RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

REVISION QUESTIONS

Question One
Good research generates dependable data that are derived by professionally conducted
practices and that can be used reliably for decision-making. In addition, good research
follows the standards of the scientific methods: systematic, empirically based procedures for
generating replicable research. Deliberate the defining characteristics of the scientific
methods that guide good research.

The defining characteristics of scientific methods that guide good research include:

1. Empiricism: Research is based on observable and measurable data, rather than on

personal beliefs or opinions.
2. Objectivity: Research is conducted in an unbiased manner, free from personal or
political influence.
3. Replicability: Research is conducted in a way that allows other researchers to
replicate the study and obtain similar results.
4. Parsimony: Research is conducted in a way that is simple and efficient, using the
least number of assumptions and variables possible.
5. Falsifiability: Research is designed to be testable, so that its hypotheses can be
disproven if they are found to be false.
6. Controlled Experiment: Experiment is conducted in controlled environment with a
control group and an experimental group, this helps in isolating the variables of
interest.
7. Peer review: Research is subject to review by other experts in the field, in order to
ensure that it meets the standards of quality and rigor.
8. Generalizability: Research is conducted in a way that allows the results to be applied
to other similar situations.

Empirical, Objective, Accuracy, Systematic, Ethical consideration, Reliable, Predictable,

Replicable, Controlled and have a definite objective.

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Question Two
Data are important input for research process. Discuss the characteristics and importance of
data quality with reference to techniques to ensure high quality data.

Data quality refers to the degree to which data is fit for its intended purpose and meets the
needs of the user. The characteristics of high quality data include:

1. Accurate: Data is free from errors and reflects the true state of the phenomenon being
studied.
2. Complete: Data is comprehensive and includes all relevant information.
3. Consistent: Data is consistent across different sources and over time.
4. Current: Data is up-to-date and reflects the most recent information.
5. Relevant: Data is relevant to the research question or problem being addressed.
6. Accessible: Data is easily accessible and retrievable.
7. Understandability.

To ensure high quality data, several techniques can be applied in the research process, such
as:

1. Data validation: this refers to a set of processes used to ensure that data entered into
a database, spreadsheet, or other system is accurate and consistent.
2. Data cleaning: This refers to the process of identifying and correcting errors in data.
This includes checking for missing or duplicate data, as well as outliers.
3. Data verification: This refers to the process of checking data against a known or
trusted source to ensure that it is accurate and complete.
4. Data sampling: This refers to the process of selecting a subset of the data to represent
the entire population. This is useful when the data set is too large or complex to be
analyzed in its entirety.
5. Data documentation: This refers to the process of keeping detailed records of the
data collection and cleaning process, which allows other researchers to understand
how the data was collected and how it can be used.
6. Data Auditing:

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Overall, high quality data is essential for making reliable inferences and accurate conclusions.
It is important to invest the time and effort to ensure that data is of high quality, as it will
ultimately lead to more meaningful and trustworthy research results.

Question Three
Research questions enforce both problem statement and research objectives in the research
process. Discuss.

Research questions are an important part of the research process as they help to define the
scope of the study and guide the collection and analysis of data. Research questions enforce
both problem statement and research objectives in the following ways:
RELATIONSHIP BTN RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Research questions and research objectives are closely related and are essential components
of the research process. Research questions help to define the scope of the study and guide
the collection and analysis of data, while research objectives are specific, measurable, and
achievable goals that the research aims to accomplish.

Research questions are formulated to address specific aspects of the problem statement and
help to define the research objectives. Research objectives, in turn, guide the selection of
research methods, data collection, and analysis techniques. Research objectives are used to
determine the specific information needed to answer the research questions, and to identify
the goals of the study.

Research questions and research objectives work together to provide a clear and focused
direction for the research. Research questions provide the overall framework for the study,
while research objectives provide specific targets for the research to achieve. Together, they
help to ensure that the research is well-designed, well-executed, and able to answer the
research question and achieve the research objectives.

