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The document is a publication by MADE EASY that serves as a textbook for the Basics of Material Science and Engineering, aimed at helping students understand key concepts and prepare for competitive examinations. It includes comprehensive coverage of theory, objective type questions, and practice sets for self-evaluation. The book emphasizes clarity in presentation and aims to facilitate quick problem-solving skills in the subject matter.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
82 views212 pages5.Gst Material Science
The document is a publication by MADE EASY that serves as a textbook for the Basics of Material Science and Engineering, aimed at helping students understand key concepts and prepare for competitive examinations. It includes comprehensive coverage of theory, objective type questions, and practice sets for self-evaluation. The book emphasizes clarity in presentation and aims to facilitate quick problem-solving skills in the subject matter.
Uploaded by
Komal PathakCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 212
‘MADE EASY Publications
Corporate Oiice: Al, Kalu Sarai (Near Hauz Khas Metro Station), New Delhi
small [email protected].
Contact: 011-45124860, 08860378007 ;
Vitus at: wwewmadeeasypubications.org
ESE 2019 Preliminary Examination :
Basics of Material Science and Engineering
© Copyright, by MADE EASY Publications
AN rights are reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in o inttoduced into a reiieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or
‘therwise), without he prior writen permission f ho above mentioned publisher of tis book
Fist Edition :2016
‘Second Edition 2017
‘Third Edition: 2018
=
MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS Ras taken due car in cleing the data an puviing the soln, before publishing ths book.
!nspte ofthis, fay inaccuracy or printing enor occu then MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS nes no responsibilty. MADE EASY
PUBLICATIONS walle gael yu coue polnt out ary such ee Your suagestions willbe appre.
a sey OEE FULCATEN ould ik my be peed aid oe I
-wrltten permission from the publisher. & Preface
‘The compilation of this book Basics of Material Science
and Engineering was motivated by the desire to provide
a concise book which can benefit students to understand
the concepts ofthis specific topic of General Studies and
Engineering Aptitude section
This textbook provides all the requirements of the
students, i.e.
B. Singh (E.1E5)
prehensive coverage of theory,
fundamental concepts and objective type questions
articulated in a luoid language. The concise presentation wil help the
readers grasp the theory of this subject with clarity and apply them with ease to solve objective
‘questions quickly. This book not only covers the syllabus of ESE in a holistic manner but is also
Useful for many other competitive examinations. All the topics are given the emphasis they dos
erve
mere reading of the book clarifies al the concepts.
We have put in our sincere efforts to present detailed theory and MCQs without compromising the
accuracy of answers. For the interest of the readers, some notes, do you know and interesting
{acts are given in the comprehensive manner. At the end of each chapter, sets of practice question
are given with their keys and detailed explanations, that wil allow the readers to evaluate thelr
understanding of the topics and sharpen their question solving skis
(Our teamhas made their best effors remove all possible erors of any kind, Nonetheless, we would
highly appreciate and acknowledge if you find and share with us any printing and conceptual errors,
Its impossible to thank all the individuals who helped us, bul we would like to sincerely thank all
the authors, editors and reviewers for putting in their efforts to publish this book.
With Best Wishes
B.Singh
CMD, MADE EASY Group Chapter 1 2.25. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, aa
Introduction.. 2.26. Chemical Bonding.
1.1 Historical Perspective 227 onic Bond... de
12. Material Science van... 1 228 Covalent Bond.. uf
1.3 Classification of Materials. vu 2 229 Metallic Bond....
1.4 What is Materia? 3 230. Comparison of Primary Bond: i
1.5 Engineering Needs of Matetialeniumnmnu3 231 Vander Waal Bond...
232 Dispersion Bonds wun.
Chapter 2 2.33 Dipole BONS. .eeunennnum 4)
Chemical Bonding. 234. Hydrogen Bonds. cel
21 Basic Laws of Chemistry. 235. Properties of Water (H,0)... 4)
2.2. Fundamental Concepts. 236. Directional Bond. a
pe areas 237 Non-directional Bond.. 25 4
24 The Periodic Table 2.38 Molecular Orbital Theory. 25 4a
25. Comparison of Alpha (a), Beta (p) 239 Hybridization oo... = 4
af Gamma ty) ays Objective Brain Teasers. 7
26 Quantum Number..
27. Electron Affinity Chapter 3
28. Electronegativity. Crystallography .. ld
‘ZI Paull’ Exclusion Principle: BA IRMODUCHION senso |
2.10 Aufbau Principle. 32. Comparison of Crystalline and a
BAT UNAS Rule nnn R Noncrystalline Solids... a
2.12 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle... 33. Lattice Points, Space Lattice and a
2.13 Gay Lussac’sLaw of Gaseous Volumes. Ciystal Structures, 31
2.14 Dalton’s Atomic Theory un 34 Unit Cell and Primitive Unit Ce
2.15 Rutherford Model.. 35 Bravais Lattices.
2.16 BOhT Model wenn 3.6 Cubic Crystal Structures. ¢
2.17 Sommer Field's Model.. 3.7 Hexagonal Closed Packing aM
2.418 De Broglie Wave Equation... 38 Mller ndices. 5.
2.19 Octet RUE. nn socom 14 3.9 Interplanar SPACING evsnmmnne 5.
220 Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relationship).15 3.10. Crystal Imperfections, 5
2.21, Charles Law 3.11 Point Imperfections. oy
(Temperature-Volume Relationship) mem15 3.12 Line Defect. 3
222. Gay-Lussac’s Law 3.13 Surface Defect. a
(Pressure-Temperature Relationship) 3.14 Ionic Crystal Structure 5
2.23. Avogadro Law 3.15. Bragg Law. as
(Volume-Amount Relationship) ennui 16 3,16 Polymorphism and Allotropy. a
2.24 Ideal Gas Equation ween 7 Objective Brain Teasers 5 Chapter 4
Electric Properties of Materials.
