free-
stream velocity away from the surface. Boundary layer separation occurs
when the flow separates from the surface, disrupting the smooth transition of
the boundary layer. This separation is often associated with adverse pressure
gradients, changes in surface curvature, or flow separation due to flow
conditions.
**Methods of Preventing Boundary Layer Separation:**
1. **Streamlining and Aerodynamic Shapes:**
- Designing surfaces with smooth and streamlined shapes helps minimize adverse
pressure gradients, reducing the likelihood of boundary layer separation. This is crucial
in aerodynamics for wings and other surfaces.
2. **Controlling Surface Roughness:**
- Maintaining a smooth surface reduces the likelihood of early separation. Surface
irregularities, such as roughness, can trigger premature separation. Polishing and careful
manufacturing processes are used to control surface roughness.
3. **Using Suction Devices:**
- Active control methods involve using suction devices on the surface to remove
boundary layer fluid and maintain a favorable pressure gradient. This technique is often
applied in aircraft wings and other aerodynamic surfaces.
4. **Vortex Generators:**
- Small devices called vortex generators are strategically placed on the surface to
energize the boundary layer and delay separation. They create small vortices that help
to mix high-energy fluid with the slower-moving fluid in the boundary layer.
5. **Gurney Flaps:**
- Gurney flaps are small vertical tabs mounted at the trailing edge of an airfoil. They
can energize the boundary layer and delay separation, especially at high angles of attack.
6. **Wing Sweep and Taper:**
Wings with sweep and taper are less prone to boundary layer separation. The reduction
in chord length and sweep helps to maintain a more favorable pressure distribution.
7. **Boundary Layer Suction:**
- Actively removing the boundary layer through suction can help control separation.
This is often used in wind tunnel testing and some aircraft applications.
8. **Wing Blowing:**
- Introducing air through tiny holes on the wing surface can energize the boundary layer
and delay separation. This is known as boundary layer control or wing blowing.
Effective prevention of boundary layer separation requires a combination of careful
design, surface treatment, and sometimes active control methods, depending on the
specific application and requirements.
16.Difference between solid and fluid
Solids and fluids are two distinct states of matter with different characteristics. Here are
the key differences between solids and fluids:
1. **State of Matter:**
 **Solid:** Solids have a definite shape and volume. The particles in a solid are closely
packed in a regular arrangement, and they vibrate around fixed positions.
**Fluid:** Fluids include both liquids and gases. Liquids have a definite volume but take
the shape of their container. Gases have neither a definite shape nor volume and expand
to fill their container.
2. **Particle Arrangement:**
- **Solid:** Particles in a solid are tightly packed and have a fixed, ordered
arrangement.
- **Fluid:** Particles in fluids are not as tightly packed, allowing them to move more
freely.
3. **Density:**
- **Solid:** Solids generally have a higher density compared to fluids.
- **Fluid:** Fluids have a lower density compared to solids.
4. **Compressibility:**
- **Solid:** Solids are generally incompressible, meaning their volume cannot be easily
changed by an external force.
- **Fluid:** Gases are compressible, and their volume can be significantly changed by
applying pressure.
5. **Response to Shear Force:**
- **Solid:** Solids resist shear forces and tend to maintain their shape when subjected
to shear stress.
- **Fluid:** Fluids deform continuously under the application of shear stress and flow.
6. **Definite Shape and Volume:**
- **Solid:** Has a definite shape and volume.
- **Fluid:** Gases do not have a definite shape or volume, and liquids take the shape
of their container but have a definite volume.
7. **Examples:**
- **Solid:** Examples include rocks, metals, wood, and ice.
- **Fluid:** Examples include water (liquid), air (gas), and oil (liquid).
8. **Behavior under Shear Stress:**
- **Solid:** Solids deform elastically or plastically under shear stress, but they can
resist shear deformation to some extent.
- **Fluid:** Fluids continuously deform under shear stress, and their ability to resist
shear is characterized by viscosity.
9. **Rigidity:**
- **Solid:** Solids are rigid and maintain their shape.
- **Fluid:** Fluids are not rigid; they flow and change shape.

In summary, solids have a fixed shape and volume, are relatively rigid, and have particles
arranged in a regular pattern. Fluids, on the other hand, can change shape and flow, with
particles that are not as tightly packed and can move more freely.
17.What is the kinematic viscosity? what are its units
Kinematic viscosity (\(v\)) is a fluid property that represents the ratio
of dynamic viscosity (\(\mu\)) to the density (\(\rho\)) of the fluid. It is
a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow under the influence of gravity
and is often used in fluid mechanics and hydrodynamics.