In summary, research questions are essential for defining the scope of the research, while
research objectives provide specific and measurable goals for the research to achieve.
Together they provide a clear and focused direction for the research and ensure that the

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research is well-designed, well-executed, and able to answer the research question and
achieve the research objectives.

RELATIONSHIP BTN RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND PROBLEM STATEMENT

The relationship between research questions and problem statement is that research questions
are derived from the problem statement. The problem statement is a clear and concise
statement that describes the issue or gap in knowledge that the research aims to address.
Research questions are formulated to address specific aspects of the problem statement and
help to define the research objectives.

Research questions provide a specific and focused direction for the research, and they help to
ensure that the research is well-designed, well-executed, and able to answer the research
question and achieve the research objectives. They also help to ensure that the research is
relevant and addresses a specific problem or issue.

The problem statement is a broader statement that describes the overall issue or gap in
knowledge that the research aims to address. It provides context for the research and helps to
define the scope of the study. The problem statement also helps to identify the research gap,
the need for research and justify the study.

In summary, the problem statement is the foundation of the research and research questions
are derived from it. The problem statement provides the overall context and background for
the research, while research questions provide a specific and focused direction for the
research. Together, they help to ensure that the research is well-designed, well-executed, and
able to answer the research question and achieve the research objectives.

ANOTHER EXPLANATION:

1. Problem statement: Research questions are derived from the problem statement,
which is a clear and concise statement that describes the issue or gap in knowledge
that the research aims to address. Research questions are formulated to address
specific aspects of the problem statement and help to define the research objectives.

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 2. Research objectives: Research questions are used to guide the research process and
to achieve the research objectives, which are specific, measurable, and achievable
goals that the research aims to accomplish. Research questions help to focus the
research on specific topics and to identify the specific data that is needed to answer
the research question.

In summary, research questions play a critical role in the research process by defining the
scope of the study, guiding the collection and analysis of data, and helping to achieve the
research objectives. The research question should be clear, specific, and answerable through
the collection and analysis of data.

Question Four
Testing for statistical significance when examining research hypotheses, follows a relatively
well defined pattern. Although authors differ in a number of sequences of steps involved, a
six stage sequence is common to most authors. Discuss.

SIX STAGE SEQUENCE FOR TESTING STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE WHEN

EXAMINING RESEARCH HYPOTHESES:

Statistical significance:

A six-stage sequence for testing for statistical significance when examining research
hypotheses is a common approach among authors. The stages are as follows:

1. State the null hypothesis: The null hypothesis is a statement of no difference or no

effect. It is a statement of the status quo, and is usually denoted by the symbol H0.

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 2. State the alternative hypothesis: The alternative hypothesis is a statement of
difference or effect. It is the opposite of the null hypothesis and is usually denoted by
the symbol H1.
3. Select a level of significance: The level of significance is the probability of rejecting
the null hypothesis when it is true. It is typically set at 0.05 or 0.01.
4. Select a test statistic: The test statistic is a measure of the difference or effect. It is
chosen based on the type of data and the research question.
5. Calculate the p-value: The p-value is the probability of observing a test statistic as
extreme or more extreme than the one calculated from the data, under the assumption
that the null hypothesis is true.
6. Make a decision: The decision is based on the p-value and the level of significance. If
the p-value is less than the level of significance, the null hypothesis is rejected and the
alternative hypothesis is accepted. If the p-value is greater than the level of
significance, the null hypothesis is not rejected and no conclusion is made.

It is important to note that this is a common approach among authors, but there may be
variations in the sequence of steps and the specific methods used for each step depending on
the research question, data, and statistical analysis being conducted.

ANOTHER EXPLANATION:

Steps in Statistical Hypothesis Testing

Step 1: Develop initial research hypothesis

Research hypothesis is developed from research question. It is the prediction that you want to
investigate. Moreover, an initial research hypothesis is important for restating the null and
alternate hypothesis, to test the research question mathematically.

Step 2: State the null and alternate hypothesis based on your research hypothesis

Usually, the alternate hypothesis is your initial hypothesis that predicts relationship between
variables. However, the null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between the
variables you are interested in.