4.1 Introduction. 3
42 OhmisLawand Electrical Conductivity
4.3. Energy Band Structure in Solis..
44 _ Classification of Materials based
upon Energy Band Diagram nun
45. Electrical Resistivity of Metals.
4.6. Thermal Conductivity of
Metals-Wiedemann Franz law.
47 Thermoelectric Phenomenon.
48 Insulators 62
AS Dielectrics : 164
4.10 Electric Dipole Moment and Polarization... 66
4.11 Types of Polarization.. : 67
4.12 Phase Difference and Dielectric L055 sanuu. 68
4.13 Polar Molecules.
4.14 Nonpolar Matetials mn
4.15. Other Electrical Characteristics of Matetials...69
4.16 Use of Dielectrics. 2
4.17 Semiconductor Materials 72
4.18 Electrons and Holes in an Intrinsic
Semiconductor (Pure Semiconductor) ue 73
AAD Extrinsic Materials nnn 7B
4.20, Charge Densities in a Semiconductor wn 74
421 Electrical Properties of Semiconductors....75
422. Hall Effect 76
4.23 Thetmistors enn 76
4.24 Photoconductors. 7
Objective Brain Teasers
Chapter 5
Magnetic Properties of Materials.
BAA Introduction sensu
5.2 Magnetic Parameters. .
5.3 Classification of Magnetic Materials usu. 83
54 Curie Temperature... : 88
5.5 Laws of Magnetic Materials 89
5.6 Domain Theory.. 90
5.7 Magnetisation Curve and Magnetic
Hysteresis Loop.
5.8 Soft Magnetic Materials.
5.9 Hard Magnetic Materials
5.10 Magnetic Storage
5.11 Superconductiv
Objective Brain Teasers.
Chapter 6
63 Ceramics Used in Electrical Applications..106
Stress-Strain Behavior of Ceramics ..
Properties of Ceramics...
7.1 Introduction...
7.2 Basie Definitions uu
General Characteristics of Polymer.
‘Molecular Structure of Polymers..
118
75 _ Different Types of Polymerizations Reactions. 119
Copolymer cama
Classification of Plastics.
‘Thermoplastic Materials...
Thermosetting Materials
‘Mechanical Behaviour of Plastics
Compounding Materials ..nm
7.10
mm
7.12. Comparison of Polymers with
Ceramics and Metals. 127
713. Elastomer evn 127
7.14 Fibre 127
715 Coatings. 2128
7.16 Vuleanization. 128
7A7_Stress-Strain Behavior of Polymers mw 129
7.18 Advanced Polymeric Materials. 130
7.19 Crystallization of Polymers. 130
Objective Brain Teaser oun wn t32
Chapter 8
it 136
81 Introduction. 136
82 General Characteristics of Composites. 136
(vy) 104
102
103
104
105
106
ua
n2
13
na
ns
116
nz
83. Natural Composites.. 138
84 Particle-Reinforced Composites .. 138
8.5 Fibre-Reinforced Composites
86 Laminar Composites.
8.7 Polymer-Matrix Composites (PMCs).
88 Fibre Phase...
89. Matrix PhA$€ nmmmne
Objective Brain Teasers
Chapter 9
Mechanical Properties of Materials........
9.1 Introduction
92 Normal Stres.
93 Strain. -
94 Tension Test for Mild Steel... 147
95 Common Terms of Mechanical Properties...149
96 Fracture,
9.7 Hooke’s Law,
98 — Elastic Constants..... vse
9.9 Difference between Linearly and
Non-linearly Elastic Materials... wes IST
9.10 Fatigue...
Objective Brain Teaser
/Chapter10
Ferrous Metals
Introduction.
Pig iron.
Cast Iron.
Wrought Iron,
Steel.
Special Alloys Steels su.
Objective Brain Teasers...
Chapter 11
Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys .
Introduction
Aluminium
Aluminium Alloys...
Copper...
Lead...
Tin.
11.8 Magnesium,
11.9 Titanium...
11.10 Tungsten...
11.11 Some special alloys:
11.12 Babbit Metals.
11.13 Solder Material
11.14 Refractory Materials.
11.15 Super Alloys.
Chapter 12
Introduction to Nanomaterial and
Metamaterial ..
124
122
Chapter 13
Basics of Corrosion and Creep...
13.1
13.2
133
134
135
Bz
BB
139
13.10 Strengthening Mechanisms of Materials..202
13.11 Hot Shortness or Sulphur-Embrittlement... 203,
Objective Brain Teasers. 203
Chapter 14
Power Metallurgy , weeee 204
14.1 Powder Metallurgy ronan 204
142 Different Methods of Power Production...205
143. Blending and Mixing 1.205
144 Compacting san. vn 205
145° Sintering. 1.205
146. Finishing Operation 205
=
13.6 Corrosion Penetration Rate (CPR).
Objective Brain Teasers
Nano Technology ..
Meta Materials.
Objective Brain Teasers
Corrosion,
Self Potential...
Polarization ann
Oxidizing Power Vs Corrosion Rate...
‘Types of Corrosion.
Creep Curve...
Recovery, Recrystallisation and
Grain Growtt
Difference between hot working
and cold working 202 11
1.2
Introduction
Historical Perspective
Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize. Transportation, housing,
Clothing, communication, recreation and food production—virtually every segment of our everyday
lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials.