The formula for kinematic viscosity is given by:

\[ v = \frac{\mu}{\rho} \]

where:
- \(v\) is the kinematic viscosity,
- \(\mu\) is the dynamic viscosity,
- \(\rho\) is the density of the fluid.

The units of kinematic viscosity are typically expressed in square

meters per second \((m^2/s)\) in the International System of Units
(SI). However, in some contexts, especially in fluid dynamics,
centistokes (\(cSt\)) is a commonly used unit for kinematic viscosity,
where \(1 \, cSt = 10^{-6} \, m^2/s\).

So, the units of kinematic viscosity can be either \((m^2/s)\) or

\((cSt)\), depending on the convention and the system of units being
used.

18. Distinguish among pathlines, strem lines and the streaklines.

In fluid dynamics, pathlines, streamlines, and streaklines are concepts used to

describe the motion of fluid particles, but they represent different aspects of
that motion:
1. **Pathlines:**
- **Definition:** A pathline is the actual path traced by a specific fluid
particle as it moves through space over time.
- **Characteristics:** It provides a complete picture of the particle's
trajectory, showing its position at every point in time.
- **Visualization:** If you were to mark a fluid particle and observe its
movement over a period, the curve or line traced by that particle would be its
pathline.
2. **Streamlines:**
- **Definition:** A streamline is an imaginary line that is everywhere
tangent to the velocity vector of the fluid at a given instant.
- **Characteristics:** It does not represent the actual path of individual
particles but indicates the direction a particle would take at any specific point
in time.
- **Visualization:** Streamlines are often drawn on a snapshot of a flow
field, showing the instantaneous flow direction.
3. **Streaklines:**
- **Definition:** A streakline is the locus (path) of particles marked with a
dye at different times, forming a continuous line.
- **Characteristics:** It represents the continuous marking of particles as
they pass through a specific point in space at different times.
- **Visualization:** If you continuously inject dye into a flow at a fixed
location, the line formed by the dye over time would be a streakline.

In summary:
- Pathlines represent the actual trajectory of individual fluid particles over
time.
- Streamlines represent the instantaneous direction of fluid flow at every point
in space.
- Streaklines represent the continuous marking of particles released at the
same point at different times.

These concepts are valuable for understanding fluid motion and are often used
in fluid mechanics and visualization techniques to analyze and represent flow
patterns.
19.What are the meant by geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarities?

Geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities are concepts employed in

fluid mechanics and engineering to relate physical systems under different
conditions, scales, or circumstances. These similarities are essential for scale
model testing and analysis, allowing engineers and scientists to draw
meaningful conclusions about the performance of a system based on
experiments conducted on a smaller or larger scale. Here's an overview of
each type of similarity:

1. **Geometric Similarity:**
- **Definition:** Geometric similarity refers to the similarity in shape and
size between the model and the prototype (full-scale system).
- **Requirements:** For geometric similarity, corresponding linear
dimensions (such as lengths, widths, and heights) of the model and prototype
must be proportional.
- **Example:** If a model airplane is geometrically similar to a full-size
airplane, the ratio of any corresponding lengths on the model to the prototype
should be the same.

2. **Kinematic Similarity:**
- **Definition:** Kinematic similarity involves the similarity in motion
patterns or flow patterns between the model and prototype.
- **Requirements:** The velocities and accelerations of corresponding fluid
particles in the model and prototype must be proportional.

3. **Dynamic Similarity:**
- **Definition:** Dynamic similarity extends the concept of kinematic
similarity to include the forces and stresses acting on the system. It ensures
that the forces in the model and prototype are proportional.
- **Requirements:** The ratios of corresponding forces, such as
gravitational, inertial, and viscous forces, must be the same in the model and
prototype.
Maintaining these similarities is crucial for the accurate modeling and testing
of various engineering systems, such as aircraft, ships, bridges, and pipelines.
By preserving geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities, engineers can
scale down or up models while ensuring that the physical behavior and
performance characteristics are representative of the full-scale systems they
are designed to mimic.

20.What do you understand by Total energy line and Hydraulic gradient line?