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Step 3: Perform sampling and collection of data for statistical testing

It is important to perform sampling and collect data in way that assists the formulated
research hypothesis. You will have to perform a statistical testing to validate your data and
make statistical inferences about the population of your interest.

Step 4: Perform statistical testing based on the type of data you collected

There are various statistical tests available. Based on the comparison of within group variance
and between group variance, you can carry out the statistical tests for the research study. If
the between group variance is large enough and there is little or no overlap between groups,
then the statistical test will show low p-value. (Difference between the groups is not a chance
event).

Alternatively, if the within group variance is high compared to between group variance, then
the statistical test shows a high p-value. (Difference between the groups is a chance event).

Step 5: Based on the statistical outcome, reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis

In most cases, you will use p-value generated from your statistical test to guide your decision.
You will consider a predetermined level of significance of 0.05 for rejecting your null
hypothesis, i.e. there is less than 5% chance of getting the results wherein the null hypothesis
is true.

Step 6: Present your final results of hypothesis testing

You will present the results of your hypothesis in the results and discussion section of the
research paper. In results section, you provide a brief summary of the data and a summary of
the results of your statistical test. Meanwhile, in discussion, you can mention whether your
results support your initial hypothesis.

Question Five

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Discuss the importance of ethical issues in research.

Ethical issues in research are of paramount importance as they relate to the protection of the
rights, safety, and well-being of research participants. Some of the most important ethical
issues in research include:

1. Informed consent: Research participants must be informed of the nature of the study,
the risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any time. They must also give
their informed consent to participate in the study.
2. Privacy and confidentiality: Research participants have the right to privacy and
confidentiality, and personal information must be protected from unauthorized
disclosure.
3. Risk and harm: Research must be designed to minimize risk and harm to participants.
4. Fairness and equity: Research must be conducted in a fair and equitable manner,
without discrimination or bias.
5. Deception: Research participants must not be deceived or misled about the nature of
the study or the purpose of the research.
6. Conflict of Interest: Researchers should avoid conflicts of interest, such as financial or
personal gain, that may compromise the integrity of the research.
7. Animal welfare: Animal research must be conducted in compliance with laws and
regulations governing the use of animals in research and should minimize harm to
animals.
8. Data integrity: Data should be collected, stored, and analyzed in an honest and
accurate way, and research results should be reported transparently.

Adhering to ethical principles in research is essential to maintain the integrity of the research,
protect the rights and welfare of research participants, and ensure that the research can be
trusted by the scientific community and the general public. Failure to adhere to ethical
principles can result in harm to research participants, loss of trust in the research, and damage
to the reputation of the researcher and the research institution.

IMPORTANCES:

1. Protection of Human rights.

2. Seek Fairness and justice.

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 3. Avoid any form of exploitation.
4. Professional integrity.
5. Respect to the community.
6. It ensures your work is free from plagiarism hence accuracy in your data.

Question Six
Read the descriptions below prior to analyzing the data provided basing on the questions that
follow under it:
The village in Kebo district Ugwani ward called Kangani had a population of 600 people
with equal number in sex composition, i.e. male and female. The new type of disease broke
out in the same village whereby 25% of the population was affected. The disease was noted
to affect only women. Two hundred (200) medical doctors had to rush to the infested area for
rapid treatment of those who are infected and quarantining those still in good health.

i. What is the actual number of people who were infected by the disease?
Demonstrate how you obtained it.
ii. In reality, what can you say about the labour force of doctors deployed for
arresting the ailing health problem observed at Kangani village?
iii. As a researcher cum medical planner which advice would you put forward for
such circumstances when they arise?
iv. Since the disease affects only women, propose on how males could be engaged
such times to add efforts towards addressing the problem? Explain basing on the
roles of a woman in the society.

i. To find the actual number of people who were infected by the disease, we need to
use the proportion of the population that was affected (25%) and the total
population of the village (600 people). To find the number of people affected, we
can use the formula: (Proportion affected) x (Total population) = Number affected
(0.25) x (600) = 150 Therefore, 150 people were infected by the disease.

ii. From the given information, two hundred (200) medical doctors were deployed to
the affected area. This is a relatively large number of doctors, considering the size