Historically, he development and advancement of societios have been intimately tied to the members
ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs. In fact, early civlizations have been
designated by the level of their materials development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age)
The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has been intimately
associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. An advancement in the understanding of a
aterial type is often the forerunner to the stepwise progression of a technology. For example,
automobiles would not have been possible without the availabilty of inexpensive steel or some other
comparable substitute.
In our contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components that are made from
what are called semiconducting materials,
Material Science
Material science is a branch of engineering which is concemed withthe investigation ofthe relationship
existing between the structure of the materials and the properties of the materials. It aims to develop
ew materials as well as to improve existing materials to meet the engineering requirement.
\Why do we study materials? Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil, chemical
or electrical, willat one time or
nother be exposed toa design problem involving materials. Examples
might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component or an
integrated circuit chip
Ot course, materials scientists and engineer cialists who are totally involved in the investigation
and design of materials,
Many times, a materials problem lies in selecting one of the right material from the many thousands
that are available. There are several criteria on which the final decision is normally based,
First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the properties required
of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of
properties, Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one characteristic for another. The classic example
involves strength and ductility: normally, @ material having a high strength will have only a limited
luctilty, In such cases @ reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary.
A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may ocour during
service operation. For example, significant reductions in mechanical strength may result from exposure
to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments cs of Material Science and Engineeri ERE estate
ee earl Engincerng Aptiade!, AE
1.3 Classification of Materials p12
———eaehof these three groups of materials: In
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classification: :
@) Metals (i) Ceramics (ii) Polymers :
Most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates
In addition, there are the composites, combinations of two or more ofthe above three basic material
classes.
Another classification is advanced materials hose used in high-technology applications, for example
(i) semiconductors (i) biomaterials, 1
(ii). smart materials {iv) nano engineered materials
Metals are familiar objects with a
characteristic appearance; they ars
capable of changing their shape Metal and Alloys
permanently and have good thermal and i ‘
electrical conductivity, An alloy is a asses, bronzes
Combination of more than one metal Stpetaloys, Boron,
rare earh magnetic
Ceramics are nonmetallic inorganic ‘toys
substances, which are brittle and have
Organic Polymers
good thermal and electrical insulating aramice and lessee /” Organic Felrmare
properties 190, CdS, ALO, SiC, palyettyiene
Ballo, Fibres terlene,nylone
Organic polymers are relatively inert and Silico, sode-ime-dass, es
light and generally have high degree of Ferntos sna gars ‘Natural end synthetic A
Plasticity, Ceramics eather ;
Fig. (1.1) shows examples of materials from
‘Glass fbe-renvorced
plastics
addition, examples of materials which lie
between two groups are also shown. Fig.4.4 The three major groups of engineering materials
1.3.1. Advanced Materials
Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high tech) applications are sometimes termed as
advanced materials
By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or functions using relatively inticate
and sophisticated principles; examples includ electronic equipment (CDIDVD players etc.) computers,
fibre-optic systems, spacecraft, air craft and military rocketry. ae
These advanced materials are typically adtional materials whose properties have been enhanced
and also newly developed, high performance materials. Furthermore, they may be of all material ypes
(e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers) and are normally expensive,
1.3.2 Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that aro intermediate between the electrical conductors 1s
(viz, metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramios and polymers)
Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive tothe presence of
minute Concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the concentrations may be controlled aver very
small spatial regions. made EASY Introduction 3
i
| 133
14
15
151
15.2
153
Smart Materials
* Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed
that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies.
* The adjective “smart” implies that these materials are above to sense changes in their environments
and then respond to these changes in predetermined ranners-trats that are also found in living
organisms
What is Material?
‘* Material can be defined as something that consists of matter. Itis the stuff by which something can be
made
* Materials comprise a wide range of metals, non-metals, composites and ceramics which must be
operated upon toform the end product.
* The properties and behavioral characteristics of the materials decides its usefulness in different
applications such as a space vehicle, an automobile, a bridge or a computer.
* The understanding of the properties of materials is highly essential because without knowledge of
Properties of materials manufacturing process may be an expensive and very complex task, itatfect
the profit and utility of the product.
* Now a days more complex products are in demand, for this we need more information than ever
before. With ime demands for material of greater strength, reliable, ight in weight, electrical conductivity
electromagnetism, cutting power, cheap, corrosion resistant and heat resistance are in demand,
Engineering Needs of Material
* Engineering requirements of a material deals with what is expected to form the material so that the
‘same can be successfully used for making engineering components such as connecting rod, piston ete.
* When a designerthink of deciding and fabricating any engineering pan, he searches for the material
which possesses all the required properties that will permit the component to perform its functions
successfully while in use. Such as, HSS (High Speed steel) or HCS (High Carbon Steel) any of these
can be selected for making a power hack-saw blades.
* Themain engineering needs of engineering materials fall under three main categories,
() Fabricationneeds
(i) Economicneeds
(ii). Service needs
Fabrication Needs
* Fabrication needs imply that the material should be able to get the teyuied shape (e.g, forged,
formed, cast, machined, sintered etc.) and joined (e.g. brazed, welded etc.) easily, Fabrication needs
of a material is related to its properties such as machinability, ductility, castabilty, heatreatabilty
ete.
Economic Needs
* Economic needs of a material means that the engineering part should be made with minimum overall
cost
Service Needs
* Service needs mean that the selected material must have proper strength, wear resistance, heat
resistance and corrosion resistance according to the service requited. Qi
Ans.
Basics of Material
Consider the following statements:
1. Material science deals with the strength and stiffness behaviour of. ‘components (buildings/machines/
vehicle facilities) based on their response to imposed stresses (forces moments, torque etc.)