In fluid mechanics, the Total Energy Line (TEL) and Hydraulic Gradient Line
(HGL) are graphical representations used to analyze the energy distribution
in a flowing fluid, especially in open channels or pipes.
1. **Total Energy Line (TEL):**
- **Definition:** The Total Energy Line represents the total energy per unit
weight of fluid at different points along the flow path. It is the sum of three
energy components: potential energy, kinetic energy, and pressure energy.
- **Mathematically:** TEL = \(Z + \frac{v^2}{2g} + \frac{P}{\gamma}\),
where
- \(Z\) is the elevation head (potential energy),
- \(v\) is the velocity of the fluid,
- \(g\) is the acceleration due to gravity,
- \(P\) is the pressure head,
- \(\gamma\) is the specific weight of the fluid.
- **Representation:** On a graph, the TEL is a line that shows how the total
energy varies with distance along the flow path.
2. **Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL):**
- **Definition:** The Hydraulic Gradient Line represents the sum of the
elevation head and the pressure head of the fluid. It is essentially the Total
Energy Line but excluding the velocity head.
- **Mathematically:** HGL = \(Z + \frac{P}{\gamma}\).
- **Representation:** On a graph, the HGL is a line that shows how the sum
of elevation head and pressure head varies with distance along the flow path.
- **Importance:** The HGL is often used in conjunction with the energy
grade line (EGL) to analyze flow conditions in pipes or open channels. The
slope of the HGL represents the pressure drop in the system.
In a steady flow of an incompressible fluid, the TEL, HGL, and EGL (Energy
Grade Line) are parallel to each other. The slope of these lines provides
insights into the energy losses or gains in the system.

These concepts are crucial in hydraulic engineering for designing and

analyzing fluid flow systems, such as pipelines, open channels, and water
supply networks. Understanding the distribution of energy helps engineers
assess the efficiency and performance of the system.
21.What is siphon? on what principle its works?
A siphon is a tube or conduit that allows liquid to flow from a higher elevation
to a lower elevation without the need for a pump. It works based on the
principles of gravity and atmospheric pressure. The key components of a
siphon include a tube, a source container, and a destination container.

**Principle of Operation:**
1. **Initial Setup:** The siphon tube is initially filled with the liquid, and both ends of
the tube are placed in the source and destination containers.

2. **Creation of Vacuum:** As the liquid flows out of the tube, it creates a vacuum or
low-pressure zone at the upper end of the tube (in the destination container).

3. **Atmospheric Pressure:** Atmospheric pressure then forces the liquid from the
higher container (source) to the lower container (destination), filling the vacuum created
in step 2.

4. **Continuous Flow:** Once the siphon is primed, the liquid continues to flow as long
as the tube remains filled and the atmospheric pressure is maintained.

**Key Factors:**
- **Height Difference:** The siphon works best when there is a significant height
difference between the source and destination containers. The greater the vertical
distance, the more effective the siphon.
- **Atmospheric Pressure:** The siphon relies on atmospheric pressure to push the
liquid through the tube. If the pressure at the destination end drops below the vapor
pressure of the liquid, the siphon may break, and the flow stops.

**Considerations:**
- **Primed Siphon:** The siphon needs to be primed initially to allow the liquid to flow.
This can be achieved by filling the tube with the liquid before starting the siphon.
- **No Pumping Mechanism:** Unlike a pump, a siphon does not actively move or pump
the liquid. It relies on gravity and atmospheric pressure.
**Applications:**
- **Aquarium Cleaning:** Siphons are often used to clean aquariums by draining water
to a lower level.
- **Fluid Transfer:** Siphons can be used for transferring liquids between containers
without the need for a pump.
- **Irrigation:** In certain agricultural practices, siphons can be used for transferring
water between different levels in irrigation systems.

It's important to note that the siphon only works up to a certain maximum height, limited
by atmospheric pressure and the vapor pressure of the liquid. Beyond this limit, the liquid
won't be able to overcome the atmospheric pressure barrier, and the siphon will break.
22. What are meant by scale of intensity of turbulence in the turbulent flow?

The scale of intensity of turbulence refers to the characteristic length scales

associated with turbulent motion in a fluid flow. Turbulence is a chaotic and
irregular motion of fluid particles characterized by fluctuations in velocity,
pressure, and other flow parameters. In turbulent flows, various length scales
are used to describe the size of turbulent structures and eddies. The concept
of scale of intensity helps in understanding the hierarchical nature of
turbulence.
There are two primary length scales used to characterize turbulence:
1. **Integral Length Scale (\(L\)):**
- The integral length scale represents the average size of the largest turbulent
eddies in the flow.
- It is a measure of the overall size of the turbulent structures.
- Integral length scale is often associated with the energy-containing eddies
that play a significant role in transferring energy across different scales within
the turbulent flow.
- It is calculated using statistical techniques based on correlations of velocity
fluctuations.
2. **Kolmogorov Length Scale (\(\eta\)):**
- The Kolmogorov length scale is a very small length scale that characterizes
the size of the smallest turbulent structures in the flow.
- It is associated with the dissipative range of turbulence, where energy is
converted into heat due to viscosity.
- Kolmogorov length scale is calculated using the Kolmogorov microscale
formula and is related to the viscosity of the fluid and the rate of turbulent
energy dissipation.
The ratio of the integral length scale to the Kolmogorov length scale is an
important parameter known as the Reynolds number (\(Re\)). The Reynolds
number is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the relative importance
of inertial forces to viscous forces in a flow. It plays a crucial role in
determining the nature of flow, whether laminar or turbulent.