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 of the population affected. This might suggest that the outbreak was severe and
required a rapid and significant response.

iii. As a researcher cum medical planner, I would advise for the following to be put in
place for such circumstances when they arise:

 Rapidly identifying the outbreak and containing it to prevent it from spreading

to other areas
 Conducting research to identify the cause of the outbreak and how it spreads
 Developing effective treatment and prevention strategies
 Communicating effectively with the community and other stakeholders to
educate them on the outbreak and how to protect themselves
 Preparing for future outbreaks by having emergency plans and stocks of
essential medical supplies.

iv. Since the disease affects only women, it is important to engage males in the
efforts towards addressing the problem. One way to do this is by involving men in
the education and awareness campaigns, as they can help to educate and inform
their families and communities about the disease and how to prevent it.
Additionally, men could be engaged in logistical support, transportation of sick
women, and providing care to the affected women. This is important as the roles
of a woman in the society are often centered around care-giving, thus involving
men will allow for a more equitable distribution of care-giving activities.

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Question Seven
Research is an endless process. Discuss this contention in terms of types, rationale, content
and form of the process.

Research is an ongoing process that involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of
data in order to gain new knowledge and understanding about a particular topic or
phenomenon. Research can be divided into several different types, including basic research,
applied research, and evaluative research.

The rationale for research is to investigate and understand a specific topic or problem in order
to make informed decisions, improve current practices, or develop new theories or
technologies. Research is a crucial process for advancing knowledge in a given field and is
often used to inform policy and decision-making.

The content of research is determined by the research question or problem being studied. It
may include data collection, data analysis, and the interpretation of findings. The form of
research can vary depending on the type of research being conducted and the discipline in
which it is being done. Some forms of research include experiments, surveys, case studies,
and ethnographic research.

Overall, research is an ongoing process that is essential for the advancement of knowledge in
any field. It is a cyclical process that allows researchers to continuously evaluate and refine
their understanding of a particular topic or problem. The process of research is never-ending
as there is always a new area of inquiry to explore and new knowledge to be gained.

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Question Eight
a) Discuss how can one go about developing working hypothesis in a research?
b) Explain the errors which might occur during hypothesis testing

There are several errors that can occur during hypothesis testing, including:

1. Type I error: This occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected when it is actually
true. The probability of a Type I error is represented by the level of significance
(alpha) and is commonly set at 0.05.
2. Type II error: This occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is actually
false. The probability of a Type II error is represented by beta (beta) and is influenced
by the sample size, the level of significance, and the true population effect.
3. Confounding variables: If the study does not control for confounding variables, it can
lead to inaccurate results.
4. Selection bias: This occurs when the sample is not representative of the population
and can lead to inaccurate conclusions.
5. Measurement error: If the data is not collected or measured correctly, it can lead to
inaccurate results.
6. Data analysis errors: This includes errors in statistical calculations or incorrect
interpretation of results.
7. Multiple testing: This occurs when multiple hypotheses are tested at the same time,
which can increase the chance of a Type I error.

It's important to consider all these errors during the design and implementation of hypothesis
testing and to take steps to minimize them.

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Question Nine
“In both academic writing and scholarly presentations, citation and referencing are
unavoidable components.” Rationalize this statement.

Citation and referencing are essential components of academic writing and scholarly
presentations for several reasons.

First and foremost, they are used to give credit to the original authors of the information used
in the work. Without proper citation and referencing, plagiarism, which is the use of someone
else's work without giving them credit, may occur. Plagiarism is a serious academic offense
and can result in a variety of penalties including failing a course, retraction of a paper or even
expulsion from an institution.

Moreover, citation and referencing serve as a way to demonstrate the credibility of the work.
By providing a list of sources, it shows that the author has conducted thorough research and
has used credible sources to support their claims. Additionally, it allows readers to verify the
information presented and to follow up on any source of interest.

Additionally, citation and referencing play an important role in scholarly communication. It

allows readers to trace the development of an idea, the emergence of a theory, or the
evolution of a field of study.