2. Material properties are dependent on thelr micro-structure and response to force fields and surface
interaction,
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(@) tonly (b) 2only
(©) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 4 nor 2
[ESE : 2018)
(c)
Material science is the branch of engineering which deals with the study of structure, properties and
applications of materials. Properties of materials are greatly influenced by the structure of materials,
| Chemical Bonding
2.1 Basic Laws of Chemistry
Atomic mass unit
Itis defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon - 12 atoms.
Tamu = 1.66056x 10-%g
Mole
The mole is unit of measurement for mass of substance in the International System of Units (SI).
‘One mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles or entities as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g (oF 0.012 kg) of the %C isotope"
T mole = 6.023 x 10 atoms
The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called molar mass.
‘Avogadro number
In 1811, Avogadro proposed that equal volumes cf gases al the same temperature and pressure should
contain equal number of molecules, The number of entities or atoms in a mole is termed as Avogadro number,
denoted by N,.
Ny = 6.023 x 10% atoms/mol
Law of conservation of mass
Anioine Lavoisier in 1789 stated that:
* “Matter can neither be created nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical transformations."
* He performed careful experimental studies for combustion reactions for reaching to the above
conclusion.
* According to this in a closed system for chemical reaction, the mass of the products must be equal to
the mass of the reactants.
Law of Definite Proportions
‘French chemist, Joseph Proust stated that:
* ‘given compound always consist exactly the fixed and same proportion of elements by mass." Itis
sometimes also referred as Law of definite composition
+ Anexample is CO,, This gasis produced from a variety of reactions, offen by the burning of materials,
‘wood or fossil els, The structure of the gas always consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of
oxygen.
Law of Multiple Proportions
John Dalton proposed this law in 1803, he states that
* When two elements combine to for more than one compound, the mass of one element that combines
with a fixed mass of the other element, will aivays be in a ratio of whole numbers. ies of Material and Engineerin ESE Cereal studies
6 Basics of Material Science and Engineering Sans Pee
Example: Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds, named as water and hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen (2g) + Oxygen (16g) -» Water (18g)
Hydrogen (2g) + Oxygen (32g) -> Hydrogen Peroxide (34g)
Here, the masses of oxygen (16 g and 82 g) which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen (2g) bear a
simple ratio, .e, 16:32 oF 1:2.
2.2 Fundamental Concepts
* — Assubstance which can not be decomposed
into other substances is known as element, The
‘smaller particle of an element which takes part
in chemical reaction is known as an atom,
"Nucleus with protons
pe eiresione
‘@x—EHecton
‘+ Anatom consists of a very small nucleus at its
centre which is composed of protons and {
neutrons. The nucleus is encircled by moving
electrons.
* The electron is a negatively charged particle
and it has mass of about 1/1836 that of the
Neutron. Proton has positive charge while a
Neutron is an uncharged particle having mass
equal to the proton.
* Each chemical elements characterized by the number of protonsin the nucleus or the atomic number
(2). Foran electrically neutral or complete atom, the atomic number also equalss the number of electrons,
©The atom of aspecificat ‘Pressact as the SUNT Of 16 MASSES OF protons and
neutrons within the nucleus,
* The atomic weight of an element corresponds to the weighted average of the atomic masses of the
atoms naturally oecurring isotopes. The atomic mass unit (amu) may be used for computations of
atomic weight.
Fig. 2.1 Concept of an atom
NOTE —_Ascale has been established whereby 1 amu is defined as 1/12 of the atomic mass of the most
common isotope of cartoon, (carbon 12, A = 12,0000). Within this scheme, the masses of
| Protons and neutrons are slightly greater than unity and
A=Z+N
Where N = Number of neutrons.
* Isotopes: Isotopes have different atomic weights but they have same atomic number. Isotopes are
chemically inseparable as they posses identical chemical properties. Isotopes of the same element
have the same atomic number and the same charge on the nucleus. ,H', Hand ,H° are isotopes of
hydrogen while , CP” and ,,C1°5 are isotopes of chlorine.
* _Isobars: Atoms which have same mass number (atomic weight or number of protons and neutrons)
but they differ in atomic number are called isobars. Isobars are atoms of different chemical elements
but they have same atomic mass number. Ar“ and Ca are isobars having same atomic mass
number of 40 but they have varying number of protons (atomic number) and neutrons, mane EASY Chemical Bonding 7
Isotones: Atoms whose nuclei have the same number of neutrons but different number of protons.
Thus, chlorine-37 and potassium-39 are isotones as their nuclei contain 17 and 19 protons respectively
but same 20 neutrons, Isotones have different atomic number and different chemical properties.
2.3 Electrons in Atoms
The electrons, protons and neutrons in atoms of various elements are identical. Thus, it follows that
electrons, protons and neutrons are the fundamental particles of the universe. IFitis so, then why do
various elements behave differently? This is because of the difference in the number and arrangement
of the electrons, protons and neutrons of which each atom is composed.
All the electrons of an atom do not move in the same orbit. The electrons in an atom are arranged in
different orbits or shells
Remember In general a shell (or orbit) can contain a maximum of 2n? electrons, where n is the number of
ie
shell (or orbit). But according to this rule, there is an exception, the outermost orbit in an atom
can not accommodate more than eight electrons. The electrons present in the outermost shell (or
orbit) are called valence electrons.
All the elements have been arranged in a periodic table according to the electronic arrangements in
their atoms. The element placed in one vertical column have very similar properties,
2.4 The Periodic Table
All the elements have been classified according to electron configuration in the periodic table.
Here, the elements are situated, with increasing atomic number, in seven horizontal rows called periods.
The arrangement is such that all elements arrayed in a given column or group have similar valence
electron structures, as well as chemical and physical properties. These properties change gradually,
‘moving horizontally across each period and vertically down each column.