Understanding the scale of intensity of turbulence is essential in turbulent flow

analysis, turbulence modeling, and engineering applications where the
prediction and control of turbulence are important considerations. Different
length scales help researchers and engineers characterize the range
ofturbulent structures present in a given flow, and this knowledge is crucial
for accurate modeling and analysis.

23. Explain buckingham π theorem

The Buckingham π (pi) theorem, also known as Buckingham's π theorem or

the Buckingham-Bridgman theorem, is a powerful tool in dimensional
analysis. It provides a systematic method for determining the relationship
between the variables involved in a physical problem and expressing those
relationships in terms of dimensionless groups. This theorem is particularly
useful in reducing the number of variables that need to be experimentally or
numerically studied, making it easier to analyze and understand complex
physical phenomena.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of Buckingham's π theorem:

1. **Identify the Variables:**

- List all the variables involved in the problem. These can include physical
quantities such as lengths, masses, times, velocities, and other relevant
parameters.

2. **Determine the Dimensions:**

- Assign dimensions (like length [L], mass [M], time [T], etc.) to each variable. For
example, if \(v\) represents velocity, then \([v] = \frac{L}{T}\).

3. **Count the Variables and Dimensions:**

- Count the total number of variables (\(n\)) and the fundamental dimensions (\(m\))
involved in the problem.

4. **Determine the Dimensional Matrix:**

- Create a matrix (\(n \times m\)) representing the dimensions of each variable. The
matrix is formed by placing the dimensions of each variable in the appropriate column.

5. **Rank the Matrix:**

- Determine the rank (\(r\)) of the dimensional matrix. The rank is the maximum
number of linearly independent rows or columns. It represents the number of
dimensionless groups (\(π\)) that can be formed.

6. **Identify the Dimensionless Groups:**

- Select \(n - r\) dimensionless groups (\(π\)) using the Buckingham π theorem. Each
group is formed by multiplying the variables raised to certain powers such that the
dimensions cancel out. The powers are determined based on the values in the dimensional
matrix.
These dimensionless groups provide a simplified representation of the fluid flow problem
and can be used for analysis and experimentation without the need to consider each
variable separately.
24. Explain venturimeter.

A Venturi meter is a device used to measure the flow velocity of a fluid in a pipe. It is
based on the principle of Bernoulli's equation, which relates the velocity of a fluid to its
pressure. The Venturi meter consists of a specially shaped pipe with a narrowing
constriction in the middle, called the Venturi tube.

Here's an explanation of the components and the working principle of a Venturi meter:
**Components of a Venturi Meter:**

1. **Inlet Section (Converging Section):**

- The fluid enters the Venturi meter through a gradually converging section. This allows
the fluid to approach the throat of the Venturi tube with a relatively low velocity and high
pressure.

2. **Throat Section:**
- The throat is the narrowest part of the Venturi tube, where the diameter is reduced.
As the fluid flows through this constriction, its velocity increases, and according to
Bernoulli's equation, the pressure decreases.

3. **Outlet Section (Diverging Section):**

- After passing through the throat, the fluid enters a gradually diverging section, where
the diameter increases. In this section, the fluid's velocity decreases, and its pressure
increases.

4. **Pressure Tappings:**
- Pressure tappings or pressure ports are located at specific points along the Venturi
meter. These ports are used to measure the pressures at different sections: the inlet,
throat, and outlet.

**Working Principle:**

The Venturi meter operates based on Bernoulli's equation, which states that the sum of
pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy per unit volume of a fluid remains
constant along a streamline. The Venturi meter utilizes the principle that as the fluid
velocity increases in the throat (narrowest section), the pressure decreases, and as the
fluid velocity decreases in the outlet section (diverging section), the pressure increases.

The Venturi meter is calibrated, and by measuring the pressure difference \(ΔP\) and the
area ratios, the fluid velocity at the throat and, consequently, the flow rate of the fluid
can be determined.