In conclusion, citation and referencing are an integral part of academic writing and scholarly
presentations. They serve to give credit to the original authors, demonstrate the
credibility of the work, and facilitate scholarly communication.

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Question Ten
Discuss the merits of an acceptable research proposal.

A research proposal is a document that outlines a proposed research project, including the
background, research question, methodology, and expected outcomes. It is typically
submitted to a funding agency, academic institution, or research supervisor for review and
approval before the research can begin. The proposal should provide a clear and detailed
description of the proposed research, including its significance, rationale, and potential
impact.

An acceptable research proposal has several merits that make it valuable for the research
process.

1. Clarity of purpose: A well-written research proposal clearly states the research

question, objectives, and the significance of the study. It should be easy to understand
and convey the purpose of the study in a clear and concise manner.
2. Feasibility: A good research proposal outlines a realistic plan for conducting the study
and demonstrates that the proposed research is feasible to execute. This includes the
proposed methods, sample size, and data collection techniques.
3. Originality: A good research proposal should demonstrate originality in its concept,
approach, or the questions that it is trying to answer. It should not simply repeat
previous research, but rather contribute new insights to the field.
4. Literature review: A good research proposal should include a comprehensive
literature review that provides background information and context for the study. This
should include previous research, theories, and methods relevant to the proposed
study.
5. Research design: A good research proposal should have a well-designed methodology
that is appropriate for the research question and objectives. This should include a
detailed plan for data collection and analysis.

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 6. Ethical considerations: A good research proposal should consider and address any
ethical issues related to the study, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and
potential risks to participants.
7. Time frame: A good research proposal should have a realistic time frame for
completing the study, including a detailed plan for data collection, analysis, and
dissemination of results.
8. Budget: A good research proposal should have a realistic budget that is sufficient to
complete the proposed study.

In summary, a well-written research proposal should be clear, feasible, original, well-

informed by the literature, well-designed, ethically sound, and have a realistic time frame and
budget.

Question Eleven
Electronic data processing is critical for prompt generation of quality and acceptable research
output. Discuss this contention in respect to the stages in the use of SPSS as a data processor

The use of electronic data processing, specifically using software such as SPSS, is critical for
the prompt generation of quality and acceptable research output. SPSS (Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences) is a widely used software for data analysis in the social sciences, and
it can help researchers at various stages of their research process.

1. Data Entry: SPSS allows researchers to quickly and accurately enter large amounts of
data into the system, reducing the chance of errors and saving time.
2. Data Cleaning: SPSS has built-in tools for identifying and cleaning errors in the data,
such as outliers or missing values. This step is critical for ensuring the quality and
integrity of the data.
3. Data Analysis: SPSS offers a wide range of statistical analysis tools, including
descriptive statistics, t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis. This allows
researchers to quickly and easily analyze their data and generate results.
4. Data Visualization: SPSS allows researchers to create a variety of charts and graphs,
making it easier to understand and communicate their results.

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 5. Data Reporting: SPSS allows researchers to export their data and results in a variety
of formats, including tables and charts, which can be used in reports and
presentations.
6. Data management: SPSS also allows for easy data management, you can store and
retrieve data from the system with ease.

In summary, SPSS is a powerful tool that can help researchers at various stages of the
research process, from data entry to data analysis and reporting. It can help to ensure the
quality and integrity of the data, save time and effort, and generate quality and acceptable
research output.

Question Twelve
Conceptualization is important for generation of variables. Explain the importance of
conceptual framework and conceptual model in research.

Conceptualization is the process of defining and organizing research concepts and ideas in a
logical and meaningful way. In research, conceptual frameworks and conceptual models are
used to guide the development of variables and the overall research design.

1. Conceptual Framework: A conceptual framework is a theoretical structure that

provides a general understanding of the relationships among the variables in a study.
It serves as a map or guide for the researcher to identify the key concepts, variables,
and relationships that will be studied. It helps to ensure that the research is well-
defined and logically structured, and it can also help to identify gaps in existing
knowledge.
2. Conceptual Model: A conceptual model is a visual representation of the conceptual
framework, usually in the form of a diagram or flowchart. It serves as a tool to
communicate the research design, hypotheses, and variables, and it helps to identify
potential areas for further investigation. It helps to make the research design more
explicit, and it can be helpful for reviewer or audience to understand the research
design and the research questions.