The elements positioned in Group 0, the rightmost group, are the inert gases, which have filled electron
shells and stable electron configurations. Group VIIA and VIA elements are one and two electrons
deficient, respectively, from having stable structures.
The Group VIIA elements (F, Cl, Br, | and At) are sometimes termed the halogens. The alkali and the
alkaline earth metals (Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca etc.) are labeled as Groups IA and IA, having, respectively,
‘one and two electrons in excess of stable structures.
The elements in the three long periods, Groups IIIB through IIB, are termed as the transition metals,
which have partially filled electron states and in some cases one or two elections in the next higher
energy shell
Groups IA, IVA and VA (B, Si, Ge, As etc.) display characteristics that are intermediate between the
metals and nonmetals by virtue of their valence electron structures.
‘Asmay be noted from the periodic table, most ofthe elements really come under the metal classification,
These are sometimes termed electropositive elements, indicating that they are capable of giving up
their few valence electrons to become positively charged ions.
Furthermore, the elements situated on the right-hand side of the table are electronegative; that is,
they readily accept electrons to form negatively charged ions or sometimes they share electrons with
other atoms,
Atoms are more likely to accept electrons if their outer shells are almost full and if they are less
“shielded” from (i... closer to) the nucleus, 8 Basics of Material Science and Engineering EET _ Several stustes @
Engineering Aptivude
a Koy °
rq 3a Atomic number a
4 Cat Symbot He
[uo0so) wa esse it ma WA VA via vw [spon
3 a adel Sassi [ateaeeate ipa
U | Ge atc tn lo le | ne
941 Jootza| 211 12.014 [1.007 15:999 [8.098 ote
Pe wyw | | @ Ti | ie]
Na va als |p a | x
Ma s
Pzse0)24.905/ BW ve viB_vls_ ~~ 1 _un_bsanafoe6 fantaralao SsafasCia acl
2
7 Ae a2 Ope, 2 ss | | ae toe
K ca] se] tm |v | ce | in Zn | Ga | Go| as | se |B | ie
28.009] 40:00 [4,956] 4787 |s0.042|51 096 [54 03a| 165.41 |e9 72 | 72064 [74.922] 75.06 b.904 | 63.20
oe | 88 | apa | ae | ap ae Pao) fst 53st
Ped S| [ze | Nb | Mo | ie ca | nfs | se | te | ot | xe
2547 | 67.62 | 0.91 Joi.ze Joao | esos (66) [12.41 02 98:75 hat. 76 27-60 | 1.26 90131 3]
[S| 8 [Rae 2 [73] [9s ao yet) @ Pas | oF %
Gs | ba foam | i | ta | w | ae. Ho | om |e | Bt | po | at | ie
[82.01 19704 | series [1704012005 18804 | 106.2 10.5 20438207. r9)p08.08 | 208) | 2ioy | 222)
ar | a8 | Act- | tor | 105 | 106 | 107
fide | Rt | Db bn
Ra So
223) | 225) Lsores | aon | 262) | ee) | aoa)
w
Pr
Te 3
G Na
1280114012] sa.04]s442
@ | 90] o |) s2
ge] mt pa | U
20 2204] 93a 228 0
SST ae per
To | oy | Ho | er | tm | ve | te
158.02 16250}14.85 | 167.26] 169 99|473.08| 174.07
or [a8 P99 | 100 | wor | 02 P tos
Fare oar ser
Actin sores Bk | or Fm | Md a
Es Ne
247 | es | 28a) | sr | ese | 50) | 280)
Fig. 2.2 The periodic table of tho olements. The numbers in parentheses
are the atomic weights of the most stable or common isotopes.
2.5 Comparison of Alpha («), Beta (8) and Gamma (y) Rays
2.5.1 Alpha Rays
Alpha rays or alpha particles are the positively charged padick
These particles have highly active & energetic helium nucleus which contains two protons and two
neutrons.
Alpha particles have the least penetration power but the greatest ionization power.
They cannot penetrate the skin but tis does not mean that they are not dangerous. Since they havea
{gteat ionization power, so if they get into the body they can cause serious damage
25.2 Beta Rays
Beta particles are extremely energetic electrons that are liberated from the inner nucleus.
They are negatively charged anc havea negligible mass. On the emission of a beta particle, aneutron
in the nucleus splits into a proton and an electron.
Hence, itis the electron that is emitted by the nucleus at a rapid pace.
Beta particles have a higher penetration power and lower ionization power when compared to alpha
articles and can travel through the skin with ease.
2.53 Gamma Rays
‘The waves arising from the high-frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum that has no mass are
known as gamma rays.
They hold the highest power of penetration. They are the most penetrating but least ionizing and very
Gifficult to resist them from entering the body.
The Gamma rays carry a large amount of energy and can also travel via thick concrete and thin
lead mp~pe EASY ‘Chemical Bonding 9
2.5.4 Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays
Table 2.4. Characteristics of Alpha, Bela and Gamma Rays
Characteristic ‘Alpha (a) Beta @) Gamina (
Emission of [2P+2N electron — High KE. Photon - very high frequency
loctromagnetic radiation
[changes fom | Uranium to Pltonium | Radium o Poloniura No change
[Charge (6) 2 = a
Mass (emu) | 4 171850 °
' Speed kmis | 18000, 300000 ‘300000
: 56 of speed of ight] 5% [Giese to 100% 100%
KE 36MeV ‘MeV to t MeV 100 keV tess than 10 MeV
g Penetration Power| Low- Large mass & charge] Moderate - Medium mass _| Very igh - no mass, no charge,
-can be stopped by a thin | and charge- can be stopped | can be stopped only by a very
sheet of paper bya few mm thick metal | thick cement or stee! block
lonization power | Very high - Large charge | Moderate -Low charge | Low-No charge
2.6 Quantum Number
‘Quantum numbers are used to find the electron configuration of an atom and the probable location, energy level,
other characteristics lke ionization and atomic radius of an electron in the atom. Quantum numbers are also applied to
check the movement and orbitof each and every electron within an atom, Quantum numbers are of four types:
2.6.1. The principal quantum number (n)
* Principal quantum number of any electron in an atom stands for the main energy level or shell to which
an electron belongs. Energy of an electron and its average distance from nucleus depends upon
Principal quantum number. Increasing the value of ‘n’ results the distance of electron from its nucleus
g and its energy also start increasing.