Venturi meters are commonly used in industrial applications for measuring the flow of
liquids, gases, or steam in pipes. They provide a reliable and accurate method for flow
measurement and are often preferred in situations where the flow rate is variable.
25. Derive stream function, and potential function?

In fluid mechanics, the stream function (\(\psi\)) and the potential function (\(\phi\)) are
mathematical tools used to describe the flow of a fluid. These functions are particularly
useful in the study of incompressible, irrotational flow, which is a simplifying assumption
that allows for a more straightforward analysis.
1. **Stream Function (\(\psi\)):**
 The stream function is defined for a two-dimensional, incompressible flow (i.e., flow in
a plane) as:
\[ u = \frac{\partial\psi}{\partial y} \]
\[ v = -\frac{\partial\psi}{\partial x} \]
The stream function \(\psi\) satisfies the continuity equation:
\[ \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} + \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} = 0 \]
To find the stream function, you need to solve this equation and integrate the results.
Let's consider an example:
If \(u = 2y\) and \(v = -x\), you can integrate \(u\) with respect to \(y\) to get \(\psi\):
\[ \psi = \int 2y \, dy = y^2 + f(x) \
Then, differentiate \(\psi\) with respect to \(x\) and set it equal to \(-v\) to find \(f(x)\):

\[ \frac{\partial\psi}{\partial x} = -v \]
\[ \frac{\partial}{\partial x}(y^2 + f(x)) = x \]
\[ f'(x) = x \]

Integrate \(f'(x)\) to find \(f(x)\), and substitute it back into the expression for \(\psi\).

2. **Potential Function (\(\phi\)):** The potential function is defined as:

\[ u = \frac{\partial\phi}{\partial x} \]
\[ v = \frac{\partial\phi}{\partial y} \]

Similar to the stream function, the potential function satisfies the continuity equation.

To find the potential function, you need to integrate \(u\) with respect to \(x\) and \(v\)
with respect to \(y\). Let's consider an example:

If \(u = 2x\) and \(v = 3y\), integrate \(u\) with respect to \(x\) to get \(\phi\):

\[ \phi = \int 2x \, dx = x^2 + g(y) \]

Differentiate \(\phi\) with respect to \(y\) and set it equal to \(v\) to find \(g(y)\):

\[ \frac{\partial\phi}{\partial y} = v \]
\[ \frac{\partial}{\partial y}(x^2 + g(y)) = 3y \]
\[ g'(y) = 3y \]
Integrate \(g'(y)\) to find \(g(y)\) and substitute it back into the expression for \(\phi\).

Keep in mind that these are general procedures, and the specific form of the velocity field
will lead to different expressions for the stream and potential functions.
26. Explain Continuity equation.

The continuity equation is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics that expresses the
conservation of mass within a fluid system. It is derived from the principle of mass
conservation, which states that mass cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or
transformed. In fluid mechanics, this principle is applied to the flow of fluids.
The continuity equation is mathematically expressed as follows:

\[ \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf{v}) = 0 \]

Where:
- \( \rho \) is the density of the fluid.
- \( t \) is time.
- \( \mathbf{v} \) is the velocity vector of the fluid.
- \( \nabla \cdot \) represents the divergence operator.

In a more common form, for steady, incompressible flow (when density is constant and
\(\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} = 0\)), the continuity equation simplifies to:

\[ \nabla \cdot \mathbf{v} = 0 \]

This equation states that the divergence of the velocity field (\(\mathbf{v}\)) is zero. The
divergence represents the rate of change of a vector field's density at a given point. In the
context of fluid flow, it signifies the rate at which fluid is flowing into or out of a point in
space.

Interpreting the continuity equation:

1. **Incompressibility:** For incompressible fluids, the density (\(\rho\)) is constant, and
the continuity equation implies that the divergence of the velocity field must be zero. This
means that the fluid cannot converge or diverge at any point within the flow.

2. **Conservation of Mass:** The continuity equation ensures that mass is conserved in

a fluid system. It implies that any change in the volume of fluid within a certain region
must be balanced by the flow of fluid into or out of that region.

3. **Relationship with Streamlines:** In two-dimensional flow, the continuity equation

is often expressed in terms of stream functions. The equation \(\frac{\partial u}{\partial
x} + \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} = 0\) is equivalent to the continuity equation in two
dimensions.

The continuity equation is a powerful tool in fluid dynamics and is used in conjunction
with other equations (such as the Navier-Stokes equations) to model and analyze fluid
flows in various engineering and scientific applications.