Relationship between research design and data collection models

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 3. Importance: Conceptual frameworks and conceptual models are important for the
generation of variables, because they provide a clear understanding of the
relationships among the variables and how they will be measured. They also help to
ensure that the research is well-defined, logical, and consistent, making it easier to
design, implement, and interpret the results of the study. Additionally, they can help
to identify any potential problems or limitations in the research design, and they can
also serve as a basis for future research.

In summary, conceptual frameworks and conceptual models are important tools for
researchers to organize, structure and communicate their research design and hypotheses in a
logical and meaningful way. They help to ensure the quality of the research and to make the
research design more explicit, which is critical for the generation of variables in research.

NOTE:

Statistical model refers to a technical expression or a function that communicate the research
design, hypotheses, and variables. It gives clear understanding of the relationships among the
variables and how they will be measured. Precisely, to identify dependent and independent
variables. This model can also be visualized.

Data craping refers to as web harvesting or web data extraction. Simply, importing data
from the online sources especially the web into local files like excel.

Question Thirteen
Questionnaires are research instruments for data collection. Discuss the types and
characteristic of a well formulated questionnaire.

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Questionnaires are a commonly used research instrument for data collection. They are a set of
standardized questions that are administered to a sample of individuals or groups to gather
information about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or demographics.

1. Types of questionnaires: There are two main types of questionnaires: structured and
unstructured.

Structured questionnaires are pre-determined sets of questions with fixed response

options, such as multiple-choice or Likert scale.

Unstructured questionnaires are open-ended, allowing the respondent to provide their

own answers in their own words.

Semi-structured questionnaires are a type of research instrument that combines

elements of both structured and unstructured questionnaires. They are a set of
standardized questions that are administered to a sample of individuals or groups to
gather information about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or demographics.

2. Characteristics of well-formulated questionnaires:

 Clear and specific: The questions should be clear, specific and easily
understood by the respondents.
 Relevant: The questions should be relevant to the research topic and
objectives.
 Non-leading: The questions should not be leading or biased towards a
particular answer.
 Logical: The questions should be logically sequenced and grouped.
 Unambiguous: The questions should be unambiguous and avoid double-
barreled questions.
 Un-offensive: The questions should not be offensive or sensitive.
 Pre-testing: The questionnaire should be pre-tested to ensure that the
questions are understood and that the questionnaire is appropriate for the
population.
 Should be attractive questions.

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 3. Length and format: The length of the questionnaire should be appropriate for the
population and research topic. A long questionnaire can lead to fatigue and non-
response. The format should be easy to read and complete, with clear instructions for
the respondents.
4. Open-ended questions: Open-ended questions are useful for gathering qualitative data,
but they can be difficult to analyze. They should be used in conjunction with
structured questions.

1. Research process

However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process: (1) formulating the research problem; (2) extensive literature
survey; (3) developing the hypothesis; (4) preparing the research design; (5) determining
sample design; (6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the project; (8) analysis of data; (9)
hypothesis testing; (10) generalisations and interpretation, and (11) preparation of the report
or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached. (C.R.Kothar).

2. Proposal development

A research proposal is a document that outlines a proposed research project, including the
background, research question, methodology, and expected outcomes. It is typically
submitted to a funding agency, academic institution, or research supervisor for review and
approval before the research can begin. The proposal should provide a clear and detailed
description of the proposed research, including its significance, rationale, and potential
impact.

An acceptable research proposal has several merits that make it valuable for the research
process.

1. Clarity of purpose: A well-written research proposal clearly states the research

question, objectives, and the significance of the study. It should be easy to understand and
convey the purpose of the study in a clear and concise manner.
2. Feasibility: A good research proposal outlines a realistic plan for conducting the study
and demonstrates that the proposed research is feasible to execute. This includes the
proposed methods, sample size, and data collection techniques.