+ Shells are specified by a principal quantum number n, which may require an integral values beginning
with unity; sometimes these shells are designated by the letters K, L, M, N, O and so on, which
correspond, respectively to n= 1, 2, 3, 4,6...., shown in Table 2.2.
‘Table 2.2 Electron states in some of electron shells & subsholls
Number of Electrons
Principal quantum Number (n) Shell Designation| Subshells | No. of States| Per Subshelll Per Shel
1 K s 1 2 2
2 ye © 1 2 8
e 3 6
~ eed 2
3 M » 3 6 8
_ a 5 10
° 1 2
4 nN Pp 3 GO |e
a 5
: t z
2.6.2. The orbital angular momentum/ azimuthal quantum number (/):
tis the second quantum number which represents the sub-shell, denoted by letters s, p, dor f itis related
to the shape of the sub-shell of electron. The number of these sub-shells is defined by the magnitude of n. It
specifies the number of units of angular momentum connected with an electron ina given orbit and finds the shape
of the orbit and the energy of the sublevel. 10 Basics of Material Sclence and Engineering ASSET, Soret ectes
Engineering Api
‘Note: For any value of n quantum number / can have any integral value from Oto n— 1. Hence we can have 4d,
Sf, 2p and 2s electrons whereas 1p, 2d, 3f subshells electrons do not exist.
Example: For
n=1, 1=0
n=2, 120,14
n=3, 1=0,1,2
We have observed that ns the principal quantum number that defines principal shell. 7 provides the
possible orbital sub-shells. The sub-shells in the main shell are s, p, d, f, and hwith quantum number /= 0, 1, 2,
3, 4 and 5 respectively. We can demonstrate it as follows:
For n= 1,1 =0, the electron is said to be in 1s sub-shell
n= 2,1 = 1, the electron is said to be in 2p sub-shell
= 2, 1=0, the electron is said to be in 2s sub-shell
2.6.3. The magnetic quantum number (m,)
The third quantum number m, is used to determine the number of orbitals for each subshell. For an ‘s!
subshell, there is a single energy state, whereas for p, d and f subshells three, five and seven states exist,
respectively (Table 2.2),
‘+The value of m, varies between +/ to -fwith zero and as we know that m, have (2 + 1) values for a
given 1 For any specific value of 7, an electron may have integral values of its inner quantum number
:m,from +1 through 0 to-f. Thus for / = 2, m,can take on the values +2, +1, 0, -1 and -2. Thus we get
For 1=0,
iy 0,1
Tz, ZO
2.6.4 The Magnetic Spin Quantum Number (m,)
1
* The electron can spin either in the clockwise or anticlockwise direction and values of spin can be + 5
and
1
3 depending upon the direction of spin. m, is used to represent the spin of an electron
+ Weneed to remember that the three quantum numbers n, and m,can have the same values for two
electrons in an atom and that these two electrons will have their spins oriented in opposite directions.
Example 1.
Write the four quantum numbers for each of the electrons in the outermost shell of a boron atom? |
Solution:
For boron, Z = 5, obviously, it has 5 electrons init. Out of these 2 are in K shell and remaining 3 in the
L shell of the 3 electrons in he L shell 2 are 2 selectrons and 1 is a pelectron. Hence the quantum numbers of
the electrons in the L-shell are as follows: q
nlm me Chemical Bonding 1
1.8 Electronega'
This is the amount of energy released, when an electron is added by a neutral atom.
The energy required to transfer an electron from one atom to another atom is the difference between
the fonization energy J, and the electronic affinity E,, of the respective atoms, J, - Ey
Chlorine has the highest electron affinity.
1. Electron affinity decreases with increase in atomic radius, — fs
2. Sign given to electron affinity is negative because ene
8. When force of attraction decreases elec ini
ity
Electronegativity is a chemical property that defines the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair
of electrons towards itself. When an element strongly attracts electrons then it means that element has
high electronegativity.
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract shared
electrons to it.
‘The higher the associated electronegativity number, the more an element or compound attracts electrons
towards it
The electronegativity of any given element varies depending on the element to which itis bound.
Caesium is the least electronegative element in the periodic table (= 0.79), while fluorine is most
electronegative (= 3.98). Electro-positivty is opposite of electronegativity that is a measure of an
element's ability to donate electrons.
+9 Pauli's Exclusion Principle:
He stated thet,
'No two electrons within the same atom can have the same numerical values for their set of
4 quantum numbers.” This principle states that each electron state can hold no more than two electrons, which
4st have opposite spins. Thus, s, p, d and f sub-shells may each accommodate a total of 2, 6, 10 and 14
actrons respectively.
Two electrons in an atom cannot be in the same quantum state i.e., their quantum numbers must be
different.
Of the four quantum numbers at least one must be different for the two electrons. For example n, l,m
may be the same for the two electrons in an atom but the fourth quantum number m, must be different
1 1
forthe two electrons. ifm, have +7 for one electron then it must have 5 forthe other.