27. Define compressibility with expression for rise and fall .

Compressibility is a measure of the change in volume or density of a fluid as a response

to a change in pressure. It is a property that characterizes how easily a substance can be
compressed or expanded under the influence of pressure.
The compressibility (\( \beta \)) is defined as the reciprocal of the bulk modulus (\( K \)),
which is a measure of the substance's resistance to volume change under pressure. The
relationship between compressibility, bulk modulus, and density (\( \rho \)) can be
expressed as follows:

\[ \beta = -\frac{1}{\rho} \frac{d\rho}{dp} = -\frac{1}{\rho} \left(\frac{\partial

\rho}{\partial p}\right)_T \]

Here:
- \( \beta \) is the compressibility.
- \( \rho \) is the density of the fluid.
- \( p \) is the pressure.
- The term \( \left(\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial p}\right)_T \) denotes the partial derivative
of density with respect to pressure at constant temperature.

Now, let's discuss the expressions for the rise and fall in pressure in relation to
compressibility:

1. **Rise in Pressure:**
- When pressure on a fluid increases, the density tends to decrease if the fluid is
compressible.
- The expression \( \left(\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial p}\right)_T \) represents the rate at
which density changes with respect to pressure at constant temperature.
- A positive value of \( \left(\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial p}\right)_T \) indicates that
density decreases with an increase in pressure, implying compressibility.

2. **Fall in Pressure:**
- Conversely, when pressure on a fluid decreases, the density tends to increase if the
fluid is compressible.
- A negative value of \( \left(\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial p}\right)_T \) indicates that
density increases with a decrease in pressure.

In summary, the compressibility of a fluid is reflected in how its density changes in

response to variations in pressure. A positive compressibility means the fluid is
compressible, and its density decreases with increasing pressure, while a negative
compressibility implies an increase in density with decreasing pressure.

28. Explain Properties of fluid.

The properties of fluids are characteristics or attributes that describe the behavior and
state of fluids (liquids and gases). These properties are essential for understanding and
analyzing fluid behavior in various applications, including engineering, physics, and
environmental science. Here are some fundamental properties of fluids:
1. **Density (\( \rho \)):**
- Density is the mass per unit volume of a fluid.
- It is a measure of how much mass is contained in a given volume.
- Mathematically, \( \rho = \frac{m}{V} \), where \( m \) is mass and \( V \) is volume.
2. **Mass Flow Rate (\( \dot{m} \)):**
- Mass flow rate is the amount of mass passing through a section of a flow per unit time.
- It is expressed as \( \dot{m} = \rho A V \), where \( A \) is the cross-sectional area and
\( V \) is the velocity of the fluid.
3. **Volume Flow Rate (\( Q \)):**
- Volume flow rate is the volume of fluid passing through a section of a flow per unit
time.
- It is related to mass flow rate by \( Q = A V \), where \( A \) is the cross-sectional area
and \( V \) is the velocity.
4. **Pressure (\( P \)):**
- Pressure is the force per unit area applied on a surface perpendicular to the force.
- It is measured in Pascals (Pa) or other pressure units.
- Fluids exert pressure in all directions, and pressure changes affect fluid flow.
5. **Temperature (\( T \)):**
- Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a fluid.
- It is important for determining fluid properties and behavior, such as viscosity and
thermal expansion.
6. **Viscosity (\( \mu \)):**
- Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to deformation or flow.
- It determines how easily a fluid can flow and is influenced by temperature.
- High viscosity fluids are more resistant to flow (e.g., honey), while low viscosity fluids
flow more easily (e.g., water).
7. **Compressibility:**
- Compressibility is a measure of how much a fluid's volume changes in response to a
change in pressure.
- Incompressible fluids have a negligible change in volume under pressure, while
compressible fluids experience significant volume changes.
8. **Specific Weight (\( \gamma \)):**
- Specific weight is the weight of a unit volume of fluid.
- It is related to density and gravitational acceleration by \( \gamma = \rho g \), where
\( g \) is the acceleration due to gravity.
Understanding these properties is crucial for the analysis and design of fluid systems in
engineering, physics, and other scientific disciplines. They provide insights into the
behavior of fluids under different conditions and help in making informed decisions in
various applications.
29. Derivation of bernoulli's theorem with statement and assumption.