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3. Originality: A good research proposal should demonstrate originality in its concept,
approach, or the questions that it is trying to answer. It should not simply repeat previous
research, but rather contribute new insights to the field.
4. Literature review: A good research proposal should include a comprehensive
literature review that provides background information and context for the study. This
should include previous research, theories, and methods relevant to the proposed study.
5. Research design: A good research proposal should have a well-designed methodology
that is appropriate for the research question and objectives. This should include a detailed
plan for data collection and analysis.
6. Ethical considerations: A good research proposal should consider and address any
ethical issues related to the study, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and potential
risks to participants.
7. Time frame: A good research proposal should have a realistic time frame for
completing the study, including a detailed plan for data collection, analysis, and
dissemination of results.
8. Budget: A good research proposal should have a realistic budget that is sufficient to
complete the proposed study.

In summary, a well-written research proposal should be clear, feasible, original, well-

informed by the literature, well-designed, ethically sound, and have a realistic time frame and
budget.

3. Selection of study design

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult
one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this
connection. Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research
problems cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant
springing from its own seed. If our eyes need glasses, it is not the optician alone who decides
about the number of the lens we require. We have to see ourselves and enable him to
prescribe for us the right number by cooperating with him. Thus, a research guide can at the

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most only help a researcher choose a subject. However, the following points may be observed
by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:

(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult
task to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) (iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the
related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach. Even then
it is quite difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should
obtain ideas for his research. For this purpose, a researcher should contact an
expert or a professor in the University who is already engaged in research. He
may as well read articles published in current literature available on the subject
and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to
the solution of other problems. He may discuss with others what he has in mind
concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible efforts in selecting
a problem.
(v) (v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also
be considered in selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of
a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the following questions: (a)
Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford? (c) Whether the
necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in
research as subjects? If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative,
one may become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not
be necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar
to one that has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new
and does not have available a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility
study must always be undertaken.

If the subject for research is selected properly by observing the above mentioned points,
the research will not be a boring drudgery, rather it will be love’s labour. In fact, zest for
work is a must. The subject or the problem selected must involve the researcher and must

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 have an upper most place in his mind so that he may undertake all pains needed for the
study.

4. Development of conceptual framework

Conceptualization is important for generation of variables. Explain the importance of

conceptual framework and conceptual model in research.

Conceptualization is the process of defining and organizing research concepts and ideas in a
logical and meaningful way. In research, conceptual frameworks and conceptual models are
used to guide the development of variables and the overall research design.

1. Conceptual Framework: A conceptual framework is a theoretical structure that provides a

general understanding of the relationships among the variables in a study. It serves as a
map or guide for the researcher to identify the key concepts, variables, and relationships
that will be studied. It helps to ensure that the research is well-defined and logically
structured, and it can also help to identify gaps in existing knowledge.
2. Importance: Conceptual frameworks and conceptual models are important for the
generation of variables, because they provide a clear understanding of the relationships
among the variables and how they will be measured. They also help to ensure that the
research is well-defined, logical, and consistent, making it easier to design, implement,
and interpret the results of the study. Additionally, they can help to identify any potential
problems or limitations in the research design, and they can also serve as a basis for
future research.

In summary, conceptual frameworks and conceptual models are important tools for
researchers to organize, structure and communicate their research design and hypotheses in a
logical and meaningful way. They help to ensure the quality of the research and to make the
research design more explicit, which is critical for the generation of variables in research

5. Sample and sampling techniques

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Sampling technique refers to a method for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample designs from
which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply
than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and
appropriate for his research study.

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the representation basis
and the element selection technique. On the representation basis, the sample may be
probability sampling or it may be non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on
the concept of random selection, whereas non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’
sampling. On element selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted.
When each sample element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the
sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are
covered under the term ‘restricted sampling’.

Examples of probability sampling;

a) Simple Random sampling

b) Systematic sampling
c) Cluster sampling
d) Multi-stage sampling
e) Stratified sampling

Example of Non-probability sampling;

Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the
sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate
sampling, Quota sampling , purposive sampling and judgement sampling

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