Maximum number of electrons for a shell will be = 2r? where nis the principal quantum number. 12 Basics of Material Science and Engi
SENET Sere stacis
pss aa eraecig og ©
2.10 Auf-bau Principle
Itis used to predict which electron shells will be filled frst in an atom. According to this
* Electron fillup the lowest available energy level fist before beginning toflthe next shel or this state >
Electrons are filled in the orbit of atoms in increasing energy order." That means lower eneray ley
orbits willbe filled first then electrons enters into higher energy order or level.
* For an atom to be in ground state the orbital of higher energy can be filled only when all the low ®
energy orbital are completely flied up. Order of increasing energy in orbital:
Is < 28 < 2p < 8s <3p<48<3d< dp < 55 <4d 240%)
= 2vols. 1 vol 2vols.
2 volumes of hydrogen combine with 1 volume of oxygen to form 2 volumes of water,
2.14 Dalton's Atomic Theory
{In 1808, Dalton published 'A New System of Chemical Philosophy’ in which he stated that:
* Matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.
‘+ Atoms are indivisible structures.
* Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
a
*#_Allatoms of a particular element are similar in all respects including identical mass, physical or their
- chemical properties.
* Atoms of different elements show different properties and they have different masses and different
chemical properties.
* Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
an
2.15 Rutherford Model
of Rutherford atomic model, also called solar or nuclear atom or planetary model ofthe atom, description of
the structure of atoms proposed (1911) by the New Zealand-born physicist Ernest Rutherford,
On the basis of his famous alpha particle scattering experiment:
= + Themodel described the atom as a dense, tiny, positively
charged core called a nucteus, inwhich nearly al the mass
is concentrated, around which the light negative elements,
called electrons, propagate at some distance, similar to
planets revolving around the Sun
* Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a
densely condensed mass of positively charged particles
- are held together by intense electrostatic force of attraction.
* This model failed in explaining atom stability and linear aes eee
spectrum of atom,
"2.16 Bohr Model
Bohr Model is a modification of the earlier Rutherford Model; soit is also called as the Rutherford-Bohr
Model
* Bohr modified this atomic structure model by describing that electrons have motion in fixed shells for
h
which the angular momentum of moving electron is an integral multiple of Bq and not anywhere in
between and he also explained that each shell has a certain energy level Ay ' mines the ener
Basics of Material Science and Engineerin, General Studies &
4 2 a at = Engineering Aptitude |
+ Bohr'smodel consists ofa tiny nucteus (positively charged) surrounded by negative electrons revolving
around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that electrons near to the nucleus have less energy and
electron located away from the nucleus has more energy.
* The electrons in an atom shift from lower energy level to higher energy level by obtaining the required
‘energy and an electron moves from higher energy level to lower energy level by losing energy. The amount
of energy which an electron released or absorbed is the differences of the energies ofthe two orbits,
hv=6-E,
© Where his Planck's constant, E; is the electron energy of lower
orbit and E, is the electron energy of higher orbit.
‘© Bohr's model of an atom failed to explain Zeeman Effect (effect of
‘magnetic field on the spectra of atoms),
© Italso failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on
the spectra of atoms).
+ Bohr model could not explain the uncertainty principle of Heisenberg
Bohr Theory has no explanation fr elliptical orbits.
Fig. 24 Bohr hodet
2.17 Sommer Field's Model
According to Sommer field,
© The path of an electron around the nucleus is an ellipse with the nucleus at one of its foci.
© The velocity of the electron revolving in an elliptical orbit varies at different parts of the orbit, This
‘causes the proportional variation in the mass of the moving electron.
‘To deal with these two variables, two quantum numbers are introduced
i of the electrons.
* Anew quantum number called orbital or azimuthal quantum numiber (!) which has been introduced to
characterise the angular momentum in an orbit ie., it determines the orbital angular momentum of the
electron. Its values vary from zero to (n- 1) in steps of unity
2.18 De Broglie Wave Equation:
In 1924 de Broglie suggested that
© Patticies in motion shouid exhibit properties characteristic of waves. He further proposed that certain
basic formulae should apply both to waves and particles.
+The wavelength of such particles ¢.g., electron, proton, neutron etc. is given by the relation
h
de ow ®
Where his Planok’s constant, mis mass of the particte and vis the velocity of the particle. De Broglie called
these waves as matter waves.
Relation (i) gives the mathematical relationship between the momentum (p = mv) ot a particle which is @
dynamical variable tendency of a corpuscle and the wavelength which is characteristic of the associated wave.
‘+ The higher the energy of the electron, the greater willbe its momentum mv and hence the smaller wil
be the wavelength of the wave function in terms of which its motion can be described:
2.19 Octet Rule
Gilbert N, Lewis formulated the ‘Octet rule" in 1916 which explains chemical combination between atoms
known as electronic theory of chemical bonding. He stated th mape EASY Chemical Bonding 15
«Atoms will react to get in possibly the most stable state because a complete octet is very stable.
«Atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from one atom to another (gaining or losing)
or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have an octetin their valence shells.
© Atoms with greater stability have less energy, so a reaction that increases the stability of the ators
will release energy in the form of heat or light.
fave the most stable configuration (full actet, no
niguation Al oer elements atemptto ca,
NOTE Thenoble gases rarely form compounds. They
charge), $0 they have no reason to change their configu
“ jose or share electrons to achieve a noble gas confi
2.20 Boyle's Law (Pressure - Volume Relationship)
Robert Boyle developed relationship of a gas with pressure and volume around 1660 and is known as
Boyle's Law. According to this-
“At constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies inversely with its volume."