**Bernoulli's Theorem:**
Bernoulli's theorem is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics that describes the
behavior of an inviscid, incompressible fluid along a streamline. It is named after the
Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli. The theorem is a statement of the conservation of
energy for flowing fluids and is often expressed in terms of the fluid's velocity, pressure,
and elevation.
**Statement of Bernoulli's Theorem:**
For an inviscid, incompressible fluid flowing along a streamline, the sum of the fluid's
kinetic energy per unit volume, potential energy per unit volume, and pressure energy
per unit volume remains constant. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
\[ \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 + \rho gh + P = \text{constant} \]
where:
- \( \rho \) is the fluid density,
- \( v \) is the fluid velocity,
- \( g \) is the acceleration due to gravity,
- \( h \) is the height above a reference plane,
- \( P \) is the fluid pressure.
**Assumptions in the Derivation:**
The derivation of Bernoulli's theorem is based on certain assumptions:
1. **Steady Flow:** The flow is assumed to be steady, meaning that the fluid properties
(velocity, pressure, etc.) do not change with time.
2. **Incompressibility:** The fluid is assumed to be incompressible, so changes in
pressure do not result from changes in fluid density.
3. **Inviscid Flow:** Viscous effects, such as friction and internal fluid shear, are
neglected. This assumes an idealized, frictionless flow.
4. **Along a Streamline:** The theorem is applicable along a streamline, which is a path
that a fluid particle follows in steady flow.
5. **No External Forces:** The fluid is assumed to be subject only to conservative forces,
such as gravity.
**Derivation of Bernoulli's Theorem:**
The derivation typically involves applying the principle of conservation of energy to a
fluid particle moving along a streamline. The key steps include considering the work done
by pressure forces, gravitational forces, and kinetic energy changes.
One common derivation involves considering a small volume of fluid moving along a
streamline, applying the work-energy principle, and then simplifying the expression to
obtain the Bernoulli's theorem equation.

While the detailed derivation involves calculus and is usually found in fluid dynamics
textbooks, the essence lies in recognizing the balance between kinetic energy, potential
energy, and pressure energy along the streamline.

Keep in mind that Bernoulli's theorem is a simplified model, and certain conditions, such
as steady flow and incompressibility, are crucial for its applicability. In real-world
scenarios, deviations from these assumptions may require modifications to the theorem.
30. Explain Surface tension with applications

**Boundary Layer Separation:**

Boundary layer separation occurs when the thin layer of fluid flowing over a surface,
known as the boundary layer, detaches or separates from the surface. This phenomenon
is particularly relevant in aerodynamics and fluid dynamics and can have significant
effects on the performance of vehicles, wings, and other surfaces.

**Causes of Boundary Layer Separation:**

1. **Adverse Pressure Gradient:** When the pressure gradient along the surface is
adverse, meaning pressure increases in the direction of flow, it can lead to separation.

2. **Surface Roughness:** Rough surfaces can disrupt the smooth flow of the boundary
layer, causing separation.

3. **Flow Acceleration:** Abrupt changes in flow velocity can lead to separation.

4. **Curvature:** Strong curvature or sudden changes in surface geometry can induce

separation.

**Effects of Boundary Layer Separation:**

1. **Increased Drag:** Separation leads to the formation of vortices and increased drag,
reducing the efficiency of the surface.

2. **Loss of Lift:** In aerodynamics, separation can lead to a loss of lift on aircraft wings.

3. **Reduced Efficiency:** Separation can negatively impact the performance of

turbines, propellers, and other fluid systems.

**Control of Boundary Layer Separation:**

1. **Streamlining and Airfoil Design:** Smooth, streamlined shapes and well-designed

airfoils help minimize adverse pressure gradients and reduce the likelihood of separation.

2. **Boundary Layer Control Devices:**

- **Vortex Generators:** Small devices mounted on surfaces to energize the boundary
layer and delay separation.
- **Gurney Flaps:** Vertical extensions at the trailing edge of an airfoil to enhance lift
and delay separation.

3. **Suction:** Active suction applied through porous surfaces or slots can control
separation by removing the boundary layer.

Different types of fluid

Fluids are classified into different types based on their behavior and
properties. Here are some common types of fluids:

1. **Ideal Fluid:**
- Assumes no viscosity, compressibility, or other real-world effects.
 - Follows the ideal fluid dynamics equations.
- Used for theoretical analysis but does not exist in reality.

2. **Real Fluid:**
- Exhibits viscosity and compressibility.
- Behaves according to real-world conditions and physical properties.

3. **Newtonian Fluid:**
- Viscosity remains constant regardless of shear rate.

4. **Non-Newtonian Fluid:**
- Viscosity depends on shear rate.
- Includes categories like shear-thinning (e.g., ketchup) and shear-
thickening (e.g., cornstarch and water mixture) fluids.