Mathematically, it can be expressed as
1
Pay (at constant Tand n)
p24
3 Vv
k, isthe constant whichis also known as Boyle's constant and the value of k, depends upon the amount of
the gas, temperature of the gas and the units in which Pand V are expressed.
Py=k,
> Itmeans that at constant temperature, product of pressure and volume of a fixed amount of gas is constant.
Suppose P, and V, are the initial pressure and volume of the given mass of gas. This gas now undergoes
expansion at a fixed temperature and the pressure and volume changes to P, and V,. Now, According to Boyle's
law:
PLY, = Pave (at constant temperature)
» 2.21 Charles Law (Temperature - Volume Relationship)
Charles’ law, which states that at constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature. According to this:
i «Volume of a gas increases on increasing temperature and decreases on cooling fora fixed mass of a
: gas al constant pressure.
1
+ They found that for each degree rise in temperature, volume of a gas increases by 57575 of the
a
original volume of the gas at 0°C.
a Let volumes of the gas at 0 °C and at °C are V, and V, respectively then,
t
i= Vo+( soa fat constant
° x 3] ° : ud
t a7a.1s+e
= t+ eis
5 of: +a) wf 273.15 ) 16 Basics of Material Science and Engineering ER Coal stusiese
Engineering Aptivu
At this stage, we define @ new scale of temperature called the Kelvin temperature scale or Absolut
temperature scale such that “C on new scale is given by T= (273.15 + 1)K and 0°C willbe given by T,=273.16 K|
Thus 0°C on the Ceisius scale is equal to 273.15 K atthe absolute scale. Kelvin scale of temperature is also calle
Thermodynamic scale of temperature.
Now Let us assume 7 = (273.15 + ) K and Ty= 273.15 K
Then
or,
—
SIS
We can write it as
SIS SIS
Henee, V= KT
‘The value of ke, depends on the pressure ofthe gas, ils amount and also on the unit of volume V.
oR
‘Thevolume of a gas varies directly with the temperature of the gas when the pressure of the gasis constant.
ver [atconstant P]
- eee
vest hypotheticat or imaginary temperature al which cases are sup
(Sis nie alo enemies See eee
2.22 Gay-Lussac’s Law (Pressure - Temperature Relationship)
This law gives the relationship between the pressure and temperature ofa fixed mass of gas at constant
volume. This states that i
“Fora fixed amount of gas, the pressure of the gasis directly proportionalto its absolute temperature when |
its volume is kept constant.” It can be expressed as
Pot [atoonstant Yj =
P
= F = constant = ky
2.23 Avogadro Law (Volume - Amount Relationship) :
‘n 1811 Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro stated that
The volume of gas is directly proportional to the number of moles (or number of molecules) of gas when —
the temperature and pressure are held constant. 4
[at constant Tand P]
‘Where ‘r’ is the number of moles of the gas and 'k;' is a constant, 4) mane EASY ChemicalBonding 7
2.24 Ideal Gas Equation
\ The Ideal Gas Law is simply the combination of all Simple Gas Laws (Boyle's Law, Charles’ Law and
3) vogadto's Law) that are
1
Atoonstant Tandn; Ve Boyle's Law
‘ Atconstant Pand n Vee T Charles’ Law
f Atconstant Pand T; Ven Avogadro Law:
i at
$0, ves
} at
- v=)
is proportionality constant or universal gas constant which has the same value for all gases.
Reatranging the above equation: PV = oRT
Pv
= aaa
2.25 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
John Dalton in 1801 states that ‘The total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reactive gases is equal to
the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases.”
t Inamixture of gases, the pressure exerted by the individual gas is called partial pressure, Mathematically,
wan) = Py + Pp Py +... at constant Tand V
Where P.,is the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases and P,, P,, P etc. are partial pressures of
gases.
"2.26 Chemical Bonding
«The atoms and molecules are held together by strong mutual forces of attraction. These interatomic
forces are electrostatic in nature and depend upon the electronic structure of the element,
“Binding forces between atoms and molecules are known as chemical bonds.”
ial bonds
, |
Primary bonds ‘Secondary bonds
ap) +
onic Covalent Metalic rs pole Hytogen
bond bond ‘bond bond bond
«Primary bonds are interatomic bonds; these bonds are stable and strong,
* Secondary or molecular bonds are formed due to intermolecular attraction forces or vander Waals
forces between molecules.
© The atoms or molecules which have their outermost shells completely filed have no tendency to gain,
lose or share valenos electrons. They have to depend upon Van der Waal’ forces of attraction for bonding,
* Van der Waal’s forces are due to the electrostatic attraction between nucleus of one atom and the
electrons of the other atoms, These bonds are weak and unstable. Basics of Material Science and Engineerin ary “ene ei
18 a Ean ri
2.27 lonic Bond
* Anionic bond is formed due to the attractive force between a positive ion and a negative ion when:
are brought into close proximity. 4
* _Theions are formed when the atoms involved either lose or gain electrons to stabilize their outer
electronic configuration by forming ions. Electropositive elements tend to lose electrons wi
electronegative elements tend to gain electrons.
* The sodium (metal) has a single electron in he outer shell and it tends to lose it, therebby formin
Positive ion (Na). The chlorine (non-metal) has seven electrons in the outer shell and it tends tog
single electron for gaining stable configuration, therebby forming anegative ion (Cl)
* The positive ions and negative ions attract each other and bonds are formed by the electro
binding force as shown in figure 2.5. The chemical reaction can be given as:
Nas Nat +e
Clee cr |
Nat + Cr+ NaCl 4
_
(©) >
Na (atom) Ci(atom) Na (ion) =>
“= CF ion)
Fig. 2.5 lonic bond by electrostatic binding force
* Ionic bonds are non-