5. **Incompressible Fluid:**
- Volume does not change significantly under pressure.
- Often assumed for liquids and low-speed gas flows.

6. **Compressible Fluid:**
- Volume changes significantly under pressure.
- Important for high-speed gas flows and aerodynamics.

7. **Ideal Gas:**
- Follows the ideal gas law (PV = nRT).
- Assumes low pressure and high temperature conditions.

8. **Real Gas:**
- Deviates from the ideal gas law under certain conditions.
- Exhibits non-ideal behavior at high pressures and low temperatures.

These classifications help in understanding and analyzing the behavior of

fluids in various applications, such as fluid dynamics, chemical engineering,
and materials science.
b. The Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) is a graphical representation of the total
energy per unit weight of fluid flowing in a conduit, such as a pipe. It is a line
that shows the sum of the pressure head, elevation head, and velocity head of
the fluid at various points along the flow path. The concept of the HGL is
essential in fluid mechanics, especially in the a nalysis and design of pipelines
and open channels.
The HGL is drawn parallel to the free surface of the flowing fluid. It provides
insights into the energy status of the fluid at different points in a hydraulic
system. The three components of the HGL are:

1. **Pressure Head (\(P/\rho g\)):**

- The pressure head is the energy associated with the pressure of the fluid.
- It is given by the ratio of pressure to the product of fluid density (\(\rho\))
and gravitational acceleration (\(g\)).

2. **Elevation Head (\(z\)):**

- The elevation head is the energy associated with the height of the fluid
above a reference plane.
- It is given by the elevation of the fluid above a chosen reference point.

3. **Velocity Head (\(V^2/(2g)\)):**

- The velocity head is the energy associated with the velocity of the fluid.
- It is given by the square of the velocity divided by twice the gravitational
acceleration.

Understanding the Hydraulic Grade Line is crucial for engineers involved in

the design, analysis, and operation of fluid systems. It aids in assessing the
performance of pipelines, ensuring proper functioning of pumps, and
managing the overall energy balance in a hydraulic system.

**1. Pilot Tube:**

- A device used to measure fluid velocity in pipes or conduits.
- Consists of a tube connected to a manometer, allowing determination of pressure
differences to calculate flow velocity.

**2. Laminar and Turbulent Flow:**

- *Laminar Flow:* Fluid flows smoothly in parallel layers with minimal mixing.
 - *Turbulent Flow:* Fluid exhibits chaotic, irregular motion with significant mixing.

**3. Rotational and Irrotational Flow:**

- *Rotational Flow:* Fluid particles follow curved paths and have vorticity.
- *Irrotational Flow:* Fluid particles move without rotation, and vorticity is zero.

**4. Uniform and Non-uniform Flow:**

- *Uniform Flow:* Fluid velocity is constant at any given instant and at any cross-
section.
- *Non-uniform Flow:* Velocity varies at different locations or times.

**5. Circulation and Vorticity:**

- *Circulation:* The line integral of the fluid velocity around a closed curve.
- *Vorticity:* A measure of the local rotation of fluid elements.

**6. Navier-Stokes Equation:**

- A set of partial differential equations describing the motion of fluid substances.
- They incorporate conservation of mass and momentum and are fundamental in fluid
dynamics.

**7. Flow Net:**

- A graphical representation of flow patterns in a two-dimensional flow field.
- Used to visualize and analyze flow through soil, dams, and other structures.

**8. Friction Drag and Pressure Drag:**

- *Friction Drag:* Caused by the viscosity of the fluid and is proportional to the
frictional resistance between the fluid and the solid surface.
- *Pressure Drag:* Caused by pressure differences in the wake of a blunt body.

**9. Capillarity:**
- The ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or against,
external forces.
- Capillary action is due to the combination of cohesive forces and surface tension.

**10. Vapour Pressure:**

- The pressure exerted by a vapor when it is in equilibrium with its liquid phase.
- It depends on the temperature and the nature of the substance.

**11. Bulk Modulus:**

- A measure of the compressibility of a fluid.
- It describes the ratio of the change in pressure to the fractional change in volume.

**12. Bingham Plastic:**

- Behaves like a solid until a certain stress is reached (yield stress).
- Common in some types of drilling muds.
**13. Rheopectic Plastic:**
- Exhibits an increase in apparent viscosity with time under constant stress.
- Becomes more viscous under prolonged stress.

These terms cover a range of concepts in fluid dynamics, fluid properties, and material
behavior, each playing a significant role in various scientific and engineering
applications